guidelines for integrated planning for conservation … · dong ho is a significant landscape...

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1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho

Sustainable management of natural resources:

GUIDELINES FOR INTEGRATED PLANNING FOR CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF

DONG HO LAGOON, VIETNAM

Agricultural Publishing HouseHo Chi Minh City - 2013

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GUIDELINES FOR INTEGRATED PLANNING FOR CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF DONG HO, VIET NAM

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1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong HoForeword

Foreword

Dong Ho is a significant landscape element in Kien Giang Province because of its ecological character, its aesthetic qualities, and its historical, cultural and socio-economic links to the local community and Vietnam. For millennia, it has provided sustenance for residents and visitors and inspired all by its beauty, as expressed in the poetic and artistic record.

However, the sustainability of the lagoon is at risk, along with its ability to provide the ecosystem services that the current generation draws on for their livelihood, and its ability to bring socio-economic benefits to future generations. In response to the rapidly emerging concerns for the future of the lagoon, the People’s Committee of Kien Giang, in support of the Ha Tien People’s Committee, have called for the preparation of plans that have at their heart sustainable development and conservation of the lagoon and its surrounds.

These guidelines stem from a community workshop, and papers prepared for the workshop, on the future of Dong Ho Lagoon, Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve held in Ha Tien, Kien Giang Province, Vietnam, 10-11 November, 2011. This initiative was endorsed by the People’s Committees of Kien Giang and Ha Tien town and supported by the ‘Conservation and Development of Key Sites of the Man and the Biosphere Reserve’ project in Kien Giang Province.

It is clear from our current state of knowledge that if Dong Ho is to continue providing sustenance, economic and inspiration benefits, including a focus for nature and culture-based tourism, then maintenance and restoration of the ecological integrity of the lagoon is paramount.

I encourage the communities around Ha Tien, Kien Giang Province and Vietnam to consider their contribution to the current state of the lagoon and their future role in its restoration, conservation and sustainable use.

On behalf of the People’s Committee of Kien Giang, I endorse these guidelines as the frame for planning the sustainable development of Dong Ho.

Mr. Luong Thanh Hai

Vice Director, Biosphere Reserve Management Board

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Executive summary

The mandate for planning

Concern for the future of Dong Ho has existed at least for the last decade, culminating in March 2011 with the Kien Giang People’s Committee reaffirming that planning for Dong Ho should have as its objective sustainable conservation, restoration and development, including protection of its historical and cultural values. Nature and culture-based tourism were envisaged as integral parts of a needed transition to sustainability. These guidelines for integrated planning for conservation and development of Dong Ho, Vietnam draw from community contributions and papers prepared for the workshop on the future of Dong Ho Lagoon, Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve held in Ha Tien, Kien Giang Province, Vietnam, 10-11 November, 2011.

The environmental status of Dong Ho

Indications are that past and current land use practices and development threaten the natural integrity and values of Dong Ho. Environmentally, it is degraded, and its capacity to continue to deliver the ecosystem services that the community relies upon may be compromised. Sedimentation, pollution, vegetation loss, unsustainable exploitation of resources and intrusive land use practices threaten the values of the lagoon. Planning needs not be just about protecting and realising values, but restoring them and preventing further deterioration.

Baseline knowledge to inform planning for a sustainable future for Dong Ho and its natural and human communities is poor. However, the probable major threats to Dong Ho are recognised; yet, existing development plans, approvals and management practices continue to threaten the system. The clear ecosystem drivers are the hydrodynamics and characteristics of the freshwater and marine systems. Sea level rise will confound the future of the water systems.

In this context, biodiversity conservation is not the priority; but it is vital to addressing the core issue of restoring the hydrodynamic and water quality integrity of Dong Ho, and providing for nature based tourism livelihoods.

A vision for Dong Ho

Dong Ho is far from being a natural system. It is a cultural landscape and a degraded human system, with clear values lying in its historical and cultural links as a landscape. The vision for the future of Dong Ho is:

Alagoon and its surrounding landscape that reflects the times of the Mac dynasty, where nature and natural processes dominate to inspire residents and visitors, and support sustainable community livelihoods and traditions enriched by nature and culture based tourism.

Transitioning livelihoods towards tourism is a suitable strategy to relax pressure on ecosystem functions, because it offers a rationale for environmental protection, restoration and changing of land-use practice. This will require investment, inspiring leadership and community support for the vision and its implications. While expectations are high for the possible role of tourism in Ha Tien’s socio-economic future, significant community awareness-raising is needed of possibilities, tourism needs and what ‘responsible’ tourism might look like, as well as how to ameliorate its negative impacts.

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1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong HoExecutive summary

Major strategic actions

The strategic actions are envisaged to be implemented within three years. Limited implementation is unlikely to be effective in achieving the vision for Dong Ho and its communities. The actions focus on:

• improving water quality – restoration of a vegetated buffer through replanting illegally occupied lands around the lagoon, enforcement of existing environmental protection regulations, and, where practical, implementing tertiary treatment of human waste;

• improving understanding of ecosystem functions – studies to clarify the hydrodynamics of the lagoon and adjacent marine waters, and biodiversity status and interdependence assessment;

• removing existing threats to the environmental integrity of the lagoon – preventing further clearing of natural vegetation and restoring illegally cleared lands, and delaying implementation of existing development proposals until approval can be assessed with knowledge of environmental impact;

• protecting and restoring landscape values – regulating development to ensure landscape amenity is protected, and replanting degraded landscapes;

• improving understanding of natural and cultural heritage resources as assets for tourism – studies to clarify the status and values of cultural sites, and traditional and contemporary livelihoods;

• preparing the community for a transition to a tourism economy – provide training in tourism awareness, impact and product development, and strategic investments to stimulate transition in livelihoods;

• maintaining and celebrating the cultural and historic heritage of the area; and

• transitting the Ha Tien - Dong Ho economy to one that is complemented by nature and culture based tourism.

Impact of actions

The strategic actions seek to repair years of environmental exploitation and neglect: the result of decisions that have given limited consideration to environmental consequences. The economic, social and human capital investments needed to restore Dong Ho and its environments for a sustainable future will be considerable, as will investments to transition the economy to be supported by a nature and culture-based tourism sector. The costs are high; as are the likely economic, social and environmental returns.

However, the strategic actions call for displacement of many currently (illegally) occupying land surrounding the lagoon, as well as placing constraints on many areas of livelihood activity. The actions will inflict socio-economic pain on some members of the community, which should be appropriately acknowledged, with support provided to minimise this impact.

Finally, while uncertainty exists, the evidence suggests that some major development approvals and proposals may need to be reversed in the long-term interests of sustaining the ecological integrity of Dong Ho.

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Acronyms

asl Above sea level

Australian AID Australian Department of Development Assistance, previously AusAID

CCCEP Climate Change and Coastal Ecosystems Programme

DED German Development Service

GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit

GTZ German Technical Cooperation

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1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong HoContents

Contents

Foreword ...................................................................................................................................... iiiExcutive summary ..........................................................................................................................ivAcronyms .......................................................................................................................................viContents ...................................................................................................................................... vii1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho ............................. 2 1.1 Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve and Dong Ho .................................................................. 2 1.1.1 The conservation and development of the Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve project... 2 1.1.2 The Dong Ho integrated conservation and development initiative ........................ 3 1.2 Legal framework and planning objectives ....................................................................... 3 1.3 Planning principles ........................................................................................................... 4 1.3.1 The cardinal principle and its implications .............................................................. 4 1.3.2 Specific planning principles ..................................................................................... 52. The planning area and context ............................................................................................... 8 2.1 Location and administration relationships ..................................................................... 8 2.2 Geophysical setting .......................................................................................................... 8 2.2.1. The Mekong Delta ................................................................................................... 9 2.2.2. The Ha Tien Plain .................................................................................................. 10 2.2.3. Limestone karst ..................................................................................................... 10 2.3 Climate setting ............................................................................................................... 10 2.4 Water system.................................................................................................................. 10 2.5 Landscape setting ........................................................................................................... 11 2.5.1. Land use ............................................................................................................... 11 2.5.2. Landscape changes .............................................................................................. 11 2.5.3. Land-based infrastructure development as a source of changes to Dong Ho ...... 12 2.5.4. Sea reclamation as a source of changes to Dong Ho ........................................... 13 2.6 Ecosystem setting ........................................................................................................... 13 2.6.1 Regionally significant ecosystems ......................................................................... 13 2.6.2 Vegetation of Dong Ho .......................................................................................... 14 2.6.3 Fauna of Dong Ho .................................................................................................. 16 2.6.4 Micro plant and animal species ............................................................................ 16 2.7 History and cultural setting ........................................................................................... 17 2.7.1 Historical heritage ................................................................................................. 17 2.7.2 Literature heritage ................................................................................................ 19 2.7.3 Cultural heritage ................................................................................................... 20 2.8 Demographic and development setting ....................................................................... 20 2.8.1 Population ............................................................................................................. 20 2.8.2 Public infrastructure .............................................................................................. 21 2.8.3 Tourism ................................................................................................................. 21 2.9 The confounding effect of climate change ................................................................... 22 2.9.1 Sea level rise ......................................................................................................... 22 2.9.2 Weather variability ................................................................................................ 22 2.9.3 Implications of climate change ............................................................................. 22 2.9.4 Planning for the impacts of climate change .......................................................... 243. Dong Ho values, status and threats to Dong Ho and conservation and development goals ..26 3.1 Natural heritage ............................................................................................................ 26 3.1.1 Landscapes ........................................................................................................... 26

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3.1.2 System dynamics ................................................................................................... 29 3.1.3 Biodiversity conservation ...................................................................................... 33 3.2 Cultural heritage and traditional livelihoods................................................................. 36 3.2.1 Cultural landscapes ............................................................................................... 36 3.2.2 Cultural sites ......................................................................................................... 37 3.2.3 Traditional livelihoods ........................................................................................... 37 3.3 Current and future livelihoods ...................................................................................... 38 3.3.1 Primary production ............................................................................................... 38 3.3.2 Integrating tourism into conservation and development ..................................... 394. Strategic action towards integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho ............. 42 4.1 Vision, actions and prioritising ..................................................................................... 42 4.1.1 A vision for Dong Ho ............................................................................................. 42 4.1.2 Action principles to achieve the vision ................................................................. 42 4.1.3 Prioritising actions................................................................................................. 42 4.1.4 Implementation of actions .................................................................................... 43 4.2 Protecting and enhancing natural heritage values ....................................................... 43 4.2.1 Landscape protection and presentation ............................................................... 43 4.2.2 Maintaining healthy system dynamics .................................................................. 46 4.2.3 Protecting and presenting biodiversity values ...................................................... 47 4.3 Protecting and enhancing cultural heritage values ...................................................... 48 4.3.1 Protecting and presenting cultural landscapes ..................................................... 48 4.3.2 Protecting and presenting cultural sites................................................................ 48 4.4 Realising livelihood values and opportunities .............................................................. 48 4.4.1 Towards sustainable agriculture ............................................................................ 48 4.4.2 Towards sustainable aquaculture and fisheries .................................................... 49 4.4.3 Integrating tourism into conservation and development ..................................... 50 4.5 Monitoring and evaluating success and addressing knowledge gaps ......................... 515. Impacts of the proposed strategic actions .......................................................................... 546. References ............................................................................................................................ 56

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1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho

INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED CONSERVATION

AND DEVELOPMENT OF DONG HO

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1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho

1.1 Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve and Dong Ho

Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve was designated as part of UNESCO’s MAB program in 2006. The Reserve covers 1,118,105 ha of Kien Giang Province, with 36,935 ha as core, 172,578 ha as buffer to the core, and 978,591 ha transition area. The Reserve seeks to foster conservation of the tropical rainforests, limestone and karst forests, swamps, Melaleuca forests, mangroves, seagrass, coral reefs, coastal wetlands, and seasonal flooded grassland. The People’s Committee of Kien Giang Province administers the Reserve.

In the proposal for the Biosphere Reserve submitted to UNESCO, Dong Ho (lagoon) formed part of a transition zone. At that time, there was limited information and studies of the area (this was the case for other areas subsequently established as protected areas, such as marine protected areas and the Phu My grass land protected area). However, recent studies (since 2004) have found the wetland to be significant because of its high biodiversity values, which merit conservation action (Phung, 2011).

1.1.1 The conservation and development of the Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve project

The International Panel on Climate Change identified Viet Nam as one of the countries projected to be affected most severely by climate change (IPPC, 2007). Nearly 1,200 persons per square kilometre live in the Mekong Delta, with most living in low-lying areas, which are at particular risk from sea level rise and the increased frequency and intensity of typhoons, storms and floods. In addition, these high population densities mean that biodiversity and ecosystem services values of remnant natural communities are threatened.

The objective of the GIZ-Australian AID project is to facilitate sustainable use of natural resources of Kien Giang Province through effective management of the biosphere reserve and the coastal mangrove forests.

Figure 1.1 Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve zoning Figure 1.1 Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve zoning

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Approach

The project takes a participatory approach, particularly involving interaction between local farmers, the Women's Union, the Youth Union, and government officials. Activities are demand driven. Awareness campaigns and knowledge management are carried out in collaboration with other GIZ projects, and other provinces. This ensures that they can be applied widely to different situations across the south west of the Mekong Delta.

Biodiversity hot spots for flora and fauna are assessed as a basis for the protection and monitoring of endangered species, and those that have key functions in the reserve’s ecosystems. Protection and enhancement of key ecosystem services, conservation of endangered species within the coastal zone and improved management of the biosphere reserve, will have broad-based and valuable ecological impacts, such as protecting forest ecosystems and the hydrological balance, and providing a buffer for the coast against the effects of climate change.

Improved capacities and technical understanding in relevant fields for income generation are being combined with better marketing practices; this is boosting the production of fish, forestry and agricultural products, and household incomes.

1.1.2 The Dong Ho integrated conservation and development initiative

Consistent with the overall GIZ Project objectives and approach, the Dong Ho integrated conservation and development initiative seeks to build government and local community capacity to balance demand for economic development in the Western part of Kien Giang province with protection and enhancement of ecological and landscape values. The building of a planning system for conservation and sustainable development of Dong Ho was selected as a pilot to assess the feasibility of the Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve Management Board in delivering advice to the Provincial People’s committee on integrated management decisions for the province. The initiative focuses on the estuarine lagoon (Dong Ho) adjacent to the Cambodia-Vietnam border and to the East of Ha Tien. The lagoon is subject to a variety of environmentally degrading processes, including high rates of sedimentation, waste-water pollution, intensive resource extraction and is highly vulnerable to the impacts of rising sea levels and altered floodwater regimes. The community recognizes that the current situation is not sustainable, and the future of the region lies in a shift towards sustainable development, environmental protection and the development of less impacting and exploitive forms of livelihoods, such as environmental tourism, that depend on quality landscapes.

These guidelines set out directions and immediate action to achieve this intent.

1.2 Legal framework and planning objectives1

Consideration of the future of Dong Ho began with a national level project (48-06-14, between 1983-1985), which identified the different kinds of lagoons in Vietnam, their characteristics, structures, and development potentials, and outlined a management system for all coastal lagoons in Viet Nam (Truong, 2011a). Recognizing the cultural, spiritual and ecological significance of Dong Ho and its potential role in development of the local economy, in 2000, the Ha Tien People’s Committee proposed to provincial leaders the survey and planning for Dong Ho (Proposal No. 05/TTr-UBND of 13 March, 2000). In 2001, The People’s Committee of Kien Giang Province (Decision No. 712/UB-QD of 14 April, 2001) approved planning for Dong Ho. The planning focus was envisaged to be developing tourism services, planting ecological forests, and management of

1. Based on Hiep and Son 2011 and Anon 2011b.

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aquaculture. Cu Duc isle was proposed as an ‘eco-tourism village’, and waterside tourist facilities were proposed for To Chau. Associated with these initiatives were the re-establishment of ‘salt-lagoon eco-forests’ and sustainable development of aquaculture (Anon, 2011b).

This was followed, in 2004, by a conference “Developing ecotourism of Dong Ho-Ha Tien”; and in 2006, by a report prepared by the Southern Institute of Science and Irrigation, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development on what was known about the environmental condition of Dong Ho (Truong, 2011a). This report indicated limited knowledge of Dong Ho, but raised concerns for its environmental sustainability.

In 2009, the Kien Giang People's Committee assigned to the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development the task of coordinating (with the town) the adjustment of the master plan for Dong Ho to ensure its conservation and use for eco-tourism (Notice No. 149/TBVP, Office of Kien Giang People's Committee). The People’s Committee of Ha Tien (Statement No. 60/TTr-UBND, 24 June, 2009) supported the focus.

On 15 March 2011, with the advice of provincial departments, the Kien Giang People's Committee (Notice No. 110/TB-VP) reaffirmed that the master plan for Dong Ho must have as its objective sustainable conservation, restoration and development, including protection of its historical and cultural values. The notice nominated the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development as a responsible agency, and approved the employment of a consultant to prepare the planning and surveying terms of reference2 and be responsible for preparing the master plan for the ecological sustainable conservation and development of Dong Ho.

1.3 Planning principles

1.3.1 The cardinal principle and its implications

The cardinal principle of planning for the integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho is to ensure no further deterioration, but rather restoration, of the ecological and landscape values that have sustained and inspired visitors and residents at least since the time of Mac Thien Tich and the 31 poets of Tao Dan Chieu Anh Cac (1700s). The rationale for this cardinal principle is that for Dong Ho to continue to deliver environmental and socio-economic benefits, maintenance of the ecological integrity of the lagoon is essential.

This will mean:

• maximum protection of remnant and regenerating plant communities;

• restoration of plant communities that buffer the waters of the lagoon from nutrient and sediment pollution;

• minimizing inflows of sediment, nutrient and toxic chemical pollutants;

• maintaining the hydrodynamics of the lagoon and associated marine system;

• achieving sustainable use of natural resources; and

• fostering the protection and celebration of the natural and cultural values of Dong Ho and its surrounds as part of the socio-cultural character of the local community as well as that of the province and Vietnamese citizenry.

2. See ‘Planning And Conservation For Sustainable Development Of Dong Ho Lagoon’ by Survey, Design and Investment Consultancy Joint Stock Company (SDICO) 2011

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1.3.2 Specific planning principles3

a. Priority for conservation and restoration of natural ecosystems and landscapes

The values of Dong Ho predominantly derive from the characteristics and quality of its natural ecosystems and landscapes. In turn, these are dependent on the maintenance of natural processes that support plant, animal and human communities. Respect for natural processes in planning means: (1) avoiding and rectifying degradation of natural environments (do no harm), (2) maximizing use of natural processes to restore and maintain environmental quality (let nature rule), (3) mimicking and reinforcing natural processes rather than substituting with human constructions (help nature help itself), and (4) applying engineered solutions only when impacts are fully assessed (take extreme care), to minimise long term and on-going maintenance costs.

b. Development for sustainable use, protection and restoration of the ecological environment and cultural landscape

Ha Tien is one of the four major economic centres of Kien Giang Province, where tourism and commercial services are considered important economic sectors4. These sectors tend to be compatible and co-dependent, and their successful development is closely related to real and perceived environmental quality. Development needs to move from being environmentally degrading or benign, to proactively contributing to protecting and enhancing the ecological integrity of the lagoon and its surrounds. This equally applies to the agriculture and fishery sectors.

c. Inter and intra-regional cooperation towards mutual benefits

Addressing threats to Dong Ho and realizing the economic potential (especially through tourism) of the area requires cooperation and the united action of multiple sectors (including economic, cultural, historical, environmental and infrastructure sectors). Neighbouring tourism destinations (nationally and internationally) interact and become interdependent, because tourists increasingly are not bound by political boundaries and call on the services and products of multiple sectors. Cooperation has strategic benefits for the sustainable development of Dong Ho and protection of lagoon values.

d. Using and managing culturally significant landscapes and sites

Economic development must enrich cultural assets, not detract from or degrade them. Tourists visit destinations in part because of cultural and lifestyle characteristics of local communities; therefore, the behaviour of communities and the nature of the society must be considered in planning, so that cultural change is managed and controlled purposively by affected communities. Planning needs to link tourists and locals, restore and renovate cultural sites, architecture and landscapes, and revive festivals, which are associated with local traditional values and customs.

e. Respecting and celebrating history and social life

Local history determines and characterises the social life of a community. Glorious, epic as well as mundane acts of former and current generations build the traditions for present and future generations. Local history is reflected in the arts, including poetry, crafts, architecture, cultural traditions and daily practices of communities. The protection and celebration of these manifestations of local history and culture enrich social life, give meaning and relevance to history and foster the protection and restoration of relics and

3. Based on Hiep and Son (2011). 4. As defined by the Party Congress of Kien Giang province in Ha Tien’s General Economic Orientation

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monuments and traditional practices, providing an attraction for tourists and a focus for tourism product development.

f. National traditions in economic development

National and local traditions and modern conservation can be a focus of economic development (including tourism). However, there is a danger that traditions can suffer cultural sublimation, associated with accommodations, changing social and communication relationships, and the organization of living space and community activities. Therefore, planning and environmental management must be in accord with tradition and reinforce local and national identity. The harmonizing of tradition with contemporary development is needed.

g. Linking economic investment and development to local livelihood

The investment in economic development and the restoration of the diverse ecosystems of Dong Ho must be linked with people’s livelihoods in the region. This includes including the promotion of traditional industries, improving living standards, minimising disruption of local people, developing sustainable agriculture, forestry and fisheries as well as conserving natural heritage as a basis for the development of other industries.

h. Legacy in the planning process

Any planning and development undertaken represents the legacy for future generations.

The precautionary principle must be applied where today’s decisions do not overly constrain the choices for the community of the future.

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1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho2. The planning area and context

THE PLANNING AREA AND CONTEXT

This section summarizes knowledge about Dong Ho as presented (largely) at the community workshop on the future of Dong Ho Lagoon, Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve held in Ha Tien, Kien Giang Province, Vietnam, 10-11 November, 2011. It seeks to provide a basis for community agreement of the state of knowledge about Dong Ho needed to underpin planning.

Given the link between Dong Ho and upstream areas5, and in turn, marine areas, a focus beyond the lagoon and its immediate surrounds has been adopted.

5. See Truong, 2011a

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2. The planning area and context2.1 Location and administration relationships

Dong Ho is an estuarine lagoon with a north-south length of around 4.6 km and East-west around 3.5 km (Le & Truong, 2011; Truong, 2011a), adjacent to Ha Tien Town, close to the Vietnam-Cambodian border. Administratively, the lagoon falls within Dong Ho Ward and part of To Chau Ward of Ha Tien Town, and part of Phu My Commune, Giang Thanh District, within Kien Giang Province6. The province forms the southwest extent of the Mekong Delta Region of Vietnam.

The focal area is 1,384 ha (Figure 2.1), of which about 903 ha is water, 250 ha is natural vegetation, including nipa palm (Nypa fruticans), 29 ha is used for gardens and 171 ha for aquaculture (Mai, 2011). The boundaries of this focal are:

• to the south – To Chau Mountain, To Chau Ward and Thuan Yen Commune, Ha Tien Town (and ultimately via To Chau outlet to the Southwest Sea (Thuan Yen gulf within the Gulf of Thailand),

• to the west – Dong Ho Ward, the centre of Ha Tien Town, Tran Hau Estuary, Muong Dao and Rach U Canals,

• to the Northwest – Kampot Province, Cambodia,

• to the North – Giang Thanh River entrance to the lagoon, Dong Ho Ward,

• to the Northeast – Quoc Phong Canal, Phu My Commune, Giang Thanh District7,

• to the East – Ha Giang Canal, Phu My Commune,Giang Thanh District, and

• to the Southeast – Rach Gia-Ha Tien and Rach Vuoc Canals, Ket and Lang Tranh Ditch, Thuan Yen Commune and Ha Tien Town.

2.2 Geophysical setting8

Geological and geomorphologic studies (Metcalfe et al., 1999) show rich and significant geologies and geomorphologies for Ha Tien and adjacent districts (e.g., the presence of the southern oldest sedimentary strata, karst landscapes, multi-floored caves, offshore benches, multi-sourced plains, and islands and archipelagos). A number of geological sites are significant to science, culture, economy and education; such as Thach Dong cave and pagoda and Da Dung Mountain and caves (Ha Tien), and Mo So cave in the Chung Son Mountain system and Hang Pagoda (Giang Thanh District). However, the geological diversity of Kien Giang has not been evaluated fully and systematically.

6. Vietnam is divided administratively into 58 provinces (and five centrally governed municipalities), provincial municipalities, townships and counties, which are in turn subdivided into towns or communes. Dong Ho lies within the Mekong River Delta region and Kien Giang Province. Kien Giang borders the provinces of An Giang (Northeast), Can Tho and Hau Giang (East), Bac Lieu (Southeast) and Ca Mau (south), and Kampot Province, Cambodia (west), and the Gulf of Thailand (southwest, with 200 km of coastline). Kien Giang is divided into one city (Rach Gia), one town (Ha Tien), and 13 districts.

7. Giang Thanh District was formed in 2009 from five communes (Phu My, Phu Loi, Tan Khanh Hoa, Vinh Dieu, and Vinh Phu) of Northern Kien Luong District.

8. From Hiep and Son (2011)

Figure 2.2 Changes in the Mekong coastline from around 6000 years ago. Ha Tien is on the boundary of this shoreline

(Stat egger et al., 2010)

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2.2.1. The Mekong Delta

The Mekong River is one of the world’s great rivers, ranking twelfth in terms of length, and sixth for mean annual discharge. The triangular delta covers about 5.5 million ha, from its apex at Phnom Penh it is 270 km to its 600 km coastline base. Around 1,600,000 ha of the inner delta lie within Cambodia; the remaining 3,900,000 ha within Vietnam. Sediment depth varies from at least 500 m near the river mouths to 30 m in the inner delta. Deposition in the delta continues to extend the Ca Mau Peninsula South and West by up to 150 m per year. Towards the end of the rainy season, river floodwater, local rainfall and tidal influence can result in the flooding of 3,400,000 ha in the Vietnamese part of the delta.

Figure 2.2. Planning area for Dong Ho-Ha Tien integrated conservation and development (from Hiep & Son, 2011)

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Studies of ancient geography and sea level in Southeast Asia (Sundaland region - Sunda shelf) (e.g., Pelejero et al., 1999) show that about 21,000 years ago, the sea-level was approximately 120 m lower than the current sea-level. At that time, the mainland and islands of Southeast Asia were interconnected. By the middle of the Holocene, around 4,500 years ago, the sea-level rose about 5 m compared to the current sea-level. Sea-waves eroded limestone outcrops to form the "wave-foot caves" in most of the limestone mountains of Kien Giang. Since then, alluvial deposition from the Mekong and Bassac Rivers have rapidly created the Mekong Delta, with Ha Tien being on the 6000 years-before-present shoreline (Figure 2.2). Accordingly, Dong Ho is vulnerable to sea-level rise (Tjallingii et al., 2010) (Stat egger et al., 2010).

2.2.2. The Ha Tien Plain

The Ha Tien open floodplain (217,508 ha and 5.6% of the delta) is one of five distinctive sub-regions of the Mekong River Delta system at the south-western extent of the delta. The plain slopes towards the Gulf of Thailand, and floodwaters flow over the plain towards Dong Ho in the wet season, covering the area to a depth of 1.5 - 2 m. The area is relatively well drained, but less suited than other areas for agriculture because of the shortage of fresh water during the dry season and presence of salt and sulphates in the soil, which leads to low pH values when soils are exposed to air. The estuarine lagoon of Dong Ho is an unusual element of the delta system.

2.2.3. Limestone karst

Scattered throughout the Ha Tien Plain are limestone outcrops (karst), which rise abruptly from the surrounding plain. With a few small formations in Cambodia, these are isolated from other limestone karst areas in Indochina. The limestone was formed by marine sediments of the Proterozoic to the Quaternary (from 2,500 million years to 2.6 million years ago). Weathering has created vertical cliffs, stalactite caves, and basal erosion features, which are the result of sea level rises.

2.3 Climate setting9

The Dong Ho area has a climate typical of humid monsoon tropical areas, although temperature and humidity is ameliorated by the influence of the sea and lagoon waters. Its climate is similar to that of the rest of the Mekong, but the rainy season occurs somewhat sooner and ends later, and therefore, somewhat wetter.

Temperatures are always warm (average 27.40C10, highest in April (29oC) and lowest in January (25.60C)), with an average humidity of 82%. There are two distinct seasons: the rainy season from May to October, and the dry season from November to April. Average annual rainfall is 2089 mm. During the rainy season, winds are typically from the west and southwest, but shift to the North and Northeast in the dry (Le & Truong, 2011; Mai, 2011).

2.4 Water system

Dong Ho is an estuarine lagoon (to 7 m deep; Table 2.1) formed where the Giang Thanh River enters the Southwest Sea (Gulf of Thailand) between Ngu Ho (West of the lagoon) and To Chau (East of the lagoon) mountains at the Than Hau outlet. The river has its source in Kampot Province, Cambodia, and forms part of the greater Mekong Delta. The Giang Thanh River is downstream of the Vinh Te flood-control canal, which starts at Chau Doc, An Giang Province, and brings water from the Hau River on the Vietnam-Cambodia

9. Based on Le and Truong (2011), Hiep and Son (2011) and Mai (2011)10. Thai and Thai (2011b) give a range of 32oC to 34oC over the last 24 years for Ha Tien.

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border. The Rach Gia-Ha Tien channel, which enters the lagoon in the southeast, is one of the main canals for flood-control. While relatively narrow (about 60 m), its bottom elevation is -4.13 m and its water flows are high, bringing large amounts of sediment to Dong Ho (Hiep & Son, 2011).

During the monsoon season (May-October), the lagoon is largely fresh water, but brackish in the dry season (November to April). Largest water flows (ca 75%) occur from July to November, with much smaller flows from January to April. Silt loads are high (lagoon bottom sediments from 1.3 to 1.5 m thick), entering the lagoon mainly from the Giang Thanh River. The extent and nature of sediments depends on the hydrological regime of the Giang Thanh River and RachGia-

Ha Tien Channel, and diurnal tidal factors (Le & Truong, 2011). Lowest tide levels during the year are around 0.40 m asl, and the highest around +0.70 m. The highest flood water level recorded (1996) was +1.15 m.

2.5 Landscape settingThe landscape surrounding Dong Ho is a coastal flood plain, interrupted by rocky ‘mountains’ (e.g. granitic - Hon Dat, Hon Me, Hon Soc, and mixed magma - Bai Oi, Ong Cop, Xoa Ao, Nhon, To Chau, Binh San, Phao Dai, Da Dung) and limestone outcrops (e.g. Chua Hang, Binh Tri, Hang Tien, Khoe La, Ngang, Tra Duoc, May and Mo So) with associated red-soil foot-slopes (Le, 2011a). The coastal flood plain is largely seasonally inundated grassland on alluvium that is being used for rice crops and aquaculture, with patches of forest communities. Canals cross the area. The coastline consists of low dunes of alluvium and coastal sands. Off-shore is a number of islands, large and small. On clear days, Phu Quoc Island and Pirate Island (Cambodia) are dominant seascape elements.

2.5.1. Land use

Land around the lagoon is controlled by the state, rather than through long-term allocation to households (Le & Truong, 2011). Most of the focal planning area is free water used for subsistence take of marine life and growing of nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) (Table 2.2)11.

2.5.2. Landscape changes12

Based on satellite imagery, minor changes occurred in Dong Ho from 1989 to 1995, with deep channels linking the Giang

Thanh River and the Rach Gia - Ha Tien Canal across the lagoon to the estuary outlet (To Chau) to the Southwest Sea (Figure 2.3). However, the central depositional islands divided by the channel have extended (Nguyen, 2011b).

By 2005, significant land use changes become obvious with the development of paddy fields, especially to the Northeast of the lagoon around Vinh Te Canal, and road development to the west of the lagoon. While the main lagoon channels remain, it is clear that sedimentation is occurring and the lagoon is becoming shallower, especially around (North of) the Rach Gia – Ha Tien Canal, as well as extension and expansion of the central depositional islands. Cu Duc Village (V living quarter) has extended considerably on both sides of the channel. In addition, northward expansions of Ha Tien, on the West

11. Mai (2011) gives figures of: water surface 903.3 ha (65.4 %), Nypa fruticans 249.53 ha (18.0%), land for human use 29.2 ha (2.1%) and other types of land 171.2 ha (12.3%).

12. Based on Nguyen (2011b)

Table 2.1 Topographic features of Dong Ho (from Nguyen, 2004)

Location Width (m)

Depth (m)

Giang Thanh Estuary 250 6 – 7Rach Gia – Ha Tien Channel 60 4 – 7The canal in Cu Duc Village 70 4 – 7The sea bar (exit point) at Cau Noi 250 6 – 7The Eastern bed of the lagoon 0.5 – 0.7The Western bed of the lagoon 0.9 – 1.1The natural area in the Northeast > 0.3The 2nd residential area in the Cu Duc Village 30 - 50 0.4 – 0.7The residential area in the Southeast >1.15The residential area in the Southwest 1.1 – 1.4The floating bank in the Southwest 0.2 – 0.5

Table 2.2 Approximate area of land use around Dong Ho (from Nguyen, 2004)

Land type Area (ha)

Per cent

Water 963 70Nipa palm areas 370 27Mangrove and other regional ecosystems 36 3Agricultural/garden uses 16 1

Total 1,384 100

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side of Dong Ho, and sea reclamation works through construction of the cofferdam from the east bank of the To Chau exit channel have the effect of narrowing the exit channel.

From 2005 to 2008, the change process continues with sedimentation, and resultant reduction in lagoon depth, land use change (agriculture) around the lagoon (especially from the west bank of Vinh Te Channel towards Dong Ho and penetrating into the lagoon), and road development parallel to N1 road and Vinh Te Canal towards Dong Ho. By 2005, the sea reclamation of the bay immediately west of Ha Tien has been completed. By 2011, the sea reclamation on the east side of Dong Ho outlet (To Chau) to the Southwest Sea is underway (Figure 2.3).

2.5.3. Land-based infrastructure development as a source of changes to Dong Ho

Since 1990, with the policy to move floodwaters to the Southwest Sea and exploit the agriculture potential of the Long Xuyen Quadrangle, the expansion of Vinh Te Canal and building of the N1 flood bypass route, the heightening the NH 80 bund, and the dredging of the Rach Gia-Ha Tien Canal have collectively contributed to changes in Dong Ho. In mid-1990, Vinh Te Canal was expanded and deepened, resulting in additional water flowing from the Hau River into the Long Xuyen Quadrangle, especially in the rainy season.

The N1 route, built in 2000, has improved access from Tri Ton and Tinh Bien to Ha Tien, bringing with it socio-economic growth. The N1 flood bypass also means that the water from Vinh Te Canal, except the portion flowing into T channel, enters into Giang Thanh River, increasing the flow into Dong Ho and increased sedimentation in the northern part of the lagoon. Water from the Vinh Te Canal flowing into Rach Gia-Ha Tien Canal, directly and through T-channels, also contributes, though less, to sedimentation in the Southeast of Dong Ho.

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Figure 2.3 Satellite imagery of Dong Ho 1989 to 2011 (from Nguyen, 2011b and Google Maps <http://maps.google.com.au/>)

2.5.4. Sea reclamation as a source of changes to Dong Ho

The To Chau Estuary outlet for Dong Ho remained little changed until the late 1990s when the Ha Tien Town embankment along the outlet was constructed. In 2003, the sea reclamation embankment was built to form the Trade Area (about 4 ha) to effectively reduce the width of the outlet. In 2005, the sea reclamation (about 100 ha) of the bay West of Ha Tien significantly altered the appearance of the coastline. These changes currently continue out from the coastline East of Ha Tien where major reclamation works are underway. These changes probably alter both the lagoon and marine hydrological characteristics. Nguyen (2011b) suggests that the net result of these developments will be the shifting of the water regime increasingly towards a freshwater system.

2.6 Ecosystem setting2.6.1 Regionally significant ecosystems13

a. The Ha Tien coastal plain

The Ha Tien Plain is one of the last remaining extensive areas of seasonally inundated grassland in the Mekong Delta. Soils have high acid-sulphate content, with the sulphate layer close to the surface (70-150 cm). When exposed (e.g. following canal formation), the layer undergoes acidification (to pH 3.4), making the land marginal for agriculture (Buckton et al., 1999). However, the area is rapidly being converted to agriculture and aquaculture farms with the use of large amounts of lime.

The plain near Ha Tien includes a mixture of seasonally inundated grassland, planted and naturally regenerating Melaleuca leucodendron (cajuput tree), and Nypa fruticans (nipa palm) and mangrove wetlands. The grassland is dominated by a species-poor Eleocharisdulcis (Chinese water chestnut) and E. ochrostachys (spike rush) community. Also occurring are patches of E. retroflexa (coastal plain spikerush), Xyrisindica (a yelloweyed grass), Scleriapoaeformis (a nut rush), Melastoma affine (blue tongue), Scirpusgrossus (giant bullrush), Fimbristylis sp. (fringe rush), Pseudoraphisbrunoniana, Cyperus spp. (papyrus sedges) and Lepironiaarticulata (grey sedge). The low Melaleuca woodland (2 to 6 m) has a ground flora that may include Eleocharisdulcis, Phragmitesvallatoria (a common reed), Xyrisindica, Melastoma affine, Flagellariaindica (whip vine).

Nypa fruticans swamp is distributed in the brackish water zone, and associated species include Acanthus ebracteatus (holly mangrove), Derris trifolia (three-leaf derris),

13. From Hiep and Son (2011).

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Clerodendruminerme (scrambling clerodendrum), Phoenix paludosa (mangrove date palm), Acrostichumaureum (leather swamp fern), Aglaodoragriffithii and Cyperusmalaccensis (Buckton et al., 1999).

The regenerating mangroves are shrubs of 2-6 m high. The composition of the ground vegetation depends on the water and soil conditions; however, the most common species are Chinese water chestnut (Eleocharisdulcis), the reed Phragmitesvallatoria, the grass Xyrisindica, native lasiandra (Melastoma affine), water rattan (Flagellariaindica), San (Paspalum vaginatum), pandanus (Pandanuskaida) and the leather fern (Acrostichumaureum).

This region is considered one of the most important in the Mekong Delta for the conservation of large water birds, such as Eastern Sarus Crane (Grusantigonesharpii), the globally critically endangered White-shouldered Ibis (Pseudibisdavisoni), the globally endangered Bengal florican (Houbaropsisbengalensis), the Wooly-necked Stork (Ciconiaepiscopus), the Painted Stork (Mycterialeucocephala), and the globally vulnerable Spot-billed Pelican (Pelecanusphilippensis) (Buckton et al., 1999).

b. Limestone karst

Small outcrops (22) of limestone karst in Giang Thanh and Kien Luong Districts and Ha Tien town occur within the Ha Tien Plain. Despite their small extent, their biological diversity is high because geographic isolation creates species endemism and diversity. Cave accumulation layers also contain archaeological relics of the period before the OcEo civilization of Phu Nam (from the 1st century to the first half of the 7th century).

There are 322 plant species recorded from the karst areas; some are listed in Vietnam’s Red Book and the World’s Red List. For example, the cycad Cycasclivicolasub sp. Luteais categorized as a threatened species at the global scale and endangered at the national scale. A number of endemic species, such as Amplexicaul tea (Begonia bataiensis), Ornithoboeaemarginata, the ground orchid Calanthekienluongensis, and some medicinal plants such as Paraboeacf cochinchinensis, Gynostemmapentaphyllum, Drynariaquercifolia, and Stephania rotunda are becoming increasingly rare due to over-collection (Le Quang Khoi et al., 2009).

The fauna is rich, with at least 155 vertebrate species, including rare and endemic species of birds and other animals. There are 114 bird species recorded. Six species are listed in Vietnam’s Red Book and four in the World’s Red List (i.e., Mountain Imperial PigeonDuculabadia, Indian Nightjar Caprimulgusasiaticus, Purple-throated Sunbird Nectariniasperata, and Collared Kingfisher Todiramphuschloris).

Thirty-one mammal species have been recorded including nine species of bat. The Northern tree shrew (Tupaiabelangeri) is common and two isolated populations of the Indochina lutung or silver langur have been recorded (Trachypithecusgermaini) (Tran, 2001; Truong et al., 2004). Reptiles (32 species) include the intermediate-toe gecko (Cyrtodactylusintermedius), toe lizard (Cyrtodactylusparadoxus), flying gecko (Draco maculatus), tokay gecko (Gekko gecko), and snake (Séc be). Thirteen amphibians have been recorded. Prominent in the invertebrate fauna are terrestrial snails, with 65 species recorded, including 36 species recently identified and endemic to the region. The karst supports a high diversity of cave invertebrates (Deharveng et al., 2001) including at least two endemic genera of beetles (Ferrer, 2004).

2.6.2 Vegetation of Dong Ho

Despite the absence of systematic inventory of species in the area, 49 vascular plant species from 25 families have been recorded around Dong Ho(Le & Truong, 2011; Le,

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2011b). The mangrove flora is particularly rich with 25 species having been recorded (Table 2.3) (Chu & Dart, 2011; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2011)14.

The vegetation of Dong Ho varies in structure and species composition with the level of saltwater influence (and time of exposure of sediments to enable plant colonisation). In broad terms, the lagoon can be divided into three areas and structural units related to the level of saltwater (Thai & Thai, 2011a, b).

• Northern area, under the influence of the Giang Thanh River and flooding

This vegetation community occurs on unstable alluvial soil, and flooded for long periods. It is rarely salt-affected, and is characteristic of a fresh water ecosystem. It tends to be of simple structure. Characteristic species are Sonnerratiaalba (sweet-scented mangrove apple), S. ovata15 (mangrove apple), S. caseolaris (cork tree), Avicennia alba (white avicennia) and Avicenniaofficinalis (black avicennia).

• Central area, flooded for short periods and seasonally under tidal influence This vegetation community is structurally stable on stable mud. Water tends

to be brackish with typical brackish water plants. Common species are Aegicerascornniculatum (river mangrove), Bruguierapaviflora (small-leafed orange mangrove), B. sexangula (up-river orange mangrove),B.gymnorrhiza (large-leafed orange mangrove), Rhizophoraapiculata (tall-stilted mangrove), and Kandeliacandel (narrow-leaved kandelia).

• Southern area, without frequent flooding and longer periods of saltwater influence Adjacent to the Southwest Sea, this area has characteristics that are more saline

and consists of mangrove communities that are highly structured and species rich. Common species are Lumnitzeralittorea (red-flowered black mangrove), L. racemosa (white-flowered black mangrove), Excoecariaagallocha (blind-your-eye mangrove), Hibiscus tiliaceus (beach hibiscus), Dolichandronespathacea (mangrove trumpet tree), and Xylocarpusgranatum (cannonball mangrove).

Of the 400 ha of wetland forest, nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) occupy 327.1 ha (Thai & Thai, 2011a, b) (Table 2.4)16 and is nursery habitat for many aquatic species. The palm is used for many purposes and people from Cu Duc Hamlet (V living quarter) and the surrounding area are increasing the area of Nypa fruticans by transplanting it to alluvial areas. In these areas, the current is slowed, affecting the flood handling capacity of the lagoon and increasing the precipitation of sediments.

In Dong Ho, white mangrove (Avicennia alba), nipa palm (Nypafruiticans), cork tree (Sonneratiacaseolaris), and river

14. Acanthus ilicifolius, Acrostichumaureum, A.speciosum, Aegicerascorniculatum, Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina, Avicenniaofficinalis, Bruguieracylindrica, Bruguierasexangula, Ceriopsdecandra (C. zippeliana), Dolichandronespathacea, Excoecariaagallocha, Heritieralittoralis, Hibiscus tiliaceous, Lumnitzeralittorea, Lumnitzeraracemosa, Lumnitzera X rosea, Nypafruticans, Rhizophoraapiculata, Scyphiphorahydrophyla-cea, Sonneratia alba, Sonneratiacaseolaris, Sonneratiaovata, Thespesiapopulnea, Xylocarpusmoluccensis (X. mekongensis).

15. Listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as ‘near threatened’.16. Mai (2011) and Nguyen (2004) give different figures.

Table 2.3 Higher order biota recorded around Dong Ho (from Le & Truong, 2011; Le, 2011b)

Life form Species FamiliesPlantsMangrove areas 33 14Mangrove associate plants 16 11AnimalsPolychaeta 14 ?Crustacea 7 4Mollusca 6 6Fish 96 50Snakes and lizards 6 4Birds 11 9

Table 2.4: Area of Nypa fruticans within Dong Ho(from Luong 2006)

PlaceArea (ha)

Per cent

Ket irrigation channel 181.2 55.4Cu Duc hamlet 61.2 18.7To Chau ward 39.0 11.9Giang Thanh river 30.0 9.2Muong Dao canal 8.5 2.6Rach Gia – Ha Tien canal 7.2 2.2Total 327.1

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mangroves (Aegiceras spp.) are indicators of salty, brackish to fresh water environments, with the trend for nipa palm to gradually encroach Avicennia alba towards the lagoon outlet (To Chau) to the Southwest Sea. The exotic eel tail grass (Eleocharisatropurpurea) also occurs in the brackish areas and used to depress waves in the flood season, fostering sedimentation and protecting nipa palm seedlings. There have been mangrove and cork tree community forestry plantings within the Long Xuyen Quadrangle (1985-1995).

2.6.3 Fauna of Dong Ho

In contrast to the flora of Dong Ho, the fauna is poorly understood, with only 140 species from more than 73 families listed by Le and Truong (2011) and Le (2011b) (Table 2.3). All fauna groups can be expected to be much richer.

Of the 96 species of fish recorded in Dong Ho, 17 species from 14 Families dominate. The three most abundant are purple-spotted big eye (Priacanthustayenus) (17.5%), goldbandedjobfish (Pristipomoidesmultidens) (12%) and big eye scad (Selarcrumenophthalmus) (9.2%). As with other aquatic fauna, species composition varies seasonally, with marine species dominant in the dry season and freshwater species in the wet. This variation makes the fish fauna of the lagoon abundant and diverse, traditionally resulting in high yields year round (Le, 2011b; Luong, 2006).

2.6.4 Micro plant and animal species

The planktonic water flora and fauna is much better understood. Luong (2006) reports 142 species of phytoplankton (with toxic algae in low species numbers and in quantity) and 66 species of zooplankton, with considerable difference in species and numbers between seasons (Table 2.5).

Phytoplankton biomass varies between seasons. In the dry, plant biomass ranges from 2,160 to 6,300 cells/litre; but in the wet season, there are only 613 to 1,581 cells/litre. This seasonal difference is explained by the shading of wet season turbidity reducing light availability for plant growth. Nevertheless, primary biological productivity of the lagoon can be considered high and suitable for supporting higher order life-forms of subsistence and commercial use.

Possibly, the seasonal variation also contributes to relatively low zooplankton numbers (0.26/litre), although species present are of high nutritional value for higher order life forms. The seasonal difference is also evident in species, with the wet characterised by freshwater species and the dry by marine species. Thus, there is an annual turn-over of species from freshwater to marine.

Benthic fauna

Records of benthic (lagoon bottom dwelling) species numbers are low (24 species: 14 Polychaeta, 7 Crustacea, and 3 Bivalvia) and probably explained by the seasonal change in salinity of the system from marine influenced (brackish) in the dry to freshwater in the wet season. This annual change suggests that the more sedentary benthic organisms are unable to move to favoured conditions and hence die or the system only supports species that can survive in both fresh and salty water (Le & Truong, 2011) or are highly adaptable to sudden but relatively long-term changes in salinity (Le, 2011b).

Table 2.5 Plankton recorded in Dong Ho (Luong, 2006)

Biotic groupMarch

(dry season)September

(wet season)Both

Species Species Species AlgaeSilica algae 74 49 86Green algae 9 26 26Eye algae 9 10 12Indigo-blue algae 7 7 10Armour algae 8 6 8Total 107 98 142ZooplanktonCopepoda 28 15 35Cladocera 9 13 15Larva 7 3 7Rotatoria 1 4 5Protozoa 2 3 4Chaetognata 4 1 4Decapoda 2 2 3Total 53 41 73

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2.7 History and cultural setting2.7.1 Historical heritage

a. The Mekong Delta context

The Ha Tien area was probably inhabited long before the Funan (1st to 6th century) and Chenla empires (6th to 9th century). Archaeological discoveries at OcEo (An Giang Province) confirm that the area included trading ports and canals as early as in the first century. The kingdom of Champa (7th century to 1832) probably also had a presence in the area as elsewhere in the Mekong River Delta. The area was known as Khmer Krom to the Khmer Empire, which probably maintained settlements, centuries before the rise of the empire in the 11th and 12th centuries.

In the 1620s, Khmer king CheyChettha II (r. 1618–1628) allowed Vietnamese to settle in the area and they slowly replaced the Khmer. During the late 17th century, Mac Cuu, a Chinese entrepreneur, began to expand Vietnamese and Chinese settlements deeper into Khmer lands; and in 1691, Prey Nokor (Ho Chi Minh City) was occupied by the Vietnamese. In 1698, Nguyen Huu Canh (a Vietnamese noble) was sent by the Nguyen Lords of Hue to establish Vietnamese administrative structures in the area. This formally detached the Mekong Delta from Cambodia. During the Tay Son wars (1765-1777) and the subsequent Nguyen Dynasty (1802-1945), Vietnam's boundaries increased to include Ca Mau. Rach Gia came under direct Nguyen rule in 1798. In 1802, Nguyen Anh crowned himself Emperor Gia Long and unified all the territories comprising modern Vietnam.

Upon the conclusion of the French-Spanish Cochinchina Campaign (1858-1862), Southern Vietnam became France's first colony in Vietnam, and later, part of French Indochina. During the colonial period, the French patrolled and fought on the waterways of the Mekong Delta with their Divisions navalesd'assaut: a tactic used during the First Indochina War (1946-1954), and later by the US Navy Mobile Riverine Force.

During the Vietnam-American War (Second Indochina War, 1955-1975), the delta region saw fighting between Viet Cong (NLF) guerrillas and units of the US Navy's swift boats and hovercrafts. The American Naval Base at Ha Tien (1968-1970) serviced anti-infiltration operations along the Vinh Te Canal. The facility was turned over to the South Vietnamese Navy in December 1970.

In the 1970s, the Khmer Rouge regime attacked Vietnam in an attempt to reconquer the delta region. This campaign precipitated the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia and subsequent downfall of the Khmer Rouge.

b. Ha Tien17

Ha Tien was a major 18th century Chinese free port and ‘kingdom’. As part of Cambodia, it became nominally dependent on the Nguyen Empire in 1708, but by the 1750s was under its second ruler, Mac ThienTich (previously Tu) (1706-178018). Ha Tien had become a wealthy, expanding state, extending from Ca Mau to KompongSom (Sihanoukville, Cambodia), including Phu Quoc Island, and to the Hau Giang (Bassac) arm of the Mekong, to the headwaters of the Giang Thanh River and TukMeas (Kampot, Cambodia). With the emergence of the Thai king Taksin (r. 1767-1782) after the Burmese-Siamese war (1765-1767), Mac Thien Tich expansion plans were abruptly stopped(Cooke 2004).

Mac Cuu (1655–1735), born Mo Jiuin Leizhou, Guangdong, left China with the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1679. Sometime between 1687 and 1695, the Khmer king sponsored

17. From Cooke, 200418 Anon, 2011a indicates 1700-1771.

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him to migrate to Banteay Mas, where he served as chief of a small Chinese community, with the Khmer title Okna. He recognised the potential of the Giang Thanh River to become a commercial hub for the region. Its broad, deep estuary (including Dong Ho) could easily accommodate merchant shipping following the coastal current from China and Taiwan to Vietnam and past Siam, the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. Traders could transact business year-round in the river port or, in the wet season, in the ancient canal connecting the lower arm of the Mekong to the Khmer capital.

In the early part of the 18th century, Mac Cuu moved operations to the river mouth and established an independent ‘kingdom’ at Kang Kau (Ha Tien). Despite the initial backing of Cambodia, he later switched allegiance to the Nguyen. He sent a tribute mission to the Nguyen court in Hue in 1708, and in return received the title of Tong Binh of Ha Tien. He encouraged commerce and agriculture activities and attracted Chinese and Vietnamese immigrants. However, Ha Tien fell to Siamese forces in 1717. Returning in the 1720s, Mac Cuu and his son Mac ThienTich (formerly Tu) fortified the port and withstood Khmer attacks in 1730, 1736-1739 and 1750.

From the 1730s until destroyed in 1771, Ha Tien was unique for a Chinese settlement. The Mac regime encouraged multiculturalism: their subjects included Khmer, Malays, Vietnamese, Chams, Portuguese descendants, and Chinese from Hainan, Guangzhou, and Fujian. By the 1760s, Christianity was openly tolerated and a French seminary was established at Hon Dat (1765). Ha Tien had its own export commodities of rice, pepper, dried fish and shrimp, timber, nutmeg, lacquer and ivory tusks; and probably crockery, because Mui Nai, Hon Dat region has evidence of kilns of the period producing roof tiles, pots, cups and bowls. Commodities were immediately sold or kept in storage containers or in warehouses at the foot of Phu Dung Mountain (De Liem Mount). Boats arriving to be loaded would be taken along Rach U canal to dock or, if needing repair, taken ashore at the foot of Ngu Ho Mount. During the French period, this area was used as a stadium, and later by the US as their sea boat base. Now, it is occupied by the City Committee and Ha Tien People’s Committee (Anon, 2011a).

Mac Thien Tich operated a foundry to cast coins and was granted three long boats by the Nguyen lord to undertake trade with ports as far away as Japan. In 1757, as a reward for military support of the Khmer king, Mac Thien Tich acquired the Khmer ports of Kampot and Kompong Som, thereby monopolizing the Cambodian-Vietnam maritime trade.

With political instability in southwest Indochina after 1767, Mac Thien Tich sought to expand his interests through regional conflicts and political gamesmanship. Eventually he offended both the neighbouring Khmer and Vietnamese ruling forces, and spread his military resources thinly. His activities also enraged Thai King Taksin who, with the help of Teochiu Chinese of the Cambodian Chonburi and Trat ports, attacked Ha Tien in 1771. Denied Vietnamese support, the town was sacked with the population chased deep into Vietnamese territory. Taskin sank the Mac fleet at the harbour entrance, making the port unusable for sea-going junks. With silting, the once thriving port of Ha Tien was relegated to a depopulated inlet that could only receive coastal ships.

Vinh Te Canal19

In 1817, the Vietnamese King directed his military governor to link the Mekong River and the Gulf of Siam from Chau Doc to Ha Tien (67 km). For five years, over 50,000 Vietnamese and Cambodian conscripts dug the channel by hand along old waterways and cut new channels through flood lands, rocky areas along the bases of granite hills, and through dense mangroves around Ha Tien. The canal allowed Vietnamese soldiers and settlers to access the gulf coast and lay claim to the Western regions of the delta.

19. Based on Biggs (2002)

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However, political upheaval in 1833 and intermittent wars with Siam prevented sustained settlement. For several years, Siamese ships moored at Ha Tien and along the Vinh Te Canal to support their campaign to seize the delta for their own migration policy (Biggs, 2002). The canal fell into disrepair. Tidal fluctuations, river flows and differences in the bottom composition of the canal led to the formation of sandbars at key points, and with the clogging effect of duckweed, navigation by ocean-going vessels and barges became impossible (Biggs, 2002).

In 1867, the Vietnamese King Thu Duc ceded the Mekong Delta to the French under the jurisdiction of the French navy. In spring 1879 aboard a small gunship, hydraulic engineer J. Renaud studied Dong Ho and the Vinh Te Canal (Renaud, 1879). He described three major siltation barriers at Tinh Bien, Vinh Lac and Vinh Dieu villages. In 1880, Renaud recommended that the newly formed Colonial Council re-dredge the canal and Ha Tien’s harbour for economic and ‘civilizing’ reasons. However, conflicting reports by the Colonial Council’s own engineers (see Bassford, 1984) resulted in the works not being undertaken in any meaningful way for lack of scientific or strategic importance (Biggs, 2002): France held power over the Mekong Delta and Cambodia to the West. The construction and failure to maintain the Vinh Te Canal has possibly been a major factor in the contemporary status of Dong Ho.

Cu Duc Village (V living quarter)

Sediments from the Giang Thanh River deposit when they enter Dong Ho at the area known as Vam Han. To maintain access, the local people would hammercarajut stakes in a straight narrow passage from Vam Han to the middle of the lagoon. They then used dredging ships to dig deep into the submerged sand bar. Sometimes the stakes slipped or broke and the dredged soil poured from the banks to be washed away by the water. This was called broken stake, or Khuc Cu. It was only in the early 20th century, around the time the French began dredging to clear the flow for Giang Thanh channel, that the islets emerged in the middle of the lagoon both sides of the channel. Trees grew on the exposed sediments, and over time people created dwellings. As today, they harvested firewood and nipapalm leaves, fished, caught crabs, and eventually establishing Cu Duc village (Anon, 2011a).

2.7.2 Literature heritage20

Particularly in the times of the Macs, the landscapes around Dong Ho inspired many poems and literary works. Most recognised are the poems about the 10 landscapes of Ha Tien21 discovered and published in 1960 by Dong Ho poets. Mac Thien Tich and the 31 poets of Tao Dan Chieu Anh Cac wrote 32 poems including Dong Ho An Nguyet (1737), which described the moon shining on Dong Ho (Le, 2011b). Tran Tri Khai, a special guest of Mac Thien Tich, erected the flag to open the Tao Dan Chieu Anh Cac literary group in 1736. Born in Nam Hai, he wrote a poem titled Thu Duc Hien Tu Canh, which describes a boat cruise with many friends on Dong Ho. This provides insight to Dong Ho on a mid-Autumn night and enshrines the joy of watching the moon seeking relaxation on the waters (Anon, 2011a).

The anti-colonial activist, Nguyen Than Hien (1856–1914) could not avoid being emotional when flood overwhelmed Dong Ho. His poem Han than Thu lao do (The Autumn flood by the cold bank) describes Dong Ho in flood. This Chinese character poem was discovered on the communal house wall to the Thanh Hoang God, when it was restored.

20. Based on Anon 2011a. 21. Kim Du Lan Dao, Binh San Diep Thuy, Tieu Tu Than Chung, Giang Thanh Da Co, Thach Dong Thon Van, Chau

Nham Lac Bo, Dong Ho An Nguyet, Nam Pho Trung Ba, Loc Tri Thon Cu, and Lu Khe Ngu Bac

20


Poet Lam Tan Phac had a house by Dong Ho. Loving the landscape, he took the name of the lagoon as his pen name. With his partner Mong Tuyet, they wove romantic poetry. The two lives left many famous works of art (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2011). They became great celebrities of Ha Tien, being respected and beloved by the Vietnam literature circle. Their poems show their passionate love for Vietnamese language and their homeland. Lam Tan Phac wrote a poem for Tuyet, which she later used as background for her personal and family biography.

2.7.3 Cultural heritage

The cultural heritage of Ha Tien, and its importance to Vietnam (and indeed Cambodia and Thailand) stem from its long early settlement, its unique and central role in the history of the Mekong Delta and modern Vietnam. This history is reflected in the cultures of the many ethnic groups (e.g., Chinese, Kinh, Hoa and Khmer) that make up the citizenry of the area. Limestone areas remain as sacred places of great significance in the spiritual life of the local people, especially Buddhists (e.g., Tien Pagoda, Ngoc Dang Pagoda, Monk Khiet’s hermitage at Seven Root Banian Tree, and Thanh That Cao Dai, OngBac De Shrine, Ba Ma Chau Shine). Every year, Hang pagoda organizes a festival from 8th-15th of the Lunar April to celebrate Buddha's birthday (Hiep & Son, 2011). The diversity of community belief systems has resulted in many temples and shrines. The religions thrived according to demand. People associated with waterways worship Ba Cau shrine at Han Rivulet mouth and Ba Thuy Shrine at Tieu Kim Du Mount. There is also the highly revered tombs of Mac Cuu, Phu Dung Pagoda and Lady Su’s Temple (her life is celebrated in weeks 20 – 27 of the lunar April).

A number of events and geographical names refer to Dong Ho; however, over recent decades, they have been changed and differ from those used in the past. The French filled Lu Khe rivulet mouth or Rach Vuoc in Thuan Yen Commune in 1945. Before this, the rivulet mouth had an iron bridge, with Rach Vuoc Hamlet adjacent to it. About 700 m from the rivulet mouth was Dieu Dinh; a relic of the times of Mac Thien Tich when perch were easily caught there. Today, some residents of Ha Tien confuse Nga Tu Hamlet on the shore of Ha Tien-Rach Gia Channel as being Rach Vuoc, enshrined in the poem Lu Khe Ngu Bac. Nowadays, Thuan Yen market village (previously Lo Duc Village or Dinh Village) are on the location of Rach Vuoc. This area was the communal house of Thanh Hoang God Bon Canh Thuan Yen, not Dieu Dinh of the Mac Thien Tich era.

In the past, the Thuan Yen commune was well populated, and included the villages of Den Do and Co Trang. In those times, the French used a red lamp to indicate the entrance to Cai Tat Canal (Anon, 2011a).

2.8 Demographic and development setting22 2.8.1 Population

In 2002, Ha Tien had a population of 39,957. The current population around the lagoon area is 365 households (1,615 people), with an annual growth rate of 1.36%. Projections are for 410 households (1,800 people) by 2020. Beyond this, there exists a proposal to relocate families to the Vam Hang area. Until recently, people mainly occupied the Southwest and South of the lagoon (Dong Ho and To Chau Wards). Currently, these areas have around 700 families (more than 3,000 people). Their living standard is quite high, with access to schools, hospitals, roads, wharfs and other public infrastructure.

The residential area on the alluvial island in the middle of the lagoon (Cu Duc Hamlet, now V living quarter, Dong Ho Ward) has 365 families and 1,615 people23. Of these,

22. Based on Mai (2011).23. Le and Truong (2011) identify 198 households (1,256 people).

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128 families depend on nipa palm growing and harvesting or firewood production, 115 families engage in aquaculture, 29 families use bamboo netted frames to catch fish and shrimp, 25 families earn a living by covering roofs with nipa palm leaves, nine families use nets to fish the lagoon’s bed, and 59 families do other work. More than 90% of families now have access to electricity (since 2002), although some still lack access to potable water. Around 22% of households are poor (81 households) or near the poverty line (61 households). This area only has one school for 142 primary and 61 secondary pupils. The area does have a clinic but no resident doctor (Mai, 2011).

2.8.2 Public infrastructure

a. Roads

The Southern half of the area is reasonably well serviced by all-weather roads, while roads in the North are confined to unsealed tracks adjacent to canals, which means that travel during the wet season is difficult. Traditional use of boats on the waterways remains the main form of transportation to Ha Tien and around the lagoon.

b. Electricity and water

More than 95% of people living adjacent to Dong Ho have access to the national electricity grid; however, those living in V living quarter (Cu Duc Village), Dong Ho Ward, lack clean water in the dry season due to shortage of water reticulation.

c. Approved projects

In recent years, the State has been prioritizing the construction of many public works for the economic development in the Mekong Delta in general, and Kien Giang Province in particular, to effectively exploit the natural resources of the wetland area and to change it into an agriculture-forestry-fishery centre. In addition, the State recognises the importance of southern tourism to the economic development of Vietnam. It envisages Ha Tien as a focus for ecotourism, that presents the environmental values of the Southern wetlands and coast (Hiep & Son, 2011).

In conformance with this policy, bay reclamation, Southwest of the Dong Ho outlet, has been completed and awaits investment capital for further development. The reclaimed residential area to the southeast of Dong Ho outlet (To Chau Ward) has been approved, but awaits investment (Anon, 2011b). The Provincial People’s Committee has approved a multi-function park, combining tourism and a resort on 27.6 ha on a raised islet in the lagoon. This purportedly will contribute to increasing the attractiveness of the lagoon to tourists. However, like all the proposals, waste management and potential environmental impacts remain poorly addressed. It is also proposed and approved to build roads and a connecting bridge from Ha Tien to V living quarter (Cu Duc Village) (Anon, 2011b; Mai, 2011). Mai (2011) also proposes dredging the lagoon to better cater for transportation and tourism, investment in wharfs and upgrading water transportation, building an ecotourism village in V living quarter (Cu Duc), and assigning forest land to the local people and encouraging them to combine growing highly profitable trees with cultivating aquaculture to the East and South of the lagoon.

2.8.3 Tourism

Ha Tien and its hinterland is a popular destination for Vietnamese, but currently few international visitors venture into such an out-of-the-way corner of Vietnam. Local legend claims that on a full moon, fairies come to Dong Ho to dance and bathe (‘Tien’ in Vietnamese means ‘fairy’). The imprint of the Mac on Ha Tien runs deep. On nearby Nui Lang Mountain are the tombs of Mac Cuu and other members of the clan, including his three-year-old daughter. Mac Cuu Temple is dedicated to the clan. Of the pagodas in the town, the Tam Bao Temple and the Phu Dung (Cotton Rose Hibiscus) pagodas stand out.

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The latter is associated with a long and complicated love story, which, unlike many of Vietnam’s legends, seems to be based on fact. The Thach Dong Pagoda is underground, inside a limestone hill.

Ha Tien is known for its diverse cuisine that stems from its ethnic mix. A specialty is ‘mam chao’, a shrimp paste combining the sour taste from central Vietnam with the sweetness of south Viet Nam’s traditions. Offshore, the area is good for snorkelling around the islets about a hundred metres offshore, and very good for cycling.

2.9 The confounding effect of climate change

2.9.1 Sea level rise

The IPCC (2007) estimate that, by the end of this century, sea level rise will be 26 to 59 cm in a high A1FI scenario and 18 to 38 cm in a low B1 scenario. They caution that these projections are probably low. MONRE (2003) predicts sea level will rise up to 9 cm by 2010, 33 cm by 2050, 45 cm by 2070, and 1 metre by 2100. Projections for a 1m sea level rise would result in the Dong Ho area being inundated and 28% of Kien Giang Province (Carew-Reid, 2007) (Figure 2.4).

Evidence exists for Dong Ho to support these projections. Over the last 21 years, the average peak water level of Dong Ho has risen by 10 cm (Thai & Thai, 2011a). Peak water level often occurs in the wet season and can be accompanied by waves (1-2 m) during the Southwest monsoon. The result is that coastal protection works and natural vegetation that buffers other ecological communities are exposed to increased vulnerability. This also affects agricultural production, transportation, and construction projects as well as natural systems in coastal areas (Thai & Thai, 2011a).

2.9.2 Weather variability

MONRE (2003) predicts that the average temperature of Vietnam will increase by 2.50C by 2070 as well as the number of days with temperature higher than 250C. Rainfall will increasingly concentrate into fewer months (increase of 19%), so the dry season will become more prolonged. The projection is for increasing incidence of flood and drought. More typhoons, with higher wind velocity and extending over longer periods are projected. Typhoon intensity will be greater, especially during El Nino years (MONRE, 2003).

Empirical evidence from Kien Giang supports these projections. The average daily temperature for Kien Giang has increased 2.60C over the last 24 years (0.110C per year) and 5.90C (0.250C per year) for daily maximum (Thai & Thai, 2011a). Annual rainfall varies with El Nino-La Nina events. The periods 1985-1990 and 1990-1995 were years of low rainfall with some years recording only 1,500 mm. The period 1995-2000 recorded rainfall over 2,000 mm, and as high as 3,000 mm (Thai & Thai, 2011a).

2.9.3 Implications of climate change

a. National scale impacts

Based on the projections, MONRE (2003) predicts the following socio-economic and environmental impacts of climate change:

• as much as 1,700 km2 of the nation’s coastal wetlands (about 60%) could be threatened by sea level rise with far reaching impacts on coastal fisheries and communities;

Figure 2.4 Inundation areas for 1 to 5m seal level rise (from Carew-Reid 2007, p.18)

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• related salt water intrusion into near coastal aquifers and surface water (wetlands, rivers, lagoons) will threaten freshwater supply both for the agriculture and aquaculture sector, as well as domestic and industrial freshwater consumers;

• droughts will be more frequent, with significant implications on ecosystems, farming systems (heavy losses in agriculture crops are predicted)and related industrial and economic sectors, and on human health; and

• 17 million people or 21% of the population will be subject to annual flooding, including related substantive losses in domestic, industrial and transport infrastructure.

b. Climate change impacts on Dong Ho

Based on 2004 population statistics, Carew-Reid (2007) projects that with a 1m sea level rise, fewer than 1,000 people would be displaced in each of the communes surrounding the Dong Ho. This would be much greater given recent settlement around the lagoon. With widespread permanent inundation, recently developed agriculture and aquaculture areas would be rendered unusable. Saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers would significantly increase, threatening much of the water used for irrigation and drinking purposes (Carew-Reid, 2007). Both Phu Mai Nature Reserve and Hon Chong Cultural, Historical and Environmental Site would be significantly affected (Carew-Reid, 2007) and probably many of the ground-level caves in limestone outcrops.

While local and regional impacts of sea level rise will vary based on marine and terrestrial geography and hydrodynamic characteristics of the systems, the projections of sea level rise and altered weather patterns indicate that Dong Ho will probably be subject to:

• at least some permanent flooding of foreshore areas of the lagoon;

• increased saltation of the lagoon, canals and the freshwater aquifer;

• changes in the pattern of vegetation communities surrounding the lagoon;

• greater abundance of marine versus freshwater aquatic species in the lagoon;

• decreased yields from salt affected agricultural lands;

• loss of most of the existing aquaculture ponds;

• increasing drought periods, which with salt intrusion, making many areas for agriculture unviable;

• more intense rain seasons and rainfall events with associated flooding, between drought events; and

• reduction in sediment loads and deposition in drought periods, but increased sedimentation and deposition during intense rainfall periods.

These projections counterbalance the current expectation that Dong Ho will be increasingly a freshwater system (see Nguyen, 2011b); however, the impact of sea level rise is likely to predominate in the longer term and saltwater dominance may possibly occur rapidly, depending on the hydrological dynamics of the lagoon and marine system.

While sea level rise may affect negatively and profoundly on the livelihoods of many in the Dong Ho area, there may be some benefits from climate change. Increased marine influence may result in greater tidal flushing to alleviate pollution concerns and enhance the marine species fishery. Provided beaches are not lost and freshwater is available, the longer periods of dry weather is conducive to coastal tourism, although the tourism sector would need to be prepared for the impact of more frequent and more intense typhoon events and associated flooding.

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2.9.4 Planning for the impacts of climate change

While projected sea level rise and altered climatic patterns will affect Dong Ho, without area-specific projections, uncertainty remains surrounding the extent and the specific nature of impacts. These will be strongly influenced by the hydrodynamics of the lagoon and the marine system. Modelling is essential to inform planning. Nevertheless, as a precautionary measure, planning should assume a 1 m sea level rise to account for increasing sea level rise, seasonal flooding and tidal surge. This means that:

• infrastructure developments below 1 m asl should not be approved, unless mitigation or adaptive actions are included to account for climate change impacts;

• existing development approvals need to be reviewed, especially those proposed within or around the lagoon, and along the coast, particularly reclamation works;

• a strategy for retreat by communities within and surrounding the lagoon needs to be in place;

• further conversion of grassland and mangroves to agriculture and aquaculture production is likely to be unsustainable within a very short period; and

• actions to enhance and protect the biodiversity values of Dong Ho are likely to contribute also to the mitigation of climate change impacts.

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1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho3. Values, status and threats to Dong Ho and conservation and development goals

This section summarizes values of Dong Ho identified at the community workshop, or inferred from submissions, on the future of Dong Ho lagoon, Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve Management Board held in Ha Tien, Kien Giang Province, Vietnam, 10-11 November, 2011. Similarly, it summarises the status of the values and threats to them and broad conservation and development goals. The conservation and development future of Dong Ho depends on land-use activity outside the core study area and are also discussed24.

Attribution of values to an environment depends on knowledge, moderated by social and cultural norms. Therefore, community agreement on what is valued, the status of these valued environmental elements, and the source and extent of threats to them needs to be made explicit for planning and prioritizing actions.

In the absence of a comprehensive natural and cultural resource inventory and assessment for Dong Ho, this section seeks to stimulate a process of clarifying values, identifying their status and validating perceived threats.

24. Also argued by Duong (2011)

VALUES, STATUS AND THREATS TO DONG HO AND CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT GOALS

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3. Dong Ho values, status and threats to Dong Ho and conservation and development goals

3.1 Natural heritage

3.1.1 Landscapes

Over centuries, the natural landscape values of Dong Ho and the surrounding area have been recognised in poetic works. However, satellite imagery reveals rapid changes in less than the past two decades. These changes are related to the topography of neighbouring areas, and events and processes ‘upstream’ of Dong Ho as well as towards the sea (Nguyen, 2011b). The environmental and natural landscape values have been degraded by invasion of the lagoon bed for aquaculture and shrimp farming and environmental pollution from neighbouring areas (Thai & Thai, 2011b).

a. A distinctive part of the Mekong Delta system

Landscape values of the Ha Tien floodplain

The Ha Tien open floodplain is a distinctive sub-region and one of the last remaining extensive areas of seasonally inundated grassland in the Mekong Delta. For this reason, it has intrinsic geophysical and vegetation biodiversity values. The plain and wetlands are also habitat for populations of large waterbirds, including rare and endangered species.

Landscape status of the Ha Tien grasslands

Failed forestry plantations, marginally productive agriculture, drainage works and associated aquaculture activity have compromised the integrity of the grasslands. However, nature reserves to protect a sample of the plain have been established in Giang Thanh and Kien Luong Districts.

Threats to the Ha Tien floodplain and grasslands

Rapid growth in the human population and intensive development of the Mekong Delta for agricultural purposes pose a major threat to the natural wetland ecosystems and their wildlife. Proposed developments on the lower Mekong River are likely to conflict with wildlife and fisheries interests. These include large irrigation projects, hydro-electric power projects, other industrial development and flood control projects.

Upstream dam construction on the Mekong in Laos and Cambodia will change the hydrology of the delta, reducing seasonal flow peaks and the extent of flooding. This is likely to be detrimental to waterbird populations and fish species utilizing floodplain wetlands for spawning. Changes in water quality and the timing of peak flows are likely to affect adversely fish migration and spawning, and dams will create problems for long distance longitudinal migrants. The dams will reduce sediment flow, particularly in the main channels, and thereby affect the nutrient regime in the delta.

Domestic wastes and agricultural runoff, which carries pesticides and fertilizers, have affected water quality in the lower Mekong. While currently localised, such problems will probably increase (Pantulu, 1986).

The most serious and urgent threat to the seasonally inundated grassland ecosystem is aquaculture development and agriculture activities. The grassland is being rapidly converted into shrimp ponds and smaller areas into agricultural land, including conversion of mangroves for making salt. The result may be complete destruction of habitat for large water birds (Wege et al., 1999).

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Desired outcomes for the conservation and development of the Ha Tien floodplain and grasslands

NH-L01 Minimisation of further deterioration of the integrity of the Ha Tien floodplain as a result of drainage works and conversions to agriculture and aquaculture land uses.

NH-L02 Creation and expansion of protected areas to support the maintenance of wildlife populations and the development of nature-based tourism opportunities.

b. Outcrops of limestone karst

Landscape values of the limestone karst

Apart from historical, cultural and biodiversity values, the limestone karst of the Ha Tien Plain provide visual relief within the landscape and are geologically significant, being isolated from other limestone karst areas in Indochina.

Landscape status of the limestone karst

Limestone karst areas are being increasingly isolated from their landscape context by aquaculture and agricultural development. Individual outcrops are being razed by mining activity. Government institutions currently protect no outcrops formally. Conservation protection is achieved through use as religious and cultural sites and, to a lesser extent, through tourism use. The IUCN is working with mining companies, to compensate for loss of a part of the limestone through the promotion of conservation measures.

A comprehensive assessment of the geological and biodiversity values of the limestone karst does not exist.

Threats to the limestone karst

The limestone karst ecosystems of the Ha Tien Plain are under severe and immediate threat from limestone quarrying. Based on projected patterns, quarrying may reduce the area of karst to less than 4 km2.

Poor development of cave systems for tourism use can irreversibly compromise the potential for sustainable ecotourism development based on best-practice for presenting caves.

Desired outcomes for the conservation and development of limestone outcrops

NH-L03 Targeted exploitation of limestone resources that recognises and protects landscape, cultural and biodiversity values.

NH-L04 Development of caves to realise their nature and culture-based tourism potential.

NH-L05 Application of international best practice techniques in presenting and protecting limestone caves and their features.

c. Non-limestone hills

Landscape values of the non-limestone hills

The granitic (Hon Dat, Hon Me, Hon Soc) and rocky mixed magma (Bai Oi, Ong Cop, Xoa Ao, Nhon, To Chau, Binh San, Phao Dai, Da Dung) hills along the Southern coast of Kien Giang Province, like the limestone karst, provide topographical relief in the coastal plain. The break between Ngu Ho (West of the lagoon) and To Chau (East of the lagoon) mountains provides the outlet (Than Hau) for Dong Ho (and Giang Thanh River and constructed canals in the area). These hills provide an aesthetic backdrop for Ha Tien and Dong Ho.

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Landscape status of the non-limestone hills

While the hills have probably been logged and farmed many times over the centuries, they are generally covered in regenerating native vegetation with small farms in terraces up their sides. None of the hills surrounding Dong Ho, which contribute significantly to the beauty of the landscape, has conservation protected status. The absence of systematic survey of the geology and biodiversity of the hills makes assessment of natural heritage values difficult.

Threats to the non-limestone hills

Traditional farming practices have already modified the non-limestone hills but they still provide an aesthetic context for Ha Tien and Dong Ho. Changed land-use to broad-scale farming will alter the aesthetic qualities of the hills, but this is not an immediate threat.

Desired outcomes for the conservation and development of non-limestone hills

NH-L06 Maintained traditional land use practices and protection of the aesthetic qualities of the non-limestone hills.

NH-L07 Clarified geological and biodiversity values of the non-limestone hills as a basis for future decision-making.

d. Dong Ho

Landscape values of Dong Ho

Dong Ho, as an estuarine lagoon within the Mekong Delta, is an unusual landscape feature with peculiar water dynamics of interest to geophysical scientists. However, its importance to Ha Tien lies in its aesthetic qualities, made evident by it being a topic of poetry for hundreds of years (Mai, 2011). These qualities have been, and remain, an important attraction for residents and tourists. The lagoon has the potential to be the focal point for a sustainable tourism industry (Truong, 2011a).

Landscape status of Dong Ho

Dong Ho has changed significantly from the deep-water port of the 18th century and large expanse of open waters surrounded by mangroves with the trading area at the lagoon’s exit point to the Southwest Sea, nestled between forest covered hills. The central islands and the emergence of dry-season sandbanks now reduce the open expanse of water. Agriculture and aquaculture break the natural fringing vegetation. While these changes result in a landscape unlike that which inspired early poets, the fundamental natural landscape elements remain, but are increasingly being lost to human activity, presenting a different landscape form.

Threats to the landscape values of Dong Ho

Reduction in the area of open water, increased human development intrusion and reduction in water quality threaten the aesthetic qualities of the lagoon.

Desired outcomes for the conservation and development of Dong Ho landscape

NH-L08 Maintenance of a contiguous belt of fringing mangrove and forest communities around the lagoon.

NH-L09 Reduction in the rate of sedimentation in the lagoon and expansion of alluvial islands.

NH-L10 Minimisation of lagoon foreshore development, or at least, maintenance of a natural vegetation aesthetic buffer between development and the lagoon.

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e. The Ha Tien coastline

Landscape values of the Ha Tien coastline

Coastal landscapes of sandy beaches and off-shore islands are natural attractions for tourists. The Ha Tien coast adds a backdrop of vegetated hills and rocky headlands, which is a marked contrast to the estuarine areas on the east coast of the Mekong region.

Landscape status of the Ha Tien coastline

The coast has been largely unexploited and retains its aesthetic qualities. However, recent and current sea reclamation on both sides of the Dong Ho outlet is significantly altering the appearance of the coastline and, ultimately, will include built structures, which will add significant additional light intrusion when the coast is viewed from the sea.

Threats to landscape values of the Ha Tien coastline

Shoreline and hill development, including high-rise developments, are possible with increased growth of tourists to the area and if currently approved developments proceed. With proposed development on reclaimed areas, the existing aesthetic qualities of the shoreline are at risk of degradation. In addition, reclamation works may be altering the coastal hydrological system and may modify the characteristics (and attractiveness) of coastal beaches. This has the potential to decrease the attractiveness of the Ha Tien coastline for the local community and tourists.

Desired outcomes for the conservation and development of the Ha Tien coastline

NH-L11 Maintenance of the natural current flows within the Southwest Sea, adjacent to Ha Tien.

NH-L12 Maintenance of the ‘green backdrop’ provided by the coastal hills around Ha Tien.

NH-L13 Minimisation of visual intrusion of coastal development.

3.1.2 System dynamics

a. Restoring in-flow water quality

Values of in-flow water quality

The quality of water flowing into Dong Ho (from the Giang Thanh River, irrigation and flood control channels and surface flows during the wet season) affects the lagoon and ultimately the marine system. High quality water is important for sustainable agriculture and aquaculture use as well as for maintaining aesthetic qualities of the lagoon and to support its aquatic life. Low sediment loads are vital for reducing the rate of in-fill of the lagoon with sediment. Low quality water entering the marine system has the effect of reducing coral growth, lowering biodiversity and fosters algal communities. Quality water is important for supporting tourist activities.

In-flow water quality status25

In-flow water quality is poor and not conducive to sustaining healthy fresh or saltwater plant and animal communities. Thai and Thai (2011b) report that the water associated with aquaculture in the area to have the following characteristics.

• Low pH values (below prescribed standards), which affects reproduction and growth of both plants and animals thereby reducing productivity, and specifically the germination and growth of Avicennia seedlings;

25. Based on Thai and Thai (2011b)

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• High iron (Fe) content (higher than prescribed standards), which interferes with the functioning of gills in aquatic species, thereby reducing oxygen uptake. It also affects reproductive capacity. Similarly, it affects the regeneration and growth of many plant species26. High iron content is usually associated with low pH waterways, which, in this case, relates to the regular disturbance of acid-sulphate soils in dredging and aquaculture activities.

• Low dissolved oxygen (DO) (lower than prescribed standards), which leads to eutrophication (stagnation) of waterways, and in extreme cases, die-off of aquatic species. Low DO is probably affecting aquatic life in Dong Ho and its productivity, and possibly extending into the sea to affect the growth of corals and marine grasses (Thai & Thai, 2011b).

• High chemical oxygen demand (COD) (higher than prescribed standards) is related to DO and indicates the availability of oxygen to living organisms in aquatic systems. High COD waterways support less diversity and abundance of higher order organisms and are an indicator of polluted waters. High COD waters are usually nutrient rich and support the growth of algae, which demand high levels of oxygen thus reducing oxygen availability for other organisms.

• High nitrogen levels (ammonium, N-NH3) (higher than prescribed standards)indicates nutrient enrichment. This probably relates to aquaculture sludge release that is high in the nitrogen, as well as chemical fertilizers from agricultural use.

• High total suspended solids (TSS) (much higher than prescribed standards) is probably due to the discharge of waste from residential areas and sediment inflows from rivers and canals as a result of ‘natural’ flows and disturbance during canal maintenance. High suspended solids levels reduce biodiversity and foster algal growth.

• High total Coliform content (higher than prescribed standards) suggests that this form of pollution probably originates from residential areas discharging wastewater, rather than collecting waste for disposal hygienically. High faecal coliform counts are a threat to human health (Thai & Thai, 2011b).

Threats to in-flow water quality

The soils of the Ha Tien plain and around Dong Ho are naturally acidic, which lowers the pH of the waterways. However, when soils are disturbed in making shrimp ponds or in canal dredging, they oxidise to release acid that may drop pH levels considerably. The effect of this cascades through the freshwater and saltwater system to reduce significantly the health of waterways, the lagoon and marine systems. Similarly, pollution from agriculture and aquaculture exacerbates the situation to threaten the ecological integrity of the freshwater and marine system, and in turn, the health, productivity and aesthetic qualities of the lagoon and marine areas.

Continued current practices (locally and up-stream of Dong Ho) of dredging, land clearing, fertiliser use and disposal of untreated waste from fish farms are the greatest threat to the sustainability of Dong Ho. This threat is probably increased by changes in the hydrological dynamics of the lagoon.

Desired outcomes for in-flow water quality

NH-S01 Significant improvement in the water quality of in-flows to Dong Ho.

26. See Thai and Thai, 2011b for effects on Avicennia.

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b. Restoring lagoon water quality

Potential values of lagoon water quality

Low levels of suspended solids and low pollutant levels in the waters of Dong Ho would mean high biological productivity in both the dry and wet season. This was probably the case for Dong Ho in the 18th century. In those times, particularly in the dry, lagoon waters were probably much clearer (low levels of total suspended solids) than today and a significant part of the attraction of Ha Tien. While water quality of Dong Ho currently sustains subsistence and commercial fishing, and does not impede the lagoons attractiveness, it is not at its full potential.

Lagoon water quality status

No comprehensive data are available on the water quality of Dong Ho; but, given the low water quality status of in-flows, it can be expected that the lagoon’s water quality is low (low pH, high iron content, low dissolved oxygen, high chemical oxygen demand, high nitrogen levels, high total suspended solids and high total coliform content). Adding to the pollution from up-stream agriculture and aquaculture activity is the input of secondary treated sewage from Ha Tien and raw sewage from V living quarter (Cu Duc), as well as untreated effluent from family scale shrimp ponds

Threats to lagoon water quality

Continued in-flows of up-stream polluted waters to Dong Ho, with increasing pollution levels from towns and villages around the lagoon, seriously threaten the integrity of the lagoon. Without wastewater treatment, increased tourist numbers will significantly compound the threat to water quality and water-borne diseases may become prevalent. The prognosis for Dong Ho under an increasingly freshwater regime is the occurrence of seasonal eutrophication and aquatic life die-offs.

Solid waste (e.g., garbage, including cans, bottles and plastics) threaten both the natural aesthetic qualities of the lagoon and ecological functions.

Desired outcomes for Dong Ho water quality

NH-S02 Significant improvement in the water quality of Dong Ho.

c. Maintaining marine water quality

Values of marine water quality

Tropical marine waters with low nutrient levels and low turbidity foster the growth of coral communities and clean beaches: characteristics of tropical coastal areas that attract tourists. In turn, high quality marine waters result in a wider diversity of marine life-forms, especially high eating-quality carnivorous fish of value to fisheries. Phu Quoc Island and the coastal areas around Ha Tien depend on high water quality for their tourism success.

Marine water quality status

No comprehensive data are available on the water quality of the waters off-shore from Ha Tien, or the location of coral and other marine resources. However, high sediment loads, acid and nutrient-rich floodwaters have probably reduced the location, extent and quality of coral reefs, with replacement by algal-covered coral rubble communities.

Threats to marine water quality

Continual seasonal flows of polluted floodwaters from Dong Ho will continue to alter the distribution and quality of off-shore coral reefs. Increased nutrient loads from untreated sewage associated with the growth of Ha Tien as a tourist destination will result in

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increased pressure on marine biological systems. Depending on marine currents, this will be especially so in the dry season when nutrients are undiluted. This threatens the quality of coastal waters of beaches, currently an attraction for Ha Tien tourism. Human health may also be at risk.

Without effective garbage collection and changed behaviour of residents and visitors towards rubbish disposal, the beaches of Ha Tien are at risk of becoming littered with rubbish, requiring regular clean-ups to restore them to a condition attractive for tourist use.

Desired outcomes for marine water quality

NH-S03 Significant improvement in the water quality of marine waters off Ha Tien.

d. Maintaining lagoon hydrological flows

Values of the lagoon’s hydrological flows

The seasonal change in the water of Dong Ho from being strongly influenced by marine conditions in the dry season and freshwater conditions in the wet season have resulted in the biological diversity of the lagoon and the location and extent of terrestrial and aquatic biotic communities. This results in the diversity of fishery and vegetation resources available for community use as well as creating scientific interest (Truong, 2011a).

The status of the lagoon’s hydrological flows

No comprehensive study of the hydrological regime for Dong Ho has been conducted, although the change from predominantly saltwater to freshwater between seasons is well documented. Canal construction has altered the in-flows to Dong Ho, resulting in the rapid filling of the lagoon with sediments. This has clearly altered the hydrodynamics of the lagoon, especially since the time of French colonial rule. Islets formed by wet season alluvial deposits are rising out of the water, reducing the lagoon’s water storage capacity, leading to greater flooding potential and more rapid draining between seasons and tides (Hiep & Son, 2011; Le, 2011b).

Threats of altered lagoon hydrological flows

Continued filling of Dong Ho with sediments will result in the lagoon shifting towards a freshwater marsh drained by two major channels. The extension of the lagoon’s out-flow channel through marine reclamation works is likely to reduce the marine influence by delaying tidal in-flows and lagoon water outflows, shifting the water regime increasingly towards a freshwater system (Nguyen, 2011b). This would mean increased sedimentation around the outflow channel and longer retention times for polluted waters, leading to increased probability of lagoon eutrophication. In addition, the longer retention of floodwaters will possibly increase flooding, unless the exit channel from Dong Ho is dredged regularly to maintain the volume of water it can handle.

Desired outcomes for the hydrological flows of Dong Ho

NH-S04 Greater understanding of Dong Ho’s hydrodynamics, and consideration given to it in decision-making.

e. Maintaining marine hydrological flows

Values of marine hydrological flows

Past and existing currents and tidal movement influence the physical characteristics for the marine system and depositional patterns of sediments flowing from Dong Ho. In turn, these influence the nature and geographical location and extent of biotic communities and consequent ecosystem services provided by marine environments.

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Status of marine hydrological flows

No comprehensive study of the marine hydrological regime of the Southwest Sea adjacent to the Ha Tien coast has been undertaken. As a result, the probable effect of altering the coastline through reclamation works and altered lagoon hydrological dynamics is uncertain.

Threats of altered marine hydrological flows

Risk exists that reclamation works may alter currents and hence coastline erosion and deposition characteristics of the marine system, bringing with it change to the coastline that may be beneficial or disadvantageous to coastal tourism, current lifestyles and distribution of marine sustenance and commercial resources.

Desired outcomes for marine hydrological flows

NH-S05 Greater understanding of marine hydrodynamics, and consideration given to it in decision-making.

3.1.3 Biodiversity conservation

a. The Ha Tien plain

Biodiversity values of the Ha Tien plain

Buckton et al., (1999) found the seasonally inundated grasslands of the Ha Tien plain to be the highest priority for biodiversity conservation because it contains significant populations of several globally threatened and near-threatened birds. They particularly identify the significance of 130 Sarus Cranes, and a pair of the endangered White-shouldered Ibis Pseudibisdavisoni. The area also shows high diversity in flora, including unique gradients from brackish to freshwater and from acid to alluvial vegetation communities. The biodiversity of the plain makes it suitable as a focus for ecotourism (Hiep & Son, 2011) and supplement ecotourism products developed based on Dong Ho.

Status of biodiversity values of the Ha Tien Plain

Buckton et al., (1999) identified an urgent need for protected areas because the grassland is under serious threat from conversion to agricultural land and aquaculture ponds. Currently, grassland is regarded as ‘unused’ land, and its conservation will be dependent on changing attitudes to this irreplaceable habitat (Buckton et al., 1999). The 3,200 ha Phu Mai Nature Reserve, Giang Thanh District, was created in 2011 in response to concern for biodiversity of the plain.

Threats to biodiversity values of the Ha Tien Plain

Ongoing conversion of the grasslands of the Ha Tien Plain to agriculture and aquaculture activities and the breaking of connectivity to Dong Ho threaten the integrity of the system to support viable wildlife populations.

Desired outcomes for biodiversity conservation in the Ha Tien plain

NH-B01 Cessation to conversion of the Ha Tien grasslands to agriculture and aquaculture activity.

NH-B02 Maintained and enhanced connectivity between the Phu My Nature Reserve and Dong Ho.

NH-B03 Proactive transition of local community livelihoods from being primary production dependent towards being supportive of nature and culture based tourism.

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b. Limestone karst

Biodiversity values of limestone outcrops

Despite a considerable number of individual studies (e.g., Deharveng et al., 2001; Nguyen, 2000; SKM, 2002; Truong et al., 2004) of the biodiversity of the limestone outcrops of the Ha Tien plain, no comprehensive inventory of the flora and fauna exists for the 22 karst areas. However, these studies clearly indicate that the karst is highly important for mammal (primate) and cave fauna conservation. For example, the Hon Chong-Kien Luong hills are probably the richest hot-spot of endemism for deep soil fauna known in the tropics. Flora values are equally high given high levels of reported endemism and the presence of rare and threatened species (Nguyen, 2000). Considerable differences exist between the flora and fauna of the Kien Giang karst and those of Northern Viet Nam.

The karst and associated caves represents a unique opportunity for ecotourism development to supplement products developed around Dong Ho.

Status of biodiversity values in limestone outcrops

Apart from karst that is currently the focus of mining for cement manufacture, and disturbance of cave fauna through direct use for tourism, the biodiversity values of limestone outcrops remain intact, although increasingly isolated, from an ecological perspective, by agricultural and aquaculture developments. Only the Hon Chong Nature Reserve protects karst for conservation values, although some other cave areas are protected for historical and cultural values.

Threats to the biodiversity values of limestone outcrops

Continuation and expansion of limestone mining is the major threat to karst flora and fauna conservation. Poor development for tourism equally threatens the biodiversity values of limestone caves, although best-practice presentation of caves would significantly reduce the threat of take of fauna for subsistence and sale, and take of plants for medicinal use.

Desired outcomes for biodiversity conservation of limestone outcrops

NH-B04 Clarified biodiversity values of the 22 limestone outcrops of the Ha Tien Plain.

NH-B05 Targeted exploitation of limestone resources that recognises and protects landscape, cultural and biodiversity values.

NH-B06 Limestone cave development to realise their nature and culture based tourism potential.

NH-B07 Application of international best-practice techniques in presenting and protecting limestone caves and their features.

c. Non-limestone hills

Biodiversity values of non-limestone hills

Despite limited studies of the granitic and sandstone hills of Kien Giang Province, they have been shown to be biologically distinct from the karst and surrounding wetlands (SKM, 2002). With the limestone outcrops, it would appear that they contribute significantly to the biodiversity of the Ha Tien area.

Status of biodiversity on non-limestone hills

Many of the sandstone and granitic hills are used for growing agricultural crops such as pepper, maize, cassava and bananas. However, green belts are common. Other areas, notably To Chau and Ngu Ho hills have been protected over the years for their cultural and aesthetic values. However, none of these areas have formal conservation protection.

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Threats to biodiversity on non-limestone hills

Although modified over many decades, the biodiversity values of the non-limestone hills are currently not at risk from altered land use proposals. The greatest threat lies in lack of recognition of their contribution to the biodiversity of the area.

Desired outcomes for biodiversity conservation of non-limestone hills

NH-B08 Clarified biodiversity, cultural, landscape and production values of the non-limestone outcrops around Ha Tien.

NH-B09 Designated areas of non-limestone hills with high conservation value as protected areas.

d. Dong Ho

Biodiversity values of Dong Ho

Around Dong Ho, 25 species of mangroves have been recorded, which represents over 80% of the mangrove species recorded in the province and 60% of those recorded for Viet Nam (Chu & Dart, 2011; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2011). This high-value forest type plays an important role in land accretion and stability, buffering flood and tidal change, and in sustaining aquatic animals of scientific, sustenance and commercial importance. The value of these benefits is likely to increase under an altered climate system (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2011; Thai & Thai, 2011a; Truong, 2011a).

Avicennia spp. establish as pioneers on alluvial deposits. With time, other species invade and replace the Avicennia. Thus, the regenerating pioneer Avicenniaforest on alluviumaround Dong Ho Lagoon has special value in the dynamics of the lagoon’s ecosystem (Thai & Thai, 2011a).

The seasonal changes in the salinity of the lagoon and the salinity gradient from the Giang Thanh and Rach Gia in-flow points to the lagoon provide varied conditions for supporting a diversity of aquatic species of interest to science and for sustenance and commercial use. This also applies to the vegetation, which is used for firewood production and as building material.

Status of Dong Ho’s biodiversity values

Probably due to the prolonged exploitation of lagoon fisheries, siltation, degraded water quality and altered water-flow regimes, the aquatic resource of the lagoon are declining rapidly, and probably the lagoon’s biodiversity (Hiep & Son, 2011; Thai & Thai, 2011b).Currently, there are about 300 – 400 light catching nets and nearly 100 bottom catchers in use in the lagoon, and electric shock methods are still practiced to exploit the fresh/saltwater fisheries (Nguyen, 2011c). However, a comprehensive inventory of the flora and fauna of Dong Ho has not been undertaken.

Threats to Dong Ho’s biodiversity values

The immediate threat to Dong Ho’s biodiversity is conversion of mangrove communities to agriculture and aquaculture. This is exacerbated by unregulated and environmentally destructive take of aquatic resources, pollution from residential and upstream areas and altered seasonal and tidal water flow regimes. In addition, rapid urban development of Ha Tien means that the lagoon is being encroached also by residential development. With planning for increased agricultural production and shrimp farming in the surrounding areas, and exploitive fishing, biodiversity values are being reduced (Hiep & Son, 2011; Thai & Thai, 2011b).

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Members of V living quarter (Cu Duc Village) seek to gain ownership of the lagoon by planting and building, which creates difficulties for management for other lagoon uses, and has direct impact on vegetation patterns, the landscape, and drainage (Mai, 2011). Poverty, lack of education, use of traditional exploitive high-impact methods of resource extraction, and low levels of awareness of alternatives have all contributed to a bleak outlook for the local community and the sustainable management of the lagoon (Truong, 2011a).

Desired outcomes for biodiversity conservation of Dong Ho

NH-B10 Nonet loss of aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity immediately associated with Dong Ho.

NH-B11 Sustainable take of aquatic organisms for subsistence and commercial use.

NH-B12 Expansion of the protected area system to provide a focus for development of nature-based tourism businesses presenting biodiversity and other heritage resources.

3.2 Cultural heritage and traditional livelihoods

3.2.1 Cultural landscapes

Cultural landscape values of Dong Ho

Dong Ho boasts artistic, spiritual and historical values related to the development history of Ha Tien and more recent nationally significant events. Sites remain that reflect and commemorate this history, along with descendants who provide cultural richness to Ha Tien society. Ha Tien is an area of unique cultural features demonstrated in traditions, customs, and festivals (Truong, 2011a).

The lagoon appears in the writings of the Tao Dan Chieu Anh Cac literary group to give clear proof of the non-material value of the area and its landscapes (Nguyen, 2011c). These landscape values have the potential to be a major focus of tourism activity.

Status of Dong Ho as a cultural landscape

According to Le Minh Hoang, Kien Giang Province’s Director of Department of Culture, Sports and Tourism of province, of Ha Tien’s 10 literary landscapes, only five remain27 as a result of human activity (Nguyen, 2011c). Dong Ho retains its essential character that made it a focus for development and artistic works, but this is rapidly disappearing.

Threats to Dong Ho as a cultural landscape

The major threat to Dong Ho as a cultural landscape is modification of the lagoon itself and transformation of surrounding areas from a highly productive natural system to a human dominated landscape. Cultural landscape values will be lost if human developments dominate scenes of, and from Dong Ho. Approved development projects within and around the lagoon are major threats.

Desired outcomes for the conservation and development of Dong Ho as a cultural landscape

CH-L01 Maintained natural character of Dong Ho without the visual intrusion of built structures or ‘permanent’ signs and sights of human activity.

27. Kim Du Lan Dao, Giang Thanh Da Co, Dong Ho An Nguyet, Nam Pho Trung Ba, and Lu Khe Ngu Bac

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3.2.2 Cultural sites

Cultural site values

Most culturally significant sites focus on religious places related to the Mac family and serve the dual purpose of on-going ancestor worship and as tourist attractions. Mac Cuu built Sac Tu Tam Bao Temple for his mother. Also on Binh Sanor Lang (tomb) Mountain are the temples and graves of the Mac Clan. Phu Dung temple is where Ba Di Tu (a wife of Mac Thien Tich) led her religious life, and Phao Dai mountain is linked to Mac Thien Tich’s fort at the top of the mountain. The literary history of the area is enshrined in Dong Ho (Lam Tan Phat) memorial house, while the caves of Thach Dong and Da Dung mountains are also sites of religious significance. Several caves in the limestone karst have historical value, because they served as refuges during the Second Indochina War.

Status of culturally significant sites

As places where religious practice continues, the local community recognises the significance of these places and sites are maintained. However, other sites of cultural significance, not linked to religion, are not identified and protected.

Threats to cultural significant places

Given that most sites remain in use as functional places for worship, there is no immediate threat to them, save through inadvertent vandalism by visitors who do not appreciate the values and significance of the places.

Desired outcomes for the conservation and development of cultural sites

CH-S01 Continued traditional use of culturally significant sites.

CH-S02 Enrichment of cultural site significance through celebrations and festivals.

CH-S03 Presentation of cultural site values and significance to visitors.

3.2.3 Traditional livelihoods

Values of Dong Ho relating to traditional livelihoods

Dong Ho provides the living environment and the source of livelihood for about 40,000 residents. Of these, more than 2,000 people in V living quarter (Cu Duc Village) have relied directly on the resources of the lagoon for many generations. They eke out a living by exploiting the fishery and Nypa fruticans. Some species of shrimps, fish and blood cockles have high yields: 200 tons per year (Mai, 2011).

The lagoon provides shelter for the fishing fleet of the Ha Tien area, and acts as a shelter from storms. Additionally, the lagoon plays a critical role in balancing the water regime for agricultural production of Ha Tien and the Long Xuyen quadrangle with its cultivation area of nearly 100,000 ha (Truong, 2011a).

Status of traditional livelihoods

Traditional subsistence use of Dong Ho’s natural resources continues and is increasing with population growth. This use is not regulated and its sustainability is being questioned. Non selective fishing methods seriously degrade the resources because mature animals are caught with juveniles (Nguyen, 2011c). Dong Ho is the nursery for many aquatic life-forms, and is the place that supplies the breeding stock for many aquatic products of the lagoon area and marine fisheries. These ecosystem services are being lost through mangrove clearing and water pollution (Nguyen, 2011c).

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Threats to traditional livelihoods

Increased pressure on natural resources of the lagoon through population growth, exploitive and indiscriminate fishing methods, pollution of the lagoon’s waters, change in the hydrological characteristics of the lagoon, and loss of wetland/mangrove breeding areas for aquatic species all threaten the productivity of the lagoon and availability of fishery stocks (Hiep & Son, 2011). Collectively, these changes threaten the sustainability of, at least, the fishing tradition.

Desired outcomes for the conservation and development of traditional livelihoods

CH-T01 Achievement of a sustainable take of fishery and other natural resources of the lagoon.

3.3 Current and future livelihoods

3.3.1 Primary production

a. Agriculture

Values of the Dong Ho area for agriculture

The Long Xuyen quadrangle, with the acid-sulphate soils of the Ha Tien Plain, is the second largest area of acid-sulphate soils in the Mekong Delta. During the agricultural production process, the waters of canals and the land area underneath become acidic (Truong, 2011a). However, with the addition of lime these areas become productive for rice production. Therefore, agricultural activity around Dong Ho has become the source of income for many residents. However, this land use impacts on other values of the lagoon through visual intrusion, reduction of biodiversity, pollution of waterways and flow-on impacts to aquaculture and fisheries (Truong, 2011a).

Status of the Dong Ho area for agriculture

The acid sulphate soils reduce the suitability of the area for agriculture; although without a viable alternative livelihood, residents continue to farm the land and convert the grasslands to rice fields to achieve commercially viable production.

Threats to, and from agriculture around Dong Ho

The greatest threat to agriculture is the relatively low productivity of acid sulphate soils and associated input costs, and conflict with conservation objectives that compete for use of the same land resource. However, poor agricultural practices are a threat to the lagoon’s integrity and biodiversity through its nutrient and sediment inputs to the lagoon and visual intrusion on the amenity of the lagoon as a tourism resource.

Desired outcomes for the conservation and development of agriculture

L-Ag01 Achievement of sustainable agricultural practices that do not negatively impact other livelihoods.

L-Ag02 Achievement of an agriculture sector that supports tourism.

b. Aquaculture

Values of the Dong Ho area for aquaculture

Shrimp farming is a high priority of the State to develop the economy; however, environmental impacts are often not considered (e.g. effect of wastewater sludge). Family-based aquaculture has developed rapidly around Dong Ho, improving the well-being of participants. However, many shrimp farming projects exceed emission standards

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to reduce costs and achieve high returns. As a result, society and natural environments indirectly bear the costs of poor practices through a degraded environment. Immediately affected areas are the water quality of Dong Ho and ultimately the ocean. Mangrove areas are removed for the ponds, reducing the biodiversity of the lagoon and the extent of the nursery area for aquatic species (Thai and Thai, 2011b). However, aquaculture can be presented as a tourism product and support the sector by providing a high quality product for tourist consumption.

Status of the Dong Ho area for aquaculture

The construction of aquaculture ponds has progressed rapidly around Dong Ho in recent years. However, initial yields have not always been sustained due to poor farming practices and resultant disease.

Threats to, and from aquaculture around Dong Ho

The greatest threat to aquaculture is poor farming practice that results in diseased stock and costly remedial action. In turn, release of diseased stock and effluent threatens the lagoon’s fishery resources and water quality. Aquaculture competes directly with mangrove conservation objectives and currently intrudes on the aesthetic qualities of the lagoon.

Desired outcomes for the conservation and development of aquaculture

L-Aq01 Achievement of sustainable aquaculture practices that do not negatively impact other livelihoods.

L-Aq02 Achievement of an aquaculture sector that supports tourism.

3.3.2 Integrating tourism into conservation and development

Ha Tien and Dong Ho have been attractions for travellers since the time of the Macs. While the principal reason for visiting Ha Tien in those days was for trade, the natural features and landscape setting of the area added to the enjoyment of the visit and probably enticed traders to stay longer. Hence, tourism, as we think of it today, has probably existed around Ha Tien for centuries, contributing to the economic prosperity of the town and area through the purchase of accommodation, food and beverage and services to explore the area.

The same principles apply today, although the motivations to tour differ considerably, where the principal reason to visit relates to the natural and cultural assets of the area. As in the times of the Macs, tourism requires the contribution of multiple business types and an environment that meets the expectations of visitors. So successful tourism based on the natural and cultural assets of the area requires a diverse economy to supply quality sustenance needs of tourists, support services to accommodate and move tourists about, infrastructure to meet modern expectations for access, energy needs, communication and health, and different and high quality places and aspects of the host community to experience. For tourism success, it must be integrated with, and supported by, other sectors of the economy (and the community), rather than be a substitute for these sectors.

If tourism in Ha Tien is to be based on nature and cultural attractions, these must be protected, restored and enhanced by quality presentations of their values.

Values of Dong Ho for tourism

Aligning with the desired future for Ha Tien to be a centre for ecotourism (supported by both government and community members), the values of the area for tourism stem from:

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• the natural aesthetic qualities and biodiversity values of Dong Ho;

• the complementary aesthetic qualities and biodiversity values of the limestone and other hills in the area;

• the biodiversity values of the grasslands of the Ha Tien Plain;

• the sandy beaches and off-shore islands adjacent to Ha Tien;

• the history of Ha Tien and its relevance to Chinese, Khmer, Thai, and Americans and especially its role in the development of Southern Viet Nam;

• the cultural character of the area and the lifestyle and traditions of its multi-cultural citizenry;

• the culturally significant sites that reflect history and culture;

• the location of Ha Tien as a border town between Vietnam and Cambodia and its proximity to tourism areas in both countries; and

• the location and existing infrastructure in Ha Tien to support environmental and cultural tourism as a hub, thereby deflecting development within valued heritage resources.

The status of tourism and tourism assets

Tourism in and around Ha Tien is currently based on the domestic market who visit the area for spiritual and recreation reasons within a natural setting. However, this has the potential to grow given the development of sustainable products that are consistent with the overall theme of nature and culture-based tourism. Similarly, the border crossing with Cambodia and unique environmental qualities have the potential to attract international tourists visiting southern Vietnam, because the area has attractions distinctly different to those of other areas in the Mekong Delta region.

Generally, tourism products are not developed to international standards, and this will require capacity building of the local community and investment in developments that will attract the target ecotourism market. While the private sector can be expected to respond to demand for accommodation and in-town services, products associated with natural and cultural assets probably require government funding.

Threats to tourism and tourism assets

The greatest threat to tourism lies in the inability to transition local community livelihoods from primary industry dependence to greater dependence on providing tourism support and services. The threat lies in continued degradation of the assets that will potentially attract tourists, both national and international. Similarly, lack of investment to develop international quality presentations of tourism assets risks reduction in the quality of assets and failure to be able to market Ha Tien as a ‘clean and green’ destination.

Desired outcomes for conservation and development of tourism

L-To01 Reduction in the threats to natural and cultural resources that are likely to be the attractions for tourists to Ha Tien.

L-To02 Transition of local community livelihoods to include tourism service provision.

L-To03 Development of nature and culture based tourism products that give meaning to the protection of valued assets.

L-To04 Enriched local cultures that support tourism and retention of cultural identity.

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1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho4. Strategic action towards integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho

This section summarizes actions for the integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho identified at the community workshop, or inferred from submissions, on the future of Dong Ho Lagoon, Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve held in Ha Tien, Kien Giang Province, Vietnam, 10-11 November, 2011. It particularly draws on the recommendations made by participants who submitted papers for the workshop (Anon, 2011a, b; Hiep & Son, 2011; Le & Truong, 2011; Le, 2011b; Le, 2011c; Mai, 2011; Nguyen, 2011a; Nguyen, 2011b; Nguyen, 2011c; Nguyen & Vu, 2011; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2011; Phung, 2011; Thai & Thai, 2011a, b; Tran, 2011; Truong, 2011a; Truong, 2011b).

Given many uncertainties regarding resource status, the actions should be considered as precautionary measures to ensure the vision for the Dong Ho area is not compromised. However, actions related to natural and cultural heritage protection and restoration are fundamental to securing a tourism future for Dong Ho.

STRATEGIC ACTION TOWARDS INTEGRATED

CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF DONG HO

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4. Strategic action towards integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho

4.1 Vision, actions and prioritising

4.1.1 A vision for Dong Ho

Planning for Dong Ho must have as its objective sustainable conservation, restoration and development, including protection of its historical and cultural values (Kien Giang People's Committee Notice No. 110/TB-VP, 15 March, 2011).

The vision for the future of Dong Ho is:

alagoon and its surrounding landscape that reflects the times of the Mac Dynasty, where nature and natural processes dominate to inspire residents and visitors and support sustainable community livelihoods and traditions enriched by nature and culture based tourism28.

4.1.2 Action principles to achieve the vision

Given that Dong Ho has changed significantly since the times of the Macs, and is currently under degrading pressures (largely through anthropogenic causes), the achievement of this vision will require action to:

• totally protect remnant natural vegetation communities;

• restore natural plant communities that buffer the lagoon from degradation and support biodiversity conservation;

• significantly reduce degrading pressure on the lagoon’s natural condition and ecosystem dynamics;

• ensure future development is sustainable and does not intrude on the visual amenity of the lagoon;

• ensure sustainable exploitation of natural resources;

• transition and build community capacity to realise the nature and culture based potential of the area;

• account for the impact of climate change; and

• gather, consolidate and share knowledge relevant to planning, heritage conservation and transitioning Ha Tien society to a model sustainable community.

4.1.3 Prioritising actions

Priority-for-actions principles can be indicated with a medical analogy. So, within resource capacity:

1. do no additional harm to Dong Ho – prevent any action likely to negatively impact the lagoon and its values and apply existing power to achieve this;

2. remove Dong Ho from existing and chronic harm – immediately address probable causes of deteriorating environmental quality through applying existing power, although additional resourcing may be required;

3. repair the harm to Dong Ho already done – restore natural features and processes that buffer the effects of degrading activity, although relatively low-level additional resourcing may be needed;

28. Inferred from Anon (2011b), Le & Truong (2011), Nguyen (2011c) and Hiep & Son (2011).

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4. apply best available knowledge to remedial and response actions – in the interests of avoiding additional harm, priority may need to be given to undertaking targeted research to reduce uncertainty associated with actions (consolidate existing knowledge and undertake research to improve confidence in decision-making); and

5. improve the resilience of Dong Ho and the community through improving capacity to avoid harm in the future – implement actions to transition the community of, and visitors to, Dong Ho towards livelihoods and behaviours that support sustainability (invest in planning, best-practice models and education).

While this priority order is hierarchical, it need not be sequential. Actions need to be multi-targeted and conducted in parallel to expedite the achievement of the vision and respond to opportunities as they arise. Actions will often require community-wide commitment and cooperation29 if they are to be part of the sustainability vision for Dong Ho.

4.1.4 Implementation of actions

Proposed actions are only those considered urgent and capable of commencement within three years. Some will need special funding and expertise, but most merely require reorientation of priorities. The priority number presented for each proposed action takes into consideration the priority principles, urgency to address threats, and represents a precautionary approach. Implementation of these actions will not be irreversible. In fact, many seek to reverse the impact of past decisions that have resulted in the parlous state of Dong Ho.

4.2 Protecting and enhancing natural heritage values

4.2.1 Landscape protectionand presentation

No. Proposed action Priority Contribution to desired outcome

NL01 Declare an immediate moratorium, for an indefinite period, on all proposals (a) between the Phu My Nature Reserve and Dong Ho, and (b) for 100 around the lagoon, on agriculture, aquaculture or other uses that would remove natural vegetation30.

1 NH-L01, NH-L08, NH-S01, NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-B01,NH-B02, NH-B03, CH-L01, L-Ag01, L-To01.

NL02 Declare an immediate moratorium on mining of limestone karst of the Ha Tien Plain that is not currently being mined (the moratorium is to be lifted upon at least 60% of outcrops gaining a conservation designation)31.

1 NH-L03, NH-B05, L-To01.

NL03 Undertake a values assessment of biodiversity, history, culture, speleological and tourism potential of the limestone karst and non-limestone hills of the Ha Tien Plain, at least within the three districts surrounding Dong Ho.

1 NH-L03, NH-L07, NH-B04, NH-B05, NH-B08, CH-S01, L-To01.

29. Le (2011b) identifies that this requires a co-managing mechanism and power-sharing.30. Also proposed by Le (2011a), and inferred from Mai (2011) and Duong (2011) who argue for protection

of Red Crane habitat.31. Inferred from Duong (2011).

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323334353637

32. Also proposed by Thai & Thai (2011b) and Le & Truong (2011), and inferred from Truong (2011a), Anon (2011b) and Le (2011a).

33. Also proposed by Mai (2011), Nguyen (2011c), Truong (2011a) and Le (2011a).34. Also inferred from Mai (2011).35. Also proposed by Nguyen & Vu (2011), and inferred from Anon (2011b).36. Also proposed by Anon (2011a), and inferred from Nguyen & Vu (2011).37. Also proposed by Mai (2011) and Le (2011b). See also the Prime Ministerial Decree 01, People’s Commit-

tee of Kien Giang Decision No. 18/QD-UBND, 7/4/2011 regarding aquaculture management.

NL04 Declare a moratorium on all coastal reclamation works until hydrological modelling confirms impacts on shorelines and the hydrological dynamics of Dong Ho.

1 NH-L11, L-To01.

NL05 Place Dong Ho under a nature conservation designation32 that includes (a) all free water areas below the average high tide level, and (b) all lands within 1 km of the lagoon’s average high tide level, and lands between the Phu My Nature Reserve and Dong Ho that have not been converted to land use for agriculture, aquaculture or other production or living space (see Note NL-1).

2 NH-L01, NH-L02, NH-L08, NH-B01,NH-B02, NH-B03, NH-B12, CH-L01, L-To01.

NL06 With the exception of V living quarter (Cu Duc Village), require all unauthorised land occupation within at least 100 m of the lagoon’s high water level to be abandoned, structures removed, and the disturbed area (also beyond the 100 m limit) planted with forest species from Dong Ho33.

2 NH-L08, NH-L09, NH-S01 NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-B02, NH-B10, CH-L01, L-To01.

NL07 Stop the planting of exposed low tide and dry season sediment beds34, but permit natural regeneration.

2 NH-L09.

NL08 Include in the planning scheme for Ha Tien (and other districts) provisions to ensure that lagoon side development does not overly intrude on the aesthetic qualities of the lagoon35 and that priority is given to tourism-related services.

2 NH-L10, NH-B02, NH-B03, NH-B08, CH-L01, L-To01.

NL09 Include provisions in Ha Tien’s (and other districts’) planning scheme to ensure major developments reflect local architectural traditions36.

2 CH-L01, CH-S01, L-To01, L-To03.

NL10 Maintain the emphasis on water transportation around the lagoon, and review plans to provide road connection to V living quarter (Cu Duc) (see Note NL-2).

2 CH-L01, CH-S01, L-To01, L-To03, L-To04.

NL11 Enforce existing regulations and apply other successful approaches that deliver environmental protection to Dong Ho37.

2 NH-L01, NH-L08, NH-L09, NH-S01, NH-S02,NH-S03, NH-B02, NH-B03, NH-B11, NH-B12, CH-L01, CH-T01, L-Ag01.

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NL12 Based on a values assessment, place at least 60% of limestone karst areas of the Ha Tien Plain under a nature conservation designation that includes the entire karst outcrop and a minimum 200 m buffer area38.

3 NH-L03, NH-B05, CH-S01, L-To01, L-To02, L-To03, L-To04.

NL13 Prepare a cave tourism development strategy that provides for a range of visitor experience types, plans for effective presentation of cave and karst values, and identifies no entry areas where it is necessary to safeguard wildlife populations.

3 NH-L04, NH-L05, NH-B05, NH-B06, CH-S03, L-To02, L-To03, L-To04.

NL14 Invest in the (re)development of a culturally significant and a biodiversity rich karst area to create a benchmark for presentation of karst values and heritage protection.

3 NH-L04, NH-L05, NH-B06, NH-B07, L-To01, L-To02, L-To03, L-To04.

NL15 Clarify the heritage, geological and land use values of the non-limestone hills39.

3 NH-L07, NH-B02, NH-B08, L-To01.

NL16 Create a minimum of a 10 m vegetated buffer on either side of all canals in the three districts surrounding Dong Ho, and encourage adjoining districts and provinces to adopt a 10 m minimum vegetated buffer policy.

3 NH-L09, NH-S01, NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-B02, CH-L01, L-Ag01.

NL17 Review the adequacy of legal instruments and their application to achieving the vision for Dong Ho40.

3 NH-L08, NH-L09, NH-L10, NH-L06, NH-S01, NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-B07, NH-B11, CH-L01, L-Ag01, L-To01.

NL18 Include in the planning scheme of Ha Tien (and other coastal districts) the requirement for new coastal development not to intrude on coastal aesthetics from the land or sea41.

3 NH-L12, NH-L13, CH-L01, L-To01.

NL19 Undertake proactive management of areas given a conservation designation through specific allocation of human, financial and infrastructure resources42. Provide powers for enforcing regulations and training to enhance environmental awareness and management capacity43.

3 NH-L08, NH-L09, NH-L10, NH-L02, NH-S01, NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-B02, NH-B03, NH-B07, NH-B08, NH-B11, CH-L01, CH-T01.

Note NL-1 Phung (2011) and Nguyen & Nguyen (2011) propose nomination of the Dong Ho area as a Ramsar listed wetland through the Department of Science and Technology. 383940414243

Note NL-2 A road around Dong Ho and to V living quarter (Cu Duc) is proposed by Mai (2011), Le (2011a), Anon (2011b). This should not proceed until environmental, social and tourism impacts are clarified along with the implications of sea level rise.

38. Also proposed by Hiep and Son (2011).39. Also inferred from Anon (2011b).40. Also proposed by Hiep and Son (2011), and inferred from Le (2011b).41. Also inferred from Mai (2011).42. Also inferred from Le (2011b) and Thai & Thai (2011b). Le & Truong (2011) and Nguyen & Nguyen (2011)

call for a ‘Conservation Management Unit’.43. Also proposed by Nguyen & Nguyen (2011), Le & Truong (2011) and Thai & Thai (2011b).

46


4.2.2 Maintaining healthy system dynamics 44454647484950 5152

No. Action Priority Contribution to desired outcome

NS01 Monitor and strictly enforce water pollution standards for agriculture, aquaculture and other industries44. Require production establishments to prepare environmental management plans and standard operating procedures45.

1 NH-S01, NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-B10, L-To01.

NS02 Undertake comprehensive baseline water quality testing of in-flows and Dong Ho46.

1 NH-S01,NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-B10.

NS03 Install tertiary treatment of sewage effluent from Ha Tien47.

1 NH-S01,NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-B10, L-To01.

NS04 Install package tertiary treatment sewage plants for V living quarter (Cu Duc Village)47.


NS05 Require all new developments, with a collective design capacity of 100+ people, to provide tertiary sewage treatment47.


NS06 Develop a hydrological model of Dong Ho and adjacent coastal waters based on comprehensive empirical measurement of bathymetry48 and water movement49.

1 NH-L11, NH-S04, NH-S05.

NS07 Run scenarios in the hydrological model at least for dredging, land-use changes and climate change to predict water movement, sedimentation and water quality50.

1 NH-S04, NH-S05.

NS08 Review all existing land use and construction approvals and proposals in terms of their environmental and social impacts51.

1 NH-L01, NH-L06, NH-L08, NH-L09,NH-L10, NH-S02, NH-S03, L-To01.

NS09 Only undertake dredging works that maintain the functionality of waterways52 until hydrological modelling informs actions.

1 NH-L01.

NS10 Undertake comprehensive baseline water quality testing of marine waters off Ha Tien.

2 NH-S03, L-To01.

NS11 Undertake a resources inventory survey of marine waters off Ha Tien as an indicator of ecosystem health.

2 NH-S03, L-To01, L-To02, L-To03.

44. Also proposed by Truong (2011a), Le (2011b) and Thai & Thai (201b), and inferred from Nguyen & Nguyen (2011).

45. Also proposed by Thai & Thai (2011b).46. Also proposed by Hiep& Son (2011), Nguyen (2011b), Truong (2011a)47. Also inferred from Mai (2011), Nguyen (2011b), Nguyen & Nguyen (2011b), Le (2011a) and Thai & Thai

(2011b).48. Also proposed by Hiep& Son (2011).49. Also proposed by Nguyen (2011b) and Le (2011a).50. Also proposed by Thai and Thai (2011a).51. Also proposed by Thai & Thai (2011b) and Anon (2011b).52. Also proposed by Hiep& Son (2011a), and inferred from Mai (2011), Truong (2011a), Anon (2011b) and

Nguyen & Nguyen (2011) (at least for the main exit channel).

47


4.2.3 Protecting and presenting biodiversity values 53545556


NB01 Undertake a comprehensive landscape, biodiversity and cultural values and use potential assessment of the limestone and non-limestone outcrops and hills around Dong Ho.

1 NH-L07, NH-B04, NH-B05, NH-B06, NH-B07,NH-B08, NH-B09, CH-S03.

NB02 In cooperation with the limestone mining industry, designate limestone outcrops with highest biodiversity values as conservation reserves.

1 NH-B04, NH-B05, CH-S01, L-To01, L-To02.

NB03 In making decisions about Dong Ho, give priority to consideration of environmental protection and conservation53.

1 NH-L01, NH-L08,NH-L09,NH-L10, NH-B05, NH-B06,NH-B07, NH-B10, NH-B11, CH-L01, CH-S01, L-To01.

NB04 Undertake a comprehensive biodiversity and subsistence values and use potential assessment (including mapping) of the aquatic life within Dong Ho54.

2 NH-B10, NH-B11, CH-T01.

NB05 Clarify the characteristics and extent of commercial and subsistence exploitation of the aquatic resources of Dong Ho.

2 NH-B10, NH-B11, CH-T01.

NB06 Identify strategies for sustainable exploitation of aquatic resources, including catch limits and total protection zones within the lagoon.

2 NH-B11, CH-T01.

NB07 Based on the values assessment of hills around Dong Ho, designate areas for conservation and landscape protection (including restriction of significant changes to land use).

3 NH-L06, NH-L12,NH-L13, NH-B05, NH-B09, CH-L01, L-To01.

NB08 Undertake a comprehensive biodiversity, subsistence values and use potential assessment (including mapping) of the land area (e.g., plant communities) around Dong Ho55, especially the values and extent of nipa palm versus mangroves56.

3 NH-L09, NH-B08, NH-B10, NH-B11,

NB09 Identify strategies for sustainable exploitation of terrestrial resources, including take limits and total protection and use zones within and around the lagoon.

3 NH-L08,NH-L09,NH-L10, NH-B10, NH-B11, NH-B12, CH-S01, CH-T01.

53. Also proposed by Anon (2011b) and Nguyen (2011a).54. Also proposed by Hiep& Son (2011) and Thai & Thai (2011b).55. Also proposed by Hiep& Son (2011).56. Duong (2011) argues for retention and expansion of the nipa palm areas; Le (2011a) is more circumspect.

48


4.3 Protecting and enhancing cultural heritage values

4.3.1 Protecting and presenting cultural landscapes 575859


CL01 Undertake a landscape assessment of Dong Ho to define the contribution of landscape elements to the aesthetic qualities of the lagoon.

3 NH-L06, NH-L10, NH-B05, NH-B08, CH-L01, L-Ag02, L-To01.

CL02 Identify and apply strategies for protecting the aesthetic qualities of the Dong Ho landscape for its tourism and cultural values57.

3 NH-L06,NH-L10, NH-B05, CH-L01, CH-S01, L-To01.

4.3.2 Protecting and presenting cultural sites


CS01 Prepare and inventory of culturally sites and identify their significance and use potential for tourism58.

2 NH-B05, NH-B06, NH-B08, CH-S01, L-To02, L-To03, L-To04.

CS02 Provide protection to culturally significant sites with a heritage protection designation.

3 NH-B06, NH-B07, CH-S01, L-To01, L-To02.

CS03 Prepare media identifying the values and significance of culturally significant sites.

3 NH-B06, NH-B07, CH-S01, CH-S02, CH-S03, L-To01, L-To03.

CS04 Sponsor celebrations of cultural festivals. 3 NH-B06, NH-B07, CH-S01, CH-S02, CH-S03, L-To01, L-To03, L-To04.

4.4 Realising livelihood values and opportunities

4.4.1 Towards sustainable agriculture


Ag01 Develop model farms that exemplify best-practice agriculture for environmental conditions around Dong Ho59.

2 NH-L09, L-Ag01, L-Ag02, L-To02, L-To03.

Ag02 Inventory and map farm production around Dong Ho and identify areas suited to growing produce for direct use by tourism operators (e.g. market gardens, orchards).

2 L-Ag02.

57. Also inferred from Le & Truong (2011).58. Also proposed by Hiep & Son (2011).59. Also inferred from Le (2011a).

49


Ag03 Conduct agriculture and aquaculture ‘farm days’ where farmers are shown best-practice production techniques.

3 NH-L09, CH-T01, L-Ag01, L-Ag02.

Ag04 Identify agriculture and aquaculture farms suited to tourist farm visits, and introduce farmers to the potential and needs for successful tourist farm visits60.

3 L-Ag02, L-Aq02, L-To02, L-To03.

Ag05 Provide a community conservation management capacity-building program61 and an economic assistance package (incentives and small loans) to transition community livelihoods to be compatible with the vision for Dong Ho62.

3 NH-S01,NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-B03, CH-L01, CH-T01, L-Ag01, L-Aq02, L-To02.

Ag06 Through implementing other actions, foster the establishment of cooperatives for sustainable primary production63.

3 NH-L06, CH-T01, L-Ag01, L-Aq02.

4.4.2 Towards sustainable aquaculture and fisheries 606162636465666768


Aq01 Develop model aquaculture farms that exemplify best-practice aquaculture, including improved technologies, for environmental conditions around Dong Ho64.

2 NH-S02, NH-S03, L-Aq01, L-Aq02.

Aq02 Develop a brand for aquaculture, agriculture and craft products from the Dong Ho area that meet sustainability standards65.

3 NH-B03, CH-T01, L-Ag01, L-Ag02, L-Aq01, L-Aq02, L-To03.

Aq03 Determine, regulate and enforce sustainable aquaculture and fisheries practices66.

3 NH-B03, CH-T01, L-Aq01, L-Aq02.

Aq04 Determine, regulate and enforce approved catch methods and take limits67 to ensure sustainable fisheries, and designate no-take zones within the lagoon to protect breeding habitat and facilitate ‘fish’ stock recruitment68.

3 CH-T01, L-To02.

60. Also proposed by Le (2011a) and Nguyen & Vu (2011), and inferred from Nguyen (2011b) who argues only for aquaculture farms that support tourism.

61. Also proposed by Nguyen & Vu (2011) and Nguyen (2011a).62. Also proposed by Thai & Thai (2011b), Le & Truong (2011), Nguyen & Vu (2011) and Nguyen (2011a).63. Also proposed by Le (2011a).64. Also proposed by Anon (2011b), Nguyen & Nguyen (2011), Le (2011a), Le & Truong (2011) and Nguyen &

Vu (2011), and implied by Mai (2011) and Phung (2011).65. Also proposed by Nguyen & Nguyen (2011), Le (2011a) and Phung (2011), and inferred from Hiep & Son

(2011).66. Also proposed by Le (2011a).67. Also proposed by Nguyen (2011a), Le & Truong (2011) and Le (2011a).68. Also proposed by Nguyen & Vu (2011), who also propose fish lot allocations to local fishers.

50


4.4.3 Integrating tourism into conservation and development 69707172737475767778


To01 Prepare a ‘state of tourism’ report, which consolidates what is known about tourism in the Dong Ho area, and analyses tourism assets: their status, suitability and capacity for tourist use69 (see Note To-1)

1 NH-B03, NH-B04, NH-B07, NH-B08, CH-L01, L-Ag02, L-Aq02, L-To01, L-To02, L-To03.

To02 With the ‘state of tourism’ report, conduct training and awareness raising workshops with government and community leaders on tourism needs and models of tourism development.

1 NH-B03, NH-B06, NH-B07.

To03 Conduct community and commune level workshops to gain consensus on a tourism future and how sector interests of government and industry, and communities might contribute to environmental protection70 and nature and culture based tourism development71.

1 NH-B03, NH-B06, NH-B07, L-Ag02, L-Aq02, L-To02, L-To03.

To04 Support the maintenance of the cultural and literary tradition of the Dong Ho area72.

2 CH-S02, CH-S03, L-To02, L-To03, L-To04.

To05 Plan for tourism with Ha Tien as the accommodation and service hub73, with small-scale accommodation elsewhere for niche markets, and links to district based tourist attractions74.

2 L-To01, L-To02, L-To03.

To05 Provide community training in tourism (e.g., awareness, opportunities, ecotourism guiding, craft production)75 and environmental and cultural protection76.

3 NH-B03, NH-B06, NH-B07,CH-S01, CH-S02, CH-S03, L-To01, L-To02, L-To03, L-To04.

To06 Develop a ‘nature and culture dependent’ brand for Ha Tien-Dong Ho tourism, and promote the brand to the community and national and international markets, including the fostering of environmental and culture appreciative behaviours in tourists77.

3 NH-B03, CH-S02, CH-S03,L-Ag02, L-Aq02, L-To02, L-To03, L-To04.

To06 Provide an economic assistance package (incentives and small loans) to assist community members develop a diversity of nature and culture-based tourism products78.

3 NH-B03, NH-B06, CH-S02, CH-S03, L-Ag02, L-Aq02, L-To02, L-To03, L-To04.

69. Also proposed by Nguyen (2011c).70. Also proposed by Truong (2011a) and Le (2011b).71. Also proposed by Nguyen (2011c) and Mai (2011).72. Also proposed by Anon (2011b) and Nguyen & Nguyen (2011).73. Also proposed by Duong (2011).74. Also proposed by Nguyen (2100c).75. Also proposed by Le & Truong (2011) and Nguyen (2011a).76. Also proposed by Nguyen & Vu (2011), Le & Truong (2011), Nguyen & Nguyen (2011) and Phung (2011).77. Also proposed by Le & Truong (2011) and Nguyen & Vu (2011).78. Also proposed by Nguyen & Nguyen (2011) and Nguyen & Vu (2011).

51


To07 With the community, progressively transition livelihoods in V living quarter (Cu Duc) to include nature-based tourism as a dominant and equitable part of the village economy79.

3 NH-B03, CH-S02, CH-S03,L-Ag02, L-Aq02, L-To02, L-To03, L-To04.

Note To-1 Nguyen & Nguyen propose assigning to the Department of Culture, Sports and Tourism the responsibility of applying for 2013 National Tourism Host status for Ha Tien, to mobilize investment resources 798081

4.5 Monitoring and evaluating success and addressing knowledge gaps


MK01 Establish comprehensive sustainability indicators. 3 NH-L07, NH-S01, NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-S04,NH-S05, NH-B04, NH-B08, NH-B10, NH-B11, CH-S01, CH-S02, CH-S03, L-To02.

MK01 Establish comprehensive long-term monitoring of environmental and socio-economic condition of the Dong Ho area to inform adaptive management and planning80, and a triennial state of the environment (and tourism) report, and annual updates.

3 NH-L07, NH-S01, NH-S02, NH-S03, NH-S04,NH-S05, NH-B04, NH-B08, NH-B10, NH-B11, CH-S01, CH-S02, CH-S03, L-To02.

MK01 Encourage and support national and international teaching and research institutions to focus learning (including research) activity in the area, towards informing planning, adaptive management, and documenting success in environmental restoration and transitioning society towards sustainability81.

3 Can contribute to achievement of all desired outcomes.

79. Also proposed by Le (2011a) and Nguyen & Vu (2011).80. Also proposed by Thai & Thai (2011b), Le & Truong (2011) and Nguyen & Nguyen (2011).81. Also proposed by Le & Truong (2011), Nguyen (2011a), Nguyen (2011c), Phung (2011) and Nguyen &

Nguyen (2011), who identify the Provincial Department of Science and Technology and Department of Resources and Environment as key collaborators.

52


53

1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho5. Impacts of proposed strategic action

IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED STRATEGIC ACTIONS

A recognised tool for sustainability is a balanced assessment of impact that gives appropriate consideration and attention to economic, social and environmental change. Impact can be positive or negative, and cumulative. Impact assessment should identify likely costs and benefits, as well as who bears the costs and benefits from actions and developments. Armed with such assessments, adjustments to proposals can be made to improve outcomes, and inform decision-making and approvals.

The status of Dong Ho is the result of past decisions made in the absence of impact assessment, or at least without considering environmental impacts. While individuals and communities in the past have benefited, economically and socially, from these decisions, today’s society is currently bearing the environmental cost of a degraded landscape, and is probably facing considerable social and economic cost in the future to transition to sustainability.

This section briefly identifies the collective social and economic impact, qualitatively, of the proposed strategic actions.

54


5. Impacts of the proposed strategic actions

a. Environmental impact

All proposed strategic actions seek to contribute to net improvement in the environmental condition for ecological functioning, biodiversity conservation, landscape protection, sustainable livelihoods and safeguarding the natural and cultural heritage of the area and Vietnam. The actions seek to reverse environmental degradation trends so that the ecological integrity of Dong Ho and its surrounds are restored, and they have the capacity to deliver ecosystem services sustainably into the future. Individual actions will have minimal impact on environmental condition; however, collectively they can be synergistic and draw on the inherent resilience of natural systems, provided thresholds to resilience have not already been exceeded.

b. Social impact

The proposed strategic actions will have an immediate negative impact on the livelihoods of some individuals and possibly communities of the area. The long-term impact on those affected will depend on their capacity to respond to the challenge of change and they may need assistance in adjusting. The actions call for significant changes in land use practices, customary behaviours in generating a livelihood, and new ways of doing business and interacting. They also call for the reversal of past governance decisions. However, the actions seek to transition the Ha Tien-Dong Ho community towards a sustainable future with a diversified economy that enriches, reinforces and celebrates cultural traditions and provides resilience to local and global change forces.

c. Economic impact

The proposed strategic actions necessitate considerable investment. For decades, the Ha Tien-Dong Ho community has unsustainably drawn on the natural capital of the lagoon and its surrounds, necessitating investment of financial, social and human capital to reverse degradation trends and to realise a sustainable future. Short-term investment costs will be considerable: long-term returns are expected to be high. However, the economic reality is that if investments are not made, the area is at risk of ecological and resultant economic collapse.

55

1. Introduction to integrated conservation and development of Dong Ho6. References

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Guidelines for integrated planning for conservation and development of Dong Ho Lagoon, Vietnam

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Respondsibility of publication:Dr. LE QUANG KHOI

Respondsible for manuscript: Dang Ngoc Phan Cover: Bao Ngoc

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