halliday paper
TRANSCRIPT
Burani
Mariela Burani
Tutor Rivero
Linguistics II
23 November 2009
The Construction of Humour in "On Love” by Woody Allen
1. Introduction
The present paper aims at showing how humour, as a rhetorical device, is achieved in
the short essay "On Love" by Woody Allen (See Appendix A). For this purpose, the
notion of Functions of Language together with the Features of the Context of Situation
will be used in order to analyse the chosen text.
2. Theoretical framework
As the theoretical framework used in this paper is based on the assumption that
the way into understanding language lies in the study of texts, we will start by defining
what we mean by ‘text’, together with the notion of ‘context of situation.’ Then, we will
establish a simple conceptual framework of three headings: Field, Tenor and Mode, that
will help establish the social context in which the meanings of the text are being
exchanged (Halliday & Hassan, 1991.) Finally, we will delineate the notion of
‘function’ and the ‘functions of language’ as proposed by Halliday (Halliday, 1994.)
A text is any stretch of language that is fulfilling some part in a context of
situation. The text is the place where language and its functions interact with the context
of situation. Moreover, the text has marks that signal this interaction, this
interrelationship between language and context.
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The notion of context of situation used in the functional approach, derives from
the one delineated by the anthropologist Malinowski. The context of situation is the
environment of the text: not only the immediate information where the linguistic
interaction is taken place, but also the culture where the text emerges (context of
culture.)
For a textual analysis, it is necessary to distinguish the three features that will
help to characterize a text in its relation to the context of situation.
The Field of Discourse refers to what is happening; the nature of the social
action taking place and what is that the participants are doing.
The Tenor of Discourse refers to who is taking part and what are the roles the
participants are fulfilling.
The Mode of Discourse refers to what part the language is playing; the symbolic
organisation of the text and the function the text has in its context. This includes the
channel and the rhetorical mode.
Halliday’s perspective to language, places the notion of function as a
fundamental principle. Function is a property of language itself, which can also explain
the organisation of every natural language.
Language derives its meaning from the social and personal demands that is
required to fulfill. In order to do this, we choose from the options available by the
system. This system is the ‘grammar’ of the language, its ‘meaning potential.’
In order to create meaning, language operates through the linguistic networks of
systems. Halliday distinguishes three main language functions.
The ideational function expresses cognitive meaning or propositional content;
this function draws on the systems and networks of Transitivity to create propositions
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that convey the user’s experience of the real or external world of the senses and the
inner world of the mind.
The interpersonal function expresses speech functional meaning; this function
draws on the systems and networks of Mood and Modality to create sentences that carry
the cognitive and logical content of propositions and display the speaker’s relations with
others. It is used for the expression of social roles and social relations.
The four primary speech functions (offer, command statement and questions) are
expressed grammatically by the system of mood. The principle options are declarative,
interrogative and imperative. According to the kind of utterance chosen by the speaker,
a difference in the communication role adopted by the speaker/writer will be conveyed.
Modality is expressed in the intermediate degrees we can find between the
polarity choice (yes-no). These degrees are manifested through modal verbs, but also
through other items which are closely related to the clause such as mood adjuncts and
comment adjuncts.
By resorting to these systems, the social roles are expressed in the text together
with the attitude of the writer towards both, his interlocutor and the text. By analyzing
this function we can also infer how subjectivity is expressed.
The textual function expresses discoursal meaning; it draws from the systems
and networks of Theme to create and realize utterances (or texts) in actual
communicative events and to order content cohesively. The textual meaning is what
makes it into a text, as distinct from a string of sentences.
According to Hasan, ‘texture’ is an important source for textual unity as it is a
matter of meaning relations which constitute it. She claims that ‘the texture of a text is
manifested by certain kinds of semantic relations between its individual messages.’ The
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property of texture is related to the listener’s (or reader’s) perception of coherence.
(Halliday and Hasan 70)
3. Functional Analysis applied to “On Love”
3.1. The Functions of Language analysed in “On Love”
3.1.1. The Ideational Function
We shall consider each of the functions in turn as they are reflected in our text.
As stated in the theoretical background, the ideational function draws its
meaning from the system of Transitivity. The three main types of transitivity role are:
process, participant and circumstance. Broadly speaking, they correspond to the three
major word (or word group) classes found in most languages: verb, noun, and adverb.
Typically, in English, processes are usually represented by verbal groups, participants
by nominal groups and circumstances by adverbial groups.
After conducting a data analysis of the types of processes present in the text it
was found that, out of forty-three: twenty are relational processes; ten are mental
processes; five are material processes; three are verbal processes; three are behavioural
processes; and only two are existential processes. (See Appendix B)
Following these findings, the participants mostly associated with the processes
roles are: in the first place, attributer and identifier; then senser, actor, sayer, behavier
and finally, existent.
3.1.2. The Interpersonal Function
Let us examine how the interpersonal meaning is built up in “On Love.”
As it was said before, the interpersonal function draws upon the system of mood
and modality to encode meaning.
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In terms of mood, the presence of Subject plus Finite, realizes the feature
'indicative.' In the text the majority of the clauses are expressed as declarative. Only two
clauses are expressed through interrogatives. Most of the finite verbs are expressed in
the present tense. (See Appendix C)
The only instance of ‘imperative’ is the clause “Bear in mind (…)” (l.10) in
which the absence of Mood element realizes this feature.
The modal verbs in the text express mainly obligation and possibility.
As regards modality there is a high frequency of Mood adjuncts. They express
the meanings of probability, usuality, obligation, obviousness, intensity and degree.
There is only one Comment adjunct. (See Appendix D)
When considering the text as a piece of interaction between locutor and
interlocutor, we note that the speaker is represented by the "I" who identifies
him/herself immediately when the opening question is uttered, and then in the
expression 'I refer to romantic love ...' (l.2). Further in the text the locutor is also
identified in the clause ‘I suppose… '(l. 10.) This locutor establishes a relationship with
his/her interlocutor by the use of the general pronoun ‘one.’ This formal use instead of
‘you’ also includes the locator himself/herself.
In the following instances we can trace how the locutor involves his/her
interlocutor: ‘(…) when one is in love (… )’ (l.4); ‘(…) as one can be admired (…)’
(l.6-8); 'To be a really good lover, then, one must be (…)’ (l.9)
We can also trace how the locutor establishes the person polarity towards the
“he” and “she” references identified in the text. "He" is identified in: "the ardent male"
(l. 5); and in "the beholder" (l. 13). The reference given to "she" can be identified as
"the loved one” (l. 11).
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3.1.3. The Textual Function
After analysing the text in terms of its 'texture', we were able to identify the
grammatical and lexical cohesive devices used which give this piece of discourse unity
and continuity. These lexico-grammatical patterns, make the text coherent and cohesive.
(See Appendix E)
As regards grammatical cohesion, we could find instances of pronominal and
demonstratives references as well as nominal, verbal and clausal substitution and
ellipsis.
Lexical cohesion, is achieved by the use of repetition .But it can also be noticed
two antithetical semantic fields to characterize “love”. The antithesis is usually achieved
by the clash of different types of associations. These can be play on words (literal vs.
metaphoric meaning), cultural contradictions, etc.
Love is ... (clichés) Love … (in this text) romantic love (between man and women)
not between two headwaiters
singing must be avoided at all costs admiration: from afar (courtly love)
be in the same room with the person; crouching behind the drapes (=having sex)
strength (acceptance; patience) and tenderness
strength: being able to lift 50 pounds
beauty is in the eye of the beholder. (proverb; metaphorical use)
if the beholder has poor eyesight (literal meaning)
the prettiest girls the most boring troubadour song (courtly love) I’m a Yankee doodle dandy (military
song; not romantic)
As regards the thematic organization of the clauses, we could see that the
Theme-Rheme pattern is followed throughout the whole text.
The majority of the clauses have as their Themes, the point of departure of their
message, the topic of the essay, i.e., love or some lexical item associated with it:
To be the lover or the loved one (l.1); Neither (ellipsis: the lover or the loved one) (l.2);
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By love (l.2); the love between (l.2) is echoed through ellipsis between following
clauses: between mother and child, or a boy and his dog, or two headwaiters. (l.3)
“The marvelous thing” (l. 4); "This” (the impulse to sing) (l.4) “To be loved” (l.6) "to
really love someone" (l.7); "to be a really good lover" (l.9) "Beauty" (12).
As regards to the Information structure, the findings were very interesting.
According to Halliday, an information unit does not correspond exactly to any unit in
the clause grammar: ‘information (...) is the tension between what is already known or
predictable and what is new or unpredictable.’ Although, ideally, each information unit
comprises a Given element accompanied by a New element, there may be deviations to
this principle. For instance, when discourse starts, we can have discourse-initiating units
consisting of a New element only. Moreover, there may be information that the speaker
wants to present as Given for rhetorical purposes and not because it has been already
presented. This information will be treated as recoverable by the situation, probably
based on the assumption that the participants in the interaction share common ground
knowledge.
In order to see how Given–New information was distributed in our text, we
divided it into different units and labeled them. The analysis showed that Given
information usually coincided with the topic of the essay, or with general assumptions
towards the topic. Surprisingly, New information, presented statements which
constituted unexpected associations to the topic. (See Appendix F.)
3.2. Analysis of the Features of the Context of Situation in “On Love”
3.2.1. The Field of Discourse
As far as the field of discourse is concerned, we can say that the text is about
peculiar characteristics of love. As the title of the essay refers, the writer gives us
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insights, about love. He uses many clichés, but when he makes his own observations
they all have a twist which proves to be very humorous.
The concept of love and its characteristics is first reflected in the vocabulary, but
it is also embodied in the transitivity structures in the grammar. The high frequency of
relational processes and its participants accounts for the need to identify or attribute
characteristics to love, the lover or the loved one. In addition, the presence of mental
processes reflect the thoughts of the writer. Finally, we can observe that whenever
material processes are used, they are mainly found when a humorous effect is desired.
(eg.: crouching behind the drapes (l.8); being able to lift fifty pounds (l.10)
3.2.2. The Tenor of Discourse
The participants within this text are the locutor (“I”) and his/her audience. This
“I” is extended itself to the "you" by means of the use of the generic pronoun "one".
Through this choice of pronoun, the locutor involves the interlocutor in the observations
in the essay.
The “I” in the text, is perceived as a source of authority and a specialist on the
topic. This is consistent with the generic framework of the text, namely that of an essay.
An essay is usually a piece of discourse that reflects the thoughts and opinions of the
writer over a particular topic. It is worth adding that in the introduction to “The Early
Essays”, the author says that the essays are modeled on Bacon’s style.
The role of the locutor as a source of wisdom on the matter is perceived in the
assertive tone used in the statements. Most of these statements are encoded in
declarative clauses. Assertiveness is also achieved through the system of Modality. The
use of the present tense also accounts for the characterization of "love” as a universal
truth.
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Another interesting feature worth noticing is how the locutor characterizes
traditional gender roles through the use of the pronouns “he” and “she”. The references
to “He” are: “the lover”, “the ardent male” and “the beholder”, all of these references, in
gender terms, are perceived as active roles. On the contrary, the reference to "she" as
"the loved one", is perceives as a clear passive role.
3.2.3. The Mode of Discourse
The mode of discourse is a written essay. The essay is a genre associated with a
composition which discusses a topic, and which is didactically in tone.
In this particular text, we have a series or rational arguments about the topic
followed by unexpected associations to the topic. These can be seen in the two semantic
fields which are antithetical in themselves. The antithesis adds to the humorous effect
intended.
The distribution of information is also another feature which makes the text a
highly successful example of humour. New information, located somewhere in the
Rheme, constitutes not only the climaxes in the text, but it also builts up for the overall
humorous effects of the essay.
4. Conclusion
This paper has examined how humour as a rhetorical effect is achieved through
the choices available in the different systems of language in order to create meaning. It
has also explored how the functions of language are projected onto the features of the
context of situation in order to realise their semantic systems.
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APPENDIX A
On Love
Is it better to be the lover or the loved one? Neither, if your cholesterol is over
six hundred. By love, of course, I refer to romantic love—the love between man and
woman, rather than between mother and child, or a boy and his dog, or two headwaiters.
The marvelous thing is that when one is in love there is an impulse to sing. This
must be resisted at all costs, and care must also be taken to see that the ardent male
doesn’t “talk” the lyrics of songs. To be loved, certainly, is different from being
admired, as one can be admired from afar but to really love someone it is essential to be
in the same room with the person, crouching behind the drapes.
To be a really good lover, then, one must be strong and yet tender. How strong?
I suppose being able to lift fifty pounds should do it. Bear in mind also that to the lover
the loved one is always the most beautiful thing imaginable, even though to a stranger
she may be indistinguishable from an order of smelts. Beauty is in the eye of the
beholder. Should the beholder have poor eyesight, he can ask the nearest person which
girls look good. (Actually, the prettiest ones are almost always the most boring, and that
is why some people feel there is no God.)
“The joys of love are but a moment long,” sang the troubadour, “but the pain of
love endures forever.” This was almost a hit song, but the melody was too close to “I’m
a Yankee Doodle Dandy.”
(From “The Early Essays.” Complete Prose, Woody Allen. London: Picador, 1997.p.63)
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APPENDIX B
Types of Processes in “On Love”
Material Behavioral Mental Verbal Relational Existential
must be
resisted (l.5)
to sing (l.4) is in love (l.4) refer (l.2) is (l.1) is (l.4)
be taken (l.5) to see (l.11) to be loved
(l.6)
(not) talk (l.6) to be (l.1) is (l.15)
crouching (l.8) sang (l.16) being admired
(ll.6-7)
can ask (l.13) is (l.1)
being able
(l.10)
can be admired
(l.7)
is (l.4)
to lift (l.10) love (l.7) is (l.6)
suppose (l.10) is (l.7)
bear (l.10) to be (l.7)
look (l.14) to be (l.9)
feel (l.14) must be (l.9)
endure (l.17) do (l.10)
is (l.11)
may be (l.12)
is (l.12)
have (l-13)
are (l.14)
is (l.15)
are (l.16)
was (l.17)
was (l.17)
'm (l.17)
Total: 5 Total: 3 Total: 10 Total: 3 Total: 20 Total: 2
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APPENDIX C
Analysis of selected clauses from the text in terms of mood
Is it better to be the lover or the loved oneFinite (present) Sub-
Res.ject
Mood
Neither, if your cholesterol is over six hundred.
ResidueSubject Finite
ResidueMood
The marvelous thing is that when one is in love there is an impulse to sing.
Subject Finite (present)ResidueMood
one is in love there is an impulse to sing. Subject Finite (present)
ResidueMood
there is an impulse to sing. Subject Finite (present)
ResidueMood
This must be resisted at all costs.Subject Finite
ResidueMood
care must also be taken that the ardent male doesn’t “talk” the lyrics of the song.
Subject Finite ResidueMood
the ardent male doesn’t talk the lyrics of the song.Subject Finite (present)
Residue
one can be admired from afarSubject Finite
ResidueMood
I suppose being able to lift fifty pounds should do it.Subject Finite (present)
ResidueMood
the loved one is always the most beautiful thing imaginableSubject Finite (present)
ResidueMood
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APPENDIX D
Mood Adjuncts
Polarity & Modality Temporality Mood
polarity not (l. 6) time obviousness of course (l.2)
probability certainly (l.6) typicality intensity really (l.7)
really (l.9)
usuality always (l.11)
always (l.14)
degree almost (l.14)
almost (l.17)
readiness
obligation at all costs
(l.5)
Comment Adjuncts
actually (l. 14)
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APPENDIX E
Summary of cohesive devices in “On Love”
Non- Structural CohesionComponential RelationsGrammatical Cohesive DevicesRealisations in the textReferencePronominal: she the loved one (l. 12)Pronominal: he the beholder (l. 13)Pronominal: one girls (l.14)Demonstratives: this an impulse to sing (l.4)Demonstratives: that the prettiest ones are almost the most boring
(l.14)Demonstratives: this “The joys of love are but a moment long, (...)
but the pain of love endures forever.” (ll. 16-17)
Substitution & EllipsisNominal: rather than ,… or, … , or …(l.3) the loveVerbal: yet tender (l. 9) must beClausal: Neither (l. 1) to be the lover or the loved one
Lexical Cohesive DevicesGeneralRepetition: lover (l.1; 9, 10) loved one (l.1; 11) love (l.2;
2; 2;4; 16; 17) Instantial equivalence man /woman (ll.2-3) mother/child(l.3) (boy
/dog (l.3)the most beautiful thing imaginable – an order of smelts (ll.11-12) the prettiest ones – the most boring (l.14)
Organic RelationsConjunctives: Adjacency pairs: Question-–Answer (Rhetorical Question)
Is it better to be (…) (l.1) Neither, if your cholesterol (…) (ll. 1-2)How strong? I suppose… (l. 9-10)
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APPENDIX F
Is it better to be the lover or the loved one? Neither, if your cholesterol is over six New Given Newhundred.
By love, of course, I refer to romantic love—the love between man and woman, rather Given New Given than between mother and child, or a boy and his dog, or two headwaiters. New
The marvelous thing is that when one is in love there is an impulse to sing. This Given New Givenmust be resisted at all costs, and care must also be taken to see that the ardent male New New doesn’t “talk” the lyrics of songs. New
To be loved, certainly, is different from being admired, as one can be admired from afar Given New Given but to really love someone it is essential to be in the same room with the person, Given Newcrouching behind the drapes. New
To be a really good lover, then, one must be strong and yet tender. How strong? Given New GivenI suppose being able to lift fifty pounds should do it. NewBear in mind also that to the lover the loved one is always the most beautiful thing Givenimaginable, even though to a stranger she may be indistinguishable from an order of Newsmelts.
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Should the beholder have poor eyesight, he can ask Given Newthe nearest person which girls look good. (Actually, the prettiest ones are almost always Given Newthe most boring, and that is why some people feel there is no God.) New
“The joys of love are but a moment long,” sang the troubadour, “but the pain of New love endures forever.” This was almost a hit song, but the melody was too close to “I’m Given Newa Yankee Doodle Dandy.” New
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Bibliography
Allen, Woody. Complete Prose. London: Picador. 1997
Cook, Guy. Discourse. London: OUP.1998
Halliday, M.A.K and Hasan, R. Language, context, and text: aspects of language in a
social-semiotic perspective. Hong Kong: OUP. 1991
Halliday, M.A.K. Functional Grammar. New York: Arnold. 1994.
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