gunnhild, mother of kings

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Gunnhild, Mother of Kings 1

Gunnhild, Mother of Kings

Gunnhild GormsdttirQueen-consort of Norway

Gunnhild convinces Eric Bloodaxe to kill the Finnish wizards. From an illustration by Christian Krohg.

Consort 931 934 (Norway)

Spouse Eric Bloodaxe

Issue

Gamle EirikssenGuttorm EirikssenHarald IIRagnfrd EirikssenRagnhild EiriksdotterErling EirikssenGudrd Eiriksson

Sigurd SlevaRgnvald Eriksson (?)

Father Gorm the Oldor Ozur Toti

Mother unknown, possibly Thyra

Born unknown

Died c. 980

Gunnhild konungamir (mother of kings) or Gunnhild Gormsdttir [1] (c. 910 c. 980) is a character whoappears in the Icelandic Sagas, according to which she was the wife of Eric Bloodaxe (king of Norway 930 34,

'King' of Orkney c. 937 54, and king of Jrvk 948 49 and 952 54). Many of the details of her life are disputed,including her parentage. Although she is treated in the sagas as a historical person, evenher historicity is a matter of some debate.[2] Gunnhild appears prominently in many Norse sagas, including Fagrskinna, Egil's Saga, Njal's Saga,and Heimskringla. What details of her life are known come largely from Icelandic sources, which generally assertedthat the Icelandic settlers had fled from Harald's tyranny. While the historicity of such sources as the Landnamabok is disputed, the perception that Harald had exiled or driven out many of their ancestors led to an attitude amongIcelanders generally hostile to Erik and Gunnhild. Scholars such as Gwyn Jones therefore regard some of theepisodes reported in them as suspect.[3]

The sagas relate that Gunnhild lived during a time of great change and upheaval in Norway. Her father-in-law HaraldFairhair had recently united much of Norway under his rule. Shortly after his death, Gunnhild and her husband wereoverthrown and exiled. She spent much of the rest of her life in exile in Orkney, Jorvik and Denmark. A number of her many children with Erik became co-rulers of Norway in the late tenth century.
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In the sagas, Gunnhild is most often depicted in a negative light; she is described by Jenny Jochens as known for her"power and cruelty, admired for her beauty and generosity, and feared for her magic, cunning, sexual insatiability,and her goading."[4]

OriginsAccording to the 12th century Historia Norvegiae, Gunnhild was the daughter of Gorm the Old, king of Denmark,and Erik and Gunnhild met at a feast given by Gorm. Modern scholars have largely accepted this version asaccurate.[5] In their view, her marriage with Erik was a dynastic union between two houses, that of the NorwegianYnglings and that of the early Danish monarchy (who may have claimed descent from Ragnar Lodbrok), in theprocess of unifying and consolidating their respective countries. Erik himself was the product of such a unionbetween Harald and Ragnhild, a Danish princess from Jutland.[6]

Gwyn Jones in particular supported the identification of Gunnhild as the daughter of Gorm, and regarded the storiesof her origins in Halogaland in northern Norway and her tutelage by Finnish wizards as part of a general Icelandichostility towards Gunnhild and Erik.[7]

Copper carving (1767) by O.H. vonLode showing a Saami shaman with

his rune drum (meavrresgrri)

Heimskringlaand Egil's Saga, on the other hand, assert that Gunnhild was thedaughter of Ozur Toti, a hersir from Halogaland.[8] Accounts of her early lifevary between sources. Egil's Sagarelates that "Eirik fought a great battle on theNorthern Dvina in Bjarmaland, and was victorious as the poems about himrecord. On the same expedition he obtained Gunnhild, the daughter of Ozur Toti,and brought her home with him."[9]

Gwyn Jones regarded many of the traditions that grew up around Gunnhild in theIcelandic sources as fictional.[7] However, both Theodoricus monachus and the grip af Nregskonungasgumreport that when Gunnhild was at the court of Harald Bluetooth after Erik's death, the Danish king offered marriage to her; if

valid, these accounts call into question the identification of Gunnhild as Harald'ssister, but their most recent editors follow Jones in viewing their accounts of Gunnhild's origins as unreliable.[10]

Heimskringlarelates that Gunnhild lived for a time in a hut with two Finnishwizards and learned magic from them. The two wizards demanded sexual favorsfrom her, so she induced Erik, who was returning from an expedition to Bjarmland, to kill them. Erik then took herto her father's house and announced his intent to marry Gunnhild.[11] The older Fagrskinna, however, says simplythat Erik met Gunnhild during an expedition to the Finnish north, where she was being "fostered and educated ...with Mttull, king of the Finns".[12] Gunnhild's Finnish sojourn is described by historian Marlene Ciklamini as a"fable" designed to set the stage for placing the blame for Erik's future misrule on his wife.[13]
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Marriage with Erik

Harald I's division of Norway c. 930 CE.Red - the domain of the High King of Norway.Yellow areas are petty kingdoms assigned to

Harald's kinsmen.

Purple - the domain of the jarls of Hlair.Orange - the domain of the jarls of Mre.

Erik's kinslaying and exile

Gunnhild and Erik are said to have had the following children: Gamle,the oldest; then Guthorm, Harald, Ragnfrod, Ragnhild, Erling, Gudrod,and Sigurd Sleva.[14] Egil's Sagamentions a son named Rgnvald, butit is not known whether he can be identified with one of thosementioned in Heimskringla, or even whether he was Gunnhild's son orErik's by another woman.

Gunnhild was widely reputed to be avlva, or witch.[15] Prior to thedeath of Harald Fairhair, Erik's popular half-brother HalfdanHaraldsson the Black died mysteriously, and Gunnhild was suspectedof having "bribed a witch to give him a death-drink."[16] Shortlythereafter, Harald died and Erik consolidated his power over the whole

country. He began to quarrel with his other brothers, egged on byGunnhild, and had four of them killed, beginning with Bjrn Farmannand later Olaf and Sigrd in battle at Tnsberg.[17] As a result of Erik'styrannical rule (which was likely greatly exaggerated in the sagas) hewas expelled from Norway when the nobles of the country declared forhis half-brother, Haakon the Good.[18]

Orkney and Jorvik

According to the Icelandic sagas, Erik set sail with his family and his

retainers to Orkney, where they settled for a number of years. Duringthat time Erik was acknowledged as "King of Orkney" by itsde factorulers, the jarls Arnkel and Erlend Turf-Einarsson.[19] Gunnhild wentwith Erik to Jorvik when, at the invitation of Bishop Wulfstan, the erstwhile Norwegian king settled as client kingover northern England.[20] At Jorvik, both Erik and Gunnhild may have been baptized.[21]

Baptism of Gunnhild. Illustration by Krohg.

Following Erik's loss of Jorvik and subsequent death at the Battle of Stainmore (954), the survivors of the battle brought word of the defeatto Gunnhild and her sons in Northumberland.[22] Taking with them allthat they could, they set sail for Orkney, where they exacted tributefrom the new jarl, Thorfinn Skullsplitter.[23]

Ultimately, however, Gunnhild decided to move on; marrying herdaughter Ragnhild to Jarl Thorfinn's son Arnfinn, she took her otherchildren and set sail for Denmark.[24]

It is worth noting that some modern historians call into question theidentification of the Erik who ruled over Jorvik with Erik Bloodaxe.None of the English sources for Erik's reign in Northumbria identifyhim as Norwegian or as the son of Harald Fairhair. Athirteenth-century letter from Edward I to Pope Boniface VIII identifies Erik as Scottish in origin.[25] Lappenberg,Plummer and Todd, writing in the late nineteenth century, identified Erik as a son of Harald Bluetooth, a claim

Downham discounts as untenable.[25] Downham, however, regards Erik the king of Jorvik as a distinct individualfrom Erik Bloodaxe, and thus views Gunnhild's sojourn in Orkney and Jorvik as the construct of later saga-writers
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who conflated different characters between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries.[26]

Conflict with Egil SkallagrimssonGunnhild was the nemesis of Egil Skallagrimsson, and his saga and poetry present her in a particularly negativelight. Egil was introduced to Erik by his older brother Thorolf, who was a friend of the prince, and the brothers were

originally on good terms with Erik and Gunnhild.[27]

However, during a sojourn in Norway around 930, Egil got intoan inheritance dispute with certain members of Erik's court, during which he killed Brr of Atley, one of the king'sretainers.[28]

Gunnhild ordered her two brothers to kill Egil and Thorolf. Egil killed the pair when they confronted him, greatlyincreasing the Queen's thirst for revenge.[29]

Picture of Egil in a 17th centurymanuscript of Egils Saga.

Erik then declared Egil an outlaw in Norway. Berg-nundr gathered a companyof men to capture Egil, but was killed in his attempt to do so.[29] During hisescape from Norway, Egil killed Rgnvald Eriksson, Erik's son.[30] He thencursed Erik and Gunnhild by setting a horse's head on a pole in a shamanic ritual(the pillar was anstngor "n-pole"; n translates, roughly, to 'scorn' or'curse'.) and saying:

"Here I set up an-pole, and declare thisn against King Erik andQueen Gunnhildr", he turned the horse-head to face the mainland

"I declare thisn at the land-spirits there, and the land itself, sothat all will fare astray, not to hold nor find their places, not untilthey wreak King Erik and Gunnhild from the land." He set up thepole of n in the cliff-face and left it standing; he faced the horse'seyes on the land, and he rist runes upon the pole, and said all theformal words of the curse.[31]

The last encounter between Egil and Gunnhild occurred around 948 in Jorvik. Egil was shipwrecked on a nearbyshore and came before Erik, who sentenced him to death. But Egil composed adrpa called "Hfulausn" in Erik'spraise over a single night.[32] When he recited it in the morning, Erik gave him his freedom and forgave the killing of Rgnvald, against Gunnhild's wishes.[33]

Life after Erik

In Denmark
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Gunnhild learns that Erik is dead.Illustration by Krohg.

After the death of her husband, Gunnhild took refuge with her sons at the courtof Harald Bluetooth at Roskilde.[34] Tradition ascribes to Gunnhild thecommissioning of the skaldic poem Eirksml in honor of her fallen husband.[35]

In Denmark, Gunnhild's son Harald was fostered by the king himself, and herother sons were given properties and titles.[36] As King Harald was involved in a

war against Haakon's Norway, he may have sought to use Gunnhild's sons as hisproxies against the Norwegian king.[37] One of her sons, Gamle, died fightingKing Haakon around 960.[38]

Return to Norway

Gunnhild returned to Norway in triumph when her remaining sons killed KingHaakon at the Battle of Fitjar in 961. Ironically, the battle was a victory forHaakon's forces but his death left a power vacuum which Gunnhild's son Harald,with Danish aid, was able to exploit.[39] With her sons now ensconced as the lords of Norway, Gunnhild was from

this time known askonungamir , or "Mother of Kings."[40]

Battle between Gunnhild's sons and the army of Haakon. Illustration by Krohg.

During the reign of Harald Greyhide, Gunnhild dominated the court;according to Heimskringlashe "mixed herself much in the affairs of the country."[41] Gunnhild's sons killed or deposed many of the jarlsand petty kings that had hitherto ruled the Norwegian provinces,seizing their lands. Famine, possibly caused or exacerbated by thesecampaigns, plagued the reign of Harald.[42]

Among the kings slain (around 963) was Tryggve Olafsson whosewidow Astrid Eriksdotter fled with her son Olaf Tryggvason toSweden and then set out for the eastern Baltic.[43] According to HeimskringlaAstrid's flight and its disastrous consequences were in

response to Gunnhild having sent soldiers to kidnap or kill her infant son.[44]

Gunnhild and her sons. Illustration by Krohg.

Gunnhild was the patron and lover of Hrut Herjolfsson (or HrturHerjlfsson), an Icelandic chieftain who visited Norway during thereign of Gunnhild's son Harald.[45] This dalliance was all the morescandalous given the difference in their ages; the fact that Gunnhildwas a generation older than Hrut was considered noteworthy.[46]

Gunnhild engaged in public displays of affection with Hrut that werenormally reserved for married couples, such as putting her arms around

his neck in an embrace.[47]

Moreover, Gunnhild had Hrut sleep withher alone in "the upper chamber."[48] Laxdaela Saga in particular

describes the extent to which she became enamored of Hrut:

Gunnhild, the Queen, loved him so much that she held there was not his equal within the guard, either intalking or in anything else. Even when men were compared, and noblemen therein were pointed to, allmen easily saw that Gunnhild thought that at the bottom there must be sheer thoughtlessness, or elseenvy, if any man was said to be Hrut's equal.[49]

She helped Hrut take possession of an inheritance by arranging the death of a man named Soti at the hands of herservant, Augmund and her son Gudrod.[50] When Hrut returned home, Gunnhild gave him many presents, but she

cursed Hrut with priapism to ruin his marriage to Unn, daughter of Mord Fiddle; the two ultimately divorced.[51]
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Gunnhild also showed great favor to Olaf the Peacock, Hrut's nephew, who visited the Norwegian court after Hrut'sreturn to Norway. She advised him on the best places and items to trade and even sponsored his trade expeditions.[52]

Haakon Sigurdsson. Illustration by Krohg.

Exile and death

Haakon Sigurdsson, jarl of Hlair, arranged the death of Harald

Greyhide around 971 with the connivance of Harald Bluetooth, whohad invited his foster-son to Denmark to be invested with new Danishfiefs. Civil war broke out between Jarl Haakon and the surviving sonsof Erik and Gunnhild, but Haakon proved victorious and Gunnhild hadto flee Norway once again, with her remaining sons Gudrod andRagnfred.[53] They went to Orkney, again imposing themselves asoverlords over Jarl Thorfinn.[54] However, it appears that Gunnhildwas less interested in ruling the country than in having a place to livequietly, and her sons used the islands as a base for abortive raids onHaakon's interests; the government of Orkney was therefore firmly in

the hands of Thorfinn.[55]

Haraldskr Woman in a glasscovered coffin, Vejle, Denmark

According to the Jomsvikinga Saga, Gunnhild returned to Denmark around 977but was killed at the orders of King Harald by being drowned in a bog. The gripand Theodoricus Monachus's Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensiumcontain versions of this account.[56]
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Gunnhild as an old woman.Illustration by Krohg.

In 1835, the body of a murdered or ritually sacrificed woman, the so-calledHaraldskr Woman, was unearthed in a bog in Jutland. Because of the accountof Gunnhild's murder contained in the Jomsviking Sagaand other sources, thebody was mistakenly identified as that of Gunnhild. Based upon the belief of herroyal personage, King Frederick VI of Denmark commanded an elaborate

sarcophagus be carved to hold her body. This royal treatment of HaraldskrWomans remains explains the excellent state of conservation of the corpse;conversely, Tollund Man, a later discovery, was not properly conserved and mostof the body has been lost, leaving only the head as original material in hisdisplay. Later radiocarbon dating demonstrated that the Harakdskr Woman wasnot Gunnhild, but rather a woman who lived in the 6th century BCE.[57]

Reputation for Sorcery in the SagasGunnhild is often connected with sorcery, as seen throughout the Icelandic sagas. This magical ability may berecognized in part due to Gunnhild's affiliation with the Finns, having supposedly lived in a hut with two Finnishwizards in Finnmark and learned magic from them, according to Snorri in Heimskringla. Also as seen inHeimskringla, Eirk first made the acquaintance of Gunnhild when he was younger and off on a raid in northernNorway. His men had stumbled upon the Finns' hut where she was staying, and described her as "a woman sobeautiful that they had never seen the like of her."[58] As stated in Heimskringla, Gunnhild convinced them to hidein the Finns' hut, and then spread the contents of a linen sack both inside and outside of the hut. It is thought that thisaction was an indication of magic, which upon the Finns' return, caused them to fall asleep without being easily

awoken. Gunnhild completed her magic by covering their heads with seal skins, and then directing Eirk's men to killthem, after which they returned to Eirk. Gunnhild's Finnish sojourn is described by historian Marlene Ciklamini as a"fable" designed to set the stage for placing the blame for Eirik's misrule on his wife.[59]

Other sources acting as examples of Gunnhild's sorcery include the story of King Hkon's death in Snorri'sHeimskringla, as well as instances concerning Egil in Egil's Saga,and suspicion surrounding the death of HalfdanHaraldsson . Heimskringla describes Hkon's ascent to the Norwegian throne after hearing of the cruelties caused byEirk's rule. Hkon found great support among the Norwegian people, and therefore forced Eirk and Gunnhild toflee to England. Naturally many battles for the throne ensued, which ultimately led to Gunnhild getting blamed forHkon's death, when an arrow flew towards him in battle piercing into the muscle of his upper arm. According toHeimskringla, it is stated that "through the sorcery of Gunnhildr a kitchen boy wheeled round, crying: 'Make roomfor the king's slayer!' and let fly the arrow into the group coming toward him and wounding the king."[60] MarleneCiklamini reasons that the unusualness of the mortal wound directs the origin to possible sorcery involved,presumably by Gunnhild.[61]

The character of Egil in Egil's Saga is also cursed by being on Gunnhild's bad side after his many transgressionstowards the Norwegian court. First attracting her attention and dislike at a feast when he became overly drunk andfoolishly killed one of her supporters and after which escaped, Gunnhild placed a curse on Egil, "from ever findingpeace in Iceland until she had seen him."[62] This curse of Gunnhild's is presumably the cause for Egil's later desireto travel to England, which was where Gunnhild and Eirk were at the time after being exiled. Egil ended uprequesting to receive forgiveness from Eirk and Gunnhild, and was allowed a single night to compose a tributary

poem to Eirk, or else face death. Gunnhild's second moment of sorcery in the saga appears later that night, whenEgil was apparently distracted from his writing by a bird twittering at the window. This bird is reputed to beGunnhild, who had shape-shifted into that form, as seen by Egil's companion Arinbjorn, who had "sat down near the
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attic window where the bird had been sitting, and saw a shape-shifter in the form of a bird leaving the other side of the house."[63]

Legacy and ReputationCarolyne Larrington takes an interesting look into the comparative amount of power Gunnhild held, as well as her

overall role as queen within the Norwegian court. Queenship as a concept emerged relatively late in Norway, and asLarrington points out, the most powerful women in Norwegian history were usually king's mothers rather than kings'wives. Gunnhild acts as one of the most important partial exceptions to this rule, as she was influential during bothEirk's and her sons' rules. Gunnhild became increasingly politically active in her own right after her husband, Eirk,died in battle, after which she later returned to Norway where she put her sons in power, and her son Harald on thethrone. Gunnhild also arranged her daughter's marriage to the strategically important Earl of Orkney, displaying herawareness for political advantage. Gunnhild remained resilient to maintain power for the rest of her life, acting asQueen Regent to her son Harald, and continuing to be a major deciding factor and source for political advice.[64]

Appearances in literatureGunnhild was a villain in Robert Leighton's 1934 novelOlaf the Glorious,[65] a fictionalized biography of Olaf Tryggvason. She is the central character of the novel Mother of Kingsby Poul Anderson,[66] (which makes her agranddaughter of Ragnvald Eysteinsson, accepts the version of her living with the Finnish warlocks and emphasizesher being a witch) and also appears in Cecelia Holland'sThe Soul Thief .[67] In The Demon of Scattery[68] by PoulAnderson and Mildred Downey Broxon, the main characters, the Viking Halldor and the Irish ex-nun Brigit, becomeGunnhild's paternal grandparents.

Notes[1] Or, alternatively,Gunnhild zurardttir .

[2] E.g.,Downham 112-120; Jones 121 24; Bradbury 38; Orfield 129; Ashley 444; Alen 88; Driscoll 88, note 15.[3] Jones 121 24.[5][5] For example, Bradbury 38; Orfield 129; Ashley 444; Alen 88; Driscoll 88, note 15.[6] Jones 94 95. The purported descent of Gorm from King Ragnar through his son Sigurd Snake-eye comes from,inter alia, Ragnarssona ttr

3 4; but many modern scholars regard the tales of Ragnar and his family as confused and unreliable. See, for example, Jones 204 211;Forte 69.

[7] Jones 121 22.[8] For example, Harald Fairhair's Saga 34. The grip af Nregskonungasgumcalls her father Ozurr lafskegg [dangling beard], thus also

Fagrskinna; Driscoll 5 & p. 88, note 15.[9] Egil's Saga 37.[10] Theodoricus, 6 & p. 64, note 54; Driscoll, 11 & p. 91, note 39.[11] Harald Fairhair's Saga 34.

[12] Fagrskinna 8.[13][13] Ciklamini 210-211.[14] Harald Fairhair's Saga 46.[15] E.g., Harald Fairhair's Saga 34; Njal's Saga 5 8; Fox 289 310.[16][16] "Harald Fairhair's Saga" 44.[17] Harald Fairhair's Saga 45 46.[18] Jones 94 95.[19] E.g., Ashley 443 44.[20] According to the "Saga of Haakon the Good", it was King Athelstan of England who appointed Erik as ruler of Jorvik, but this is

chronologically problematic; Athelstan died in 939. Ashley, among others, proposes that Erik received his commission from Athelstan but didnot take it up until later. Ashley 443 44.

[21][21] Saussaye 183.[22] Haakon the Good's Saga 4 5.[23] Haakon the Good's Saga 5.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Athelstan_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scholarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ragnarssona_%C3%BE%C3%A1ttrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sigurd_Snake-eyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mildred_Downey_Broxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Soul_Thiefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecelia_Hollandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ragnvald_Eysteinssonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poul_Andersonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mother_of_Kingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olaf_Tryggvasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olaf_Tryggvasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olaf_the_Glorious_%28book%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Leighton_%28author%29


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[24] Ashley 443; see also Haakon the Good's Saga 5; Fagrskinna 8 9. Ragnhild would later, according to theOrkneyinga Saga, murderArnfinn, marry his brother Havard, murder him in turn, and then marry their brother Ljot. Ashley 443 44.

[25][25] Downham 116.[26][26] Downham 118.[27] Egil's Saga 36.[28] Egil's Saga 56 58.[29] Egil's Saga 59 60.

[30] Egil's Saga 60.[31] Egil's Saga 60. the Icelandic source is, essentially, giving Egil credit for the ouster of Gunnhild and Erik from Norway.[32] He did so despite being pestered by the noise of a bird, which he believed was Gunnhild disguised with magic. Egil's Saga 62[33] Egil's Saga 64.[34] Haakon the Good's Saga 10. As noted above, Harald may have been Gunnhild's brother or half-brother.[35] Jones 123; Fagrskinna 8; Haakon the Good's Saga 10.[36] Fagrskinna 9; Haakon the Good's Saga 10.[37] Haakon the Good's Saga 10.[38] Haakon the Good's Saga 26.[39] Jones 122. A story recorded in theSaga of Haakon the Good , regarded by Ciklamini as a fable, relates that Gunnhild brought about King

Haakon's death through the use of a magic arrow shot by one of her servants. Ciklamini 211.[40] Jones 123 24.

[41] Jones 123

25; Harald Grafeld's Saga 1.[42] Jones 123 25; Harald Grafeld's Saga 2 17.[43] Jones 124 25; Olaf Tryggvason's Saga 2 3.[44] Jones 131 32; Olaf Tryggvason's Saga 3.[45] Ordower 41 61; Njal's Saga 3.[46][46] Jochens 204 at n. 56.[47][47] Jochens 71.[48][48] Jochens 73.[49] Laxdaela Saga 19.[50] Njal's Saga 5.[51] Njal's Saga 5 8; Fox 289 310. In describing the problem to her father, Unn says "when he comes to me his penis is so large that he can't

have any satisfaction from me, and we've both tried every possible way to enjoy each other, but nothing works." Njal's Saga 7. Earlier, moreprudish translations such as Sir George W. DaSent's 1861 edition merely reported cryptically that Hrut and Unn "did not pull together well asman and wife" and that Hrut "was not master of himself."

[52] Laxdaela Saga 21.[53] Olaf Tryggvason's Saga 16 18.[54] Ashley 443;Olaf Tryggvason's Saga 16 18.[55][55] Ashley 443.[56] See, generally, Ashley 443; Jomsvikinga Saga 4 8.[57] " Haraldskaer Woman: Bodies of the Bogs (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ online/ features/ bog/ gunhild. html)", Archaeology,

Archaeological Institute of America, 10 December 1997. Radiochemical dating methods were not available until well into the twentiethcentury.

[65][65] Macmillan, 1929.[66] Tor Books, 2003[67][67] Forge Books, 2002.

[68][68] Ace Books, 1979.

References Alen, Rupert; Dahlquist, Anna Marie (1997). Royal Families of Medieval Scandinavia, Flanders, and Kiev.

Kingsburg: Kings River Publications. ISBN 0-9641261-2-5. Ashley, Michael (1998).The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers.

ISBN 0-7867-0692-9. Bradbury, Jim (2007).The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare. New York: Routledge.

ISBN 978-0-415-41395-4. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Pierre Danil (1902).The Religion of the Teutons(http:/ / www. archive.org/ details/

religionofteuton00chan). Handbooks on the History of Religions. Translated by Bert John Vos. Boston andLondon: Ginn & Co. OCLC 895336 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 895336).
http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/895336http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OCLChttp://www.archive.org/details/religionofteuton00chanhttp://www.archive.org/details/religionofteuton00chanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-415-41395-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-7867-0692-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-9641261-2-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tor_Bookshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archaeological_Institute_of_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archaeology_%28magazine%29http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/bog/gunhild.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Penishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orkneyinga_Saga


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Ciklamini, Marlene. "The Folktale in Heimskringla (Hlfdanar saga svarta Hkonar saga ga)". Folklore,Vol. 90, No. 2 (1979), pp. 204 216.

Driscoll, Matthew J. (1995). grip af Nregskonungasgum a Twelfth-Century Synoptic History of the Kings of Norway. London: Viking Society for Northern Research. ISBN 0-903521-27-X.

Finlay, Alison (2003). Fargrskinna, a Catalogue of the Kings of Norway: a Translation with Introduction and Notes. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-13172-8.

Forte, Angelo; Oram, Richard; Pedersen, Frederik (2005).Viking Empires(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=_vEd859jvk0C& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage& q=& f=false).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82992-2.

Downham, Clare .Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland . Dunedin, 2007. Fox, Denton. "Njals Saga and the Western Literary Tradition."Comparative Literature, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Autumn,

1963), p. 289 310. Jochens, Jenny.Women in Old Norse Society(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3h-lkgBWercC&

printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Cornell Univ. Press, 1995. Jones, Gwyn (1984). A History of the Vikings. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285139-X.

Magnusson, Magnus; Hermann Plsson (1960). Njal's Saga. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044103-4. Ordower, Henry. "Exploring the Literary Function of Law and Litigation in 'Njal's Saga.'"Cardozo Studies in Law and Literature, Vol. 3, No. 1 (Spring Summer 1991), pp. 41 61.

Orfield, Lester B. (2002).The Growth of Scandinavian Law. Union: Lawbook Exchange Ltd.ISBN 978-1-58477-180-7.

Kellogg, Robert; Smiley, Jane (2001). "Laxdaela Saga".The Sagas of Icelanders. New York: Penguin Books.ISBN 0-14-100003-1.

Sturluson, Snorri; Lee M. Hollander (tr.) (1964). Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway(http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=qHpwje7-wNkC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Heimskringla:+ History+ of+ the+ Kings+of+ Norway& lr=#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Austin: Published for the American-Scandinavian Foundation by

the University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-73061-6. Theodoricus monachus; Foote, Peter (1998). Historia De Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensuim. London: VikingSociety for Northern Research, University College London. ISBN 0-903521-40-7.

Thorsson, rnlfur (2000). "Egil's Saga".The Sagas of Icelanders: a Selection. New York: Viking PenguinClassics. ISBN 978-0-9654777-0-3.

Tunstall, Peter, trans. (2004). "The Tale of Ragnar's Sons (Translation)" (http:/ / www. northvegr. org/ lore/ oldheathen/ 056. php). Northvegr. Retrieved 2008-12-30. Wikipedia:Link rot

Jochens, Jenny (1928).Old Norse Images of Women. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. Larrington, Carolyne (2009).Queens and Bodies: The Norwegian Translated lais and Hkon IV's Kinswomen,

The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Vol. 108, No. 4, pp. 506-527 . Champaign, IL: University of

Illinois Press.

External links Bodies of the Bogs: Haraldskaer Woman(http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ online/ features/ bog/ gunhild. html),

Archaeology, Archaeological Institute of America, 10 December 1997. Caveats on Gunnhild's parentage (http:/ / archiver. rootsweb.com/ th/ read/ GEN-MEDIEVAL/ 2000-02/

0951627062) Egil's Saga online (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ neu/ egil/ index. htm) Genealogy of Gunnhild (http:/ / homepages. rootsweb.com/ ~cousin/ html/ p283. htm#i17111) Heimskringla online (http:/ / omacl. org/ Heimskringla/ ) Leighton'sOlaf the Gloriouson Project Gutenberg. (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ etext05/ olafg10h. htm)
http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/olafg10h.htmhttp://omacl.org/Heimskringla/http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~cousin/html/p283.htm#i17111http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/egil/index.htmhttp://archiver.rootsweb.com/th/read/GEN-MEDIEVAL/2000-02/0951627062http://archiver.rootsweb.com/th/read/GEN-MEDIEVAL/2000-02/0951627062http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archaeological_Institute_of_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archaeology_%28magazine%29http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/bog/gunhild.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_rothttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northvegrhttp://www.northvegr.org/lore/oldheathen/056.phphttp://www.northvegr.org/lore/oldheathen/056.phphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-9654777-0-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-903521-40-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Footehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodoric_the_Monkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-292-73061-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Texas_Presshttp://books.google.com/books?id=qHpwje7-wNkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Heimskringla:+History+of+the+Kings+of+Norway&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/books?id=qHpwje7-wNkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Heimskringla:+History+of+the+Kings+of+Norway&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/books?id=qHpwje7-wNkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Heimskringla:+History+of+the+Kings+of+Norway&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lee_M._Hollanderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snorri_Sturlusonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-14-100003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-1-58477-180-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-14-044103-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-19-285139-Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=3h-lkgBWercC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/books?id=3h-lkgBWercC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82992-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=_vEd859jvk0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/books?id=_vEd859jvk0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/90-04-13172-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-903521-27-Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Number


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Gunnhild, Mother of Kings

Preceded byGyda Eiriksdottir

Queen Consort of Norway931 934

Succeeded byTyri of Denmark
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tyri_of_Denmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Norwegian_consortshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Norwegian_consortshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gyda_Eiriksdottir


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Article Sources and ContributorsGunnhild, Mother of Kings Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=551669843Contributors: Aciram, Acroterion, Afernand74, Againme, Alex43223, Andreas Kaganov,Angusmclellan, AnonMoos, BD2412, Barend, Belinda-Rikku, Ben MacDui, Berig, Blanchardb, Bob Burkhardt, Bongwarrior, Briangotts, Colonies Chris, DAFMM, Danny, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Deanlaw, Delirium, DrKiernan, Dsp13, Dufey, EchetusXe, FeanorStar7, Finnrind, Fishal, Galoubet, Gary King, GoingBatty, GuillaumeTell, Haukurth, Inge, JHunterJ, Jayjg,Jennavecia, Katalaveno, Kmorozov, Lacrimosus, Larrykoen, Leandrod, Lightmouse, LonelyMarble, Mintrick, Mouchoir le Souris, Nedrutland, Parkwells, Pieter Kuiper, Qsxxsq2, Raul654,Raven4x4x, RekishiEJ, Remmus4, Revolving Bugbear, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rrohdin, SandyGeorgia, SarahStierch, Semperf, Shanes, Sideways713, Srnec, Surtsicna, THEN WHO WASPHONE?, The Emperor's New Spy, Tpbradbury, Violetriga, Wafulz, Woohookitty, Yamara, 55 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Harald Haarfagres saga - Gunnhild lar finnene drepe - C. Krohg.jpg Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harald_Haarfagres_saga_-_Gunnhild_lar_finnene_drepe_-_C._Krohg.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jorunn, Nishkid64, Rootology,Solbris, Zoram.hakaan, 2 anonymous editsFile:Shaman.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shaman.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: O. H. von LodeFile:Norwegian petty kingdoms ca. 930.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Norwegian_petty_kingdoms_ca._930.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Fingalo,Mahahahaneapneap, Mahlum, TokleFile:Haakon den godes saga - Gunnhild dpes - C. Krohg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Haakon_den_godes_saga_-_Gunnhild_dpes_-_C._Krohg.jpg License:Public Domain Contributors: Jorunn, SolbrisFile:Egil Skallagrimsson 17c manuscript.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Egil_Skallagrimsson_17c_manuscript.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:Tiina357, , 1 anonymous editsFile:Haakon den godes saga - Gunnhild faar bud om Eiriks doed- C. Krohg.jpg Source:

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