hallmark event

8/13/2019 Hallmark Event

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eoJournal 1 9 .3 2 6 3 2 6 8 1989 by Kluwer Academic Publishers

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T h e D e f i n i t i o n a n d n a l y s iso f H a l l m a r k T o u r i s t E v e n t sHall Colin Michael Dr. University of New EnglandDepartment of Geography and Planning Armidale NSW 2351 AustraliaABSTRACT: Ha l lmark tour i s t even ts a re major f a i r s , expos i t ions , cu l tu ra l and spor t ingevents o f internat ional s tatus which are held on e i ther a regular or a one-off basis. A prim aryfunc t ion o f the ha l lmark even t i s to p rov ide the hos t communi ty wi th an oppor tun i ty tosecure h igh p rominence in the tour i sm marke t p lace . However , in te rna t iona l o r r eg iona lprominence may be gained with signif icant social and environmental costs .Severa l impor tan t f ea tu res emerge f rom an examina t ion o f the resea rch on ha l lmarkeven ts . F i r s t , the re i s no agreed upon de f in i tion o f even ts . Second , ma jo r methodo log ica lweaknesses emerge in the study of hal lmark events . Third, the majori ty of research is eco-nomic in o r ien ta t ion wi th re la t ive ly li t t le a t t en t ion be ing pa id to the impor tan t soc ial andphysical impacts o f such events .The paper concludes by no t ing the genera l neg lec t o f ha l lmark tour i sm even ts by rese -archers and the urgent need for further theoret ical and empirical s tudies.

I n t r o d u c t i o nF e w a r e a s o f i n t e r n a t io n a l t o u r i s m r e s e a r c h h a v e

r e c e i v e d a s m u c h a t t e n t i o n i n r e c e n t y e a r s a s t h a t b e i n gg i v e n t o t h e i m p a c t s o f s h o r t - t e r m s t a g e d a t t r a c t i o n s o rh a l l m a r k e v e n t s . H a l l m a r k t o u r i s t e v e n t s , o t h e r w i s e r e -f e r r e d t o a s m e g a ( R i t c h i e a n d Y a n g z h o u 1 9 87 ) o r s p e -c i a l e v e n t s ( B u r n s e t a l. 1 9 8 6 ) a r e m a j o r f a i r s , f e s t i v a l s ,e x p o s i t i o n s , c u l t u r a l a n d s p o r t i n g e v e n t s w h i c h a r e h e l do n e i t h e r a r e g u l a r o r a o n e - o f f b a si s . H a l l m a r k e v e n t sh a v e a s s u m e d a k e y r o l e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l , n a t i o n a l a n dr e g i o n a l t o u r is m m a r k e t i n g s t ra t e g ie s . T h e i r p r i m a r yf u n c t i o n i s t o p r o v i d e t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y w i t h a n o p p o r -t u n i ty t o s e c u r e h ig h p r o m i n e n c e i n t h e t o u r i s m m a r k e tp l a c e ( D e l l a B i t t a e t a l . 1 9 7 1; R i t c h i e a n d B e l i v e a u 1 9 74 ;B u c k 1 9 77 ; R i t c h i e 1 9 8 4 ). H o w e v e r , t h e s t u d y o f h a l l -m a r k e v e n t s is f r a u g h t w i t h d e f in i t i o n a l , m e t h o d o l o g i c a la n d t h e 0 r e t i c a l p r o b l e m s w h i c h p e r h a p s r e f le c t t h e m a n yr e s e a r c h d i r e c t i o n s t h a t e x i s t w i t h i n t h e s t u d y o f t o u r i s ma n d i t s i m p a c t s . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r i s t oa t t e m p t t o c l a r i f y t h e d e f i n i t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s o f h a l l m a r ke v e n t s a n d s u g g e s t w a y s in w h i c h r e s e a r c h o n t h e i ri m p a c t s m a y b e i m p r o v e d .

e f i n i n g H a l l m a r k E v e n t s

T h e s t a n d a r d d e f i n i t i o n o f h a l l m a r k e v e n t s i s t h a tp r o v i d e d b y R i t c h i e ( 1 9 8 4) w h o d e f i n e d s u c h e v e n t s a s

M a j o r o n e - t i m e o r r e c u r r i n g e v e n t s o f l i m i t e d d u r a t i o n ,d e v e l o p e d p r i m a r i l y t o e n h a n c e t h e a w a r e n e s s, a p p e a l a n dp r o f i t a b i l i t y o f a t o u r i s m d e s t i n a t i o n i n t h e s h o r t a n d / o r l o n gt e r m . S u c h e v e n t s r e l y f o r t h e i r s u c ce s s o n u n i q u e n e s s ,s t a t u s , o r t i m e l y s i g n if i c a n ce t o c r e a t e i n t e r e s t a n d a t t r a c ta t t e n t i o n .A p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f t h e h a l l m a r k t o u r i s t e v e n t i s t o

p r o v i d e t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y w i t h a n o p p o r t u n i t y t os e c u re a p o s i t i o n o f p r o m i n e n c e i n t h e t o u r i s m m a r k e tf o r a s h o r t, w e l l d e f i n e d , p e r i o d o f t i m e ( H a l l a n d S e l -w o o d 1 9 87 ). T h e h a l l m a r k e v e n t is t h e r e f o r e d i f f e r e n t ini ts a p p e a l f r o m t h e a t t ra c t i o ns n o r m a l l y p r o m o t e d b y t h et o u r i s t i n d u s t r y a s i t i s n o t a c o n t i n u o u s o r s e a s o n a lp h e n o m e n o n . I n d e e d , i n m a n y c a se s t h e h a l lm a r k e v e n ti s a s t r a t e g i c r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t s e a s o n a lv a r i a t i o n s i n d e m a n d p o s e f o r t h e t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y( R i t c h i e a n d B e l i v e a u 1 9 7 4 ) .

O n e o f th e m a j o r p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n de f in i n g , a n dh e n c e , a n a l y s i n g s h o r t - t e r m s t a g e d t o u r i s t a t tr a c t i o n s i st h a t o f s c a le ( D a v i d s o n a n d S c h a f f e r 1 9 8 0) . R i t c h i e

( 1 9 8 4 ) , u n d e r s t o o d h a l l m a r k e v e n t s to b e m a j o r e v e n t sw h i c h h a v e a n a b i l i ty t o f o c u s n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a la t t e n t i o n o n t h e d e s t i n a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , B u r n s a n d M u l e s( 1 98 6 ) n o t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s c a le i n s p e c ia l e v e n t s ,. . . s o m e t i m e s c a l le d a H a l l m a r k e v e n t . . . w h i c h a r ee v e n t s t h a t a r e e x p e c t e d t o g e n e r a t e l a r g e e x t e r n a l

b e n e f i t s , o r w h e r e t h e e x t e r n a l b e n e f i t s a r e s o w i d e l yd i s t r i b u t e d a n d t h e e v e n t c o s t s a r e so s u b s t a n t i a l t h a t


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t h e y a r e f u n d e d , e i t h e r p a r t i c a l l y o r w h o l l y w i t h p u b l i cm o n i e s ' .B u r n s a n d M u l e s ( 1 9 8 6 ) i d e n t i f i e d f o u r k e y c h a r a c -te r i s t i c s o f sp ec ia l ev en ts :

1 . T h e m a j o r d e m a n d g e n e r a t e d b y t h e S p e c ia l E v e n t is ,f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , n o t t h e d e m a n d f o r th e e v e n t it s e lfb u t d e m a n d f o r a r a n g e o f r e l a t e d s e r v i c e s - t y p i c a l l ya c c o m m o d a t i o n , f o o d , t r a n s p o r t a n d e n t e r -t a i n m e n t .2 . T h i s d e m a n d i s c o n d e n s e d i n t o a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r tp e r i o d o f t i m e , f r o m a s i n g l e d a y t o a f e w w e e k s a n d ,a s s e r v i c e s c a n n o t b e p r o d u c e d a h e a d o f t i m e a n ds t o r e d , t h i s l e a d s t o t h e t y p i c a l ' p e a k i n g ' p r o b l e m se x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e m a i n s e r v ic e i n d u st r ie s m e n t i o n e d .

3 . P e a k i n g i n f l u e n c e s b o t h t h e l e v e l a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o no f b e n e f i t s r e c e i v e d .4 . T h e n e t i m p a c t o f r e d i r e c t i n g l o c a l f u n d s t o w a r d sS p e c i a l E v e n t s i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l ; t h e m a j o r b e n e f i t sa r i s e f r o m t h e a t t r a c t i o n o f n e w f u n d s f r o m o u t s i d et h e r e g i o n b y w a y o f t h e e x p o r t o f g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s ,e s p e c i a l l y s e r v i c e s.O f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f

s p e c i a l e v e n t s i s t h e l a r g e o u t l a y o f p u b l i c m o n i e s w h i c hm a y b e a s s o c i a t e d n o t o n l y w i t h t h e h o s t i n g b u t a l s o w i t ht h e b i d d i n g f o r s u c h e v e n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e u n s u c c e s s -f u l b id b y t h e C i t y o f B r i s b a n e f o r t h e 1 99 2 O l y m p i cG a m e s c o s t t h e A u s t r a l i a n C o m m o n w e a l t h G o v e r n m e n tA 6 0 0 , 00 0 a n d a m i n i m u m o f f i v e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s i n a l l( S i r a c u s a 1 9 8 6 ) . I n d e e d , a l m o s t a l l h a l l m a r k e v e n t s h a v es u b s t a n t i a l g o v e r n m e n t i n v o l v e m e n t , w h e t h e r i t b e an a t i o n a l , s t a t e o r l o c a l l e v e l , w i t h t h e a m o u n t o f g o v e r n -m e n t f i n a n c i a l a s s is t a n c e i n c r e a s i n g i n re l a t i o n t o t h e s i z ea n d m a r k e t i n g s c a l e o f t h e e v e n t .M o r e r e c e n t l y , R i t c h i e a n d Y a n g z h o u ( 1 9 8 7 ) h a v ed i s c u s s e d t h e n a t u r e a n d i m p a c t s o f t h e ' m e g a - e v e n t ' , ac a t e g o r i s a t i o n w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o R i t c h i e ' s ( 1 9 8 4 )e a r l i e r d e f i n i t i o n o f h a l l m a r k e v e n t s . H o w e v e r , a s i n d i -c a t e d a t t h e 1 98 7 C o n g r e s s o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n I n t e r n a -t i o n a l e d ' E x p e r t s S c i e n t i f i q u e s d u T o u r i s m e , s u b s t a n t i a ld i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f m e g a - e v e n t s s t i l l r e m a i n( J a f a r i 1 9 8 8 ) . R i t c h i e a n d Y a n g z h o u ( 1 9 8 7 ) a r g u e t h a tm e g a - e v e n t s a n d m e g a - a t t r a c ti o n s p o s e s i m i l a r p r o b l e m sf o r t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t . H o w e v e r , w h i l e t h e y m a y h a v ec e r t a i n c o m m o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s u c h a s l a r g e v i s i t o rn u m b e r s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s iz e o f t h e e v e n t o r a t t r a c t i o n ,t h e r e a r e a l s o f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e s w h i c h w i ll h a v es i g n i fi c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e a n a l y si s o f t h e i r i m p a c t s .T h e k e y d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a n e v e n t a n d a a t t r a c t io nis t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e o v e r w h i c h t h e y i m p a c t o n t h e h o s tc o m m u n i t y o r r e g i o n . E v e n t s , b y t h e i r v e r y d e f i n i ti o n ,a r e o f a t r a n s i t o r y n a t u r e w h e r e a s a t t r a c t i o n s w i l lg e n e r a l l y t e n d t o d r a w v i s i t o r s f o r a f a r l o n g e r p e r i o d o ft i m e . I t i s t h e s h o r t t i m e f r a m e i n w h i c h e v e n t s o p e r a t et h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e h a l l m a r k e v e n t f r o m o t h e r t o u r i s ta t t r a c t i o n s a n d w h i c h w i l l t h e r e f o r e d e m a n d t h ea p p r o p r i a t e t e m p o r a l a n d s p a t i a l s p e c i fi e r s i n d e f i n i t i o nan d an a ly s i s .

A l l o f t h e a b o v e s t u d i e s h a v e t e n d e d t o v i e w h a l l -m a r k e v e n t s a s m a j o r , l a r g e s c a l e e v e n t s . H o w e v e r ,s e v e r a l s t u d i e s ( H e e n a n 1 9 7 8 ; S h e p h e r d 1 9 8 2 ; G e t z1 9 8 4 ; H a l l 1 9 8 9 a ) h a v e i d e n t i f i e d s h o r t - t e r m s t a g e dev en ts , su ch as ca r n iv a l s , f e s t iv a l s , an d f e tes , in smal lt o w n s a n d v i l l a g e s a s h a l l m a r k e v e n t s . S u c h e v e n t s m a yb e o f s i g n i f i c a n t e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l i m p o r t a n c e .I n d e e d , e v e n t s m a y n o t o n l y s e r v e t o a t t r a c t t o u r i s t sb u t m a y a l s o a s s i s t i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o r m a i n t e n a n c eo f c o m m u n i t y o r r e g i o n a l i d e n t i t y ( G e t z a n d F r i s b y1 9 8 7 a , b ; H a l l 1 9 8 9 a , b ) .

T h e t e r m ' h a l l m a r k e v e n t ' t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t b e c o n -f i n e d t o t h e l a r g e s c a l e e v e n t s t h a t g e n e r a l l y o c c u r w i t h i nc i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s . C o m m u n i t y f e s t i v a l s a n d l o c a lc e l e b r a t i o n s c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s h a l l m a r k e v e n t s i n r e l a -t i o n t o t h e i r r e g i o n a l a n d l o c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . S u c h a no b s e r v a t i o n i s n o t t o r e - d e f i n e t h e n o t i o n o f a h a l l m a r ke v e n t , r a t h e r i t i s t o n o t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f th e e c o n o m -i c , m a r k e t i n g , s o c i a l a n d s p a t i a l on t e x t w i t h i n w h i c hh a l l m a r k e v e n t s t a k e p l a c e . T a b 1 a t t e m p t s t o c l a ri f yt h e v a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s o f s h o r t - t e r m s t a g e d e v e n t s i nr e l a t i o n t o t h e i r t a r g e t t o u r i s t m a r k e t , l e v e l o fg o v e r n m e n t f i n a n c ia l i n v o l v e m e n t , a n d o r g a n i s at i o n a n dl e a d e r s h i p .T h e e x p r e s s i o n ' h a l l m a r k e v e n t ' a p p l i e s t o a r a n g e o fe v e n t s w h i c h e x h i b i t a b r o a d r a n g e o f e c o n o m i c , p h y s i c a la n d s o c i a l i m p a c t s ( O l d s 1 9 8 8 ; H a l l 1 9 8 9 a ) . H o w e v e r ,t h e t e r m s ' m e g a - e v e n t s ' a n d ' s p e c i a l e v e n t s ' h a v e f a rm o r e s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n s . M e g a - e v e n t s , s u c h a s W o r l dF a i r s ( L e y a n d O l d s 1 9 8 8 ) o r t h e O l y m p i c G a m e s ( R i t -c h i e a n d Y a n g z h o u 1 9 8 7 ) , a r e e v e n t s w h i c h a r e e x p r e s s l yt a r g e t e d a t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t o u r i s m m a r k e t . S i m i l a r l y ,S p e c i a l E v e n t s , s u c h a s t h e A m e r i c a ' s C u p ( H a l l a n dS e l w o o d 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 8 9 ) o r t h e A d e l a i d e G r a n d P r i x ( B u r n se t a l . 1 9 8 6 ) , a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t h e i rm a r k e t o r i e n t a t i o n . U n d o u b t e d l y , d o m e s t i c t o u r i s t s a r ea t t r a c t e d t o t h e s e e v e n t s i n s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r s .N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n i n t h ep r o m o t i o n o f t h e s e s h o r t - t e r m t o u r i s t a t t r a c ti o n s w h i c hl e a d s t o t h e l a r g e s c a l e i m p a c t s w h i c h h a v e b e c o m e a s s o -c i a t e d w i t h t h e h o s t i n g o f h a l l m a r k e v e n t s .

I t i s e v i d e n t f r o m t h i s a n a l y s i s t h a t t h e m o r e s e r i o u sd i s r u p t i o n s t o h o s t c o m m u n i t i e s o c c u r i n r e l a t i o n t o t h el a r g e - s c a l e e v e n t s w h i c h h a v e a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t a r g e tm a r k e t . T h e s iz e o f t h e e v e n t a p p e a r s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t ot h e l e a k a g e o f e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s o f t h e e v e n t f r o m t h eh o s t c o m m u n i t y . S i m i la r ly , t h e d e g r e e o f c O m m u n i t yi n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e e v e n t ' s p l a n n i n g a n d m a n a g e m e n td i m i n i s h e s i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o t h e m a j o r l e v e l o f p u b l icf i n a n c i a l i n v o l v e m e n t .T h e a m o l m t o f l o c al i n v o l v e m e n t a n d t h e d o m i n a n tl e v e l o f g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e p l a n n i n g o f h a l l m a r k e v e n t sw o u l d a p p e a r t o b e c r u c i a l t o d e r i v i n g t h e m a x i m u mb e n e f i t f r o m h o s t i n g a n e v e n t f o r t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y .T h e m o r e a n e v e n t i s s e e n b y t h e i m p a c t e d p u b l i c a se m e r g i n g f r o m t h e l o c a l c o m m u n i t y , r a t h e r t h a n b e i n gi m p o s e d o n t h e m , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l b e t h a t c o m m u n i t y ' sa c c e p t a n c e o f t h e e v e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l


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Tab I Characteristics of short-term staged events

dimension of many events will often mean that nationaland regional governments will assume responsibility forthe event s planning. I ndeed , becau se of the intereststhat impact upon upper levels of government, localconcerns may well be lost in the search for the nationalor regional good with special legislation often beingenacted to minimise disturbance to the hosting of anevent (Hall 1989b).

The loss of local involvement in the planning processis not the only consequence of an increase in the size ofan event. The size and duration of the event will tend tocorrelate with the scale of impact. For instance, the faci-lities and surrounding infrastructure established for thehosting of special or mega-events will be a major influ-ence on long-term land use, and possibly the social struc-ture, of the core event area. This is especially the casewhere an event is used to rejuvenate inner-city areasoften occupied b y lower socio-economic groups, as in thecases of the Vancouver Expo, the 1988 Brisbane Expoand the 1987 Ameri ca s Cup Defe nce in Perth (Old1988; Hall 1988, 1989b). However, the complete rangeof impacts of hallmark events remains unknown. Thenext section will examine some of the directions that

have already been taken in the analysis of hallmarkevents and suggest further avenues for research.

T h e n a l y s i s o f H a l l m a r k E v e n t sHallmark tourist events are the image builders of

mode rn tourism. Since Coo k s tours were established inthe mid-nineteenth century, hallmark events have beenseen as a primary means by which to place tourismdestinations on the international tourist map. However,despite their undoubted significance, relatively littleattention has been paid to the impacts of events on hostcommunities.

As can be seen from the above discussion, researchhas been marked by the lack of an agreed framework ofanalysis. Moreover, as with tourism research in general,the majority of studies which have been conducted areprimarily economic in orientation. As Jafari (1988)noted. One canno t help but wonder when tourism rese-arch will graduate from the bounds of economics andmarketing to amplify the subject in its fullest dimen-sions . I f researchers are to make a valid contribution to


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t h e s t u d y o f h a l l m a r k e v e n t s i t i s v i t al t h a t t h e y b e c o m ea w a r e o f t h e w i d e s t p o s s i b l e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f e v e n t s f o rh o s t c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e r e s e a r c h e r n e e d s t o a s s i s t i na n s w e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s o f w h y , f o r w h a t , a n d f o r w h o m ,a r e t h e s e e v e n t s h e l d ? G o v e r n m e n t s a n d p r i v a t e i n d u s t r yg e n e r a l l y h o l d t h a t h a l l m a r k e v e n t s , a s w i t h t o u r i s m , a r ea g o o d t h in g , o t h e r w i se w h y w o u l d t h e y b e h e l d ? B u t

a s C o p p o c k ( 1 9 7 7 ) o b s e r v e d :Good for whom? . . . Not only is it inevitable that the resi-dents o f an area w ill gain unequally from tourism (if inde edthey gain at all) and probable that the interests of some willactually be harmed, but it may well be that a substantialprop ort ion does n ot wish to see any dev elopmen t of tourism.T h e r e a r e n o a c c e p t e d c r i t e r i a f o r t h e a n a l y si s o f h al l-m a r k e v e n t s . P e r h a p s n o t s u r p ri s in g l y , r e s e a r c h o n h a l l-

m a r k e v e n t s h a s t e n d e d t o f o l l o w e s t a b l is h e d l i n es o ft o u r i s m r e s e a r c h . F o r i n s t a n c e , R i t c h i e s ( 1 9 84 ) a n dR i t c h i e a n d Y a n g z h o u s ( 1 9 8 7 ) re v i e w o f t h e c o n c e p t u a la n d r e s e a r c h i s su e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h ei m p a c t s o f h a l l m a r k e v e n t s i s a k in t o G e t z s ( 1 9 77 ) p r o -p o s a ls f o r t h e s t u d y o f t h e i m p a c t o f t o u r i s m o n h o s tp o p u l a t i o n s . S i m i l ar l y , t h e q u e s t io n s p o s e d i n M a t h i e s o na n d W a l l s ( 1 9 82 ) r e v i e w o f t h e e c o n o m i c , p h y s i c al a n ds o c ia l i m p a c t s o f t o u r i s m c a n b e e q u a l l y a p p l i e d t o h a l l -m a r k e v e n t s .R i t c h i e ( 1 9 8 4 ) p r o p o s e d a c l a s si f i c a ti o n o f t h e t y p e so f i m p a c t w h i c h n e e d t o b e a s s e s s e d f o r p a r t i c u l a r h a l l -m a r k e v e n t s . S i x t y p e s o f i m p a c t w e r e i d e n t i f ie d : e c o -n o m i c , t o u r i s m / c o m m e r c i a l , p h y s i c al , s o c i o c u l tu r a l , p h y -c h o l o g i c al , a n d p o l i ti c a l. F o r e a c h o f t h e t y p e s o f i m p a c tR i t c h i e ( 1 9 8 4 ) r e c o r d e d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e v a r i a b le s t o b em e a s u r e d a n d a s s o c i a t e d p r o b l e m s i n d a t a c o l l e c t io n a n di n t e r p r e t a t i o n . D e s p i t e t h e v a l u e o f h i s r e v i e w , R i t c h i e( 1 9 84 ) n o t e d t h a t i t w a s o n l y a b e g i n n in g , a n d c o n c l u d e dt h a t t h e r e w a s a n e e d f o r a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a p p r o -a c h t o t h e a s s e s sm e n t o f t h e i m p a c t o f h a l l m a r k e v e n t st h a n w h a t i s c u r r e n t l y e m p l y e d i n m o s t s i t u a t i o n s .

T h e s t u d y o f t h e 1 9 85 A d e l a i d e G r a n d P r i x b y t h eC e n t r e f o r S o u t h A u s t r a l i a n E c o n o m i c S t u d i e s ( B u r n s ,H a t c h , M u l e s 1 9 8 6) r e p r e s e n t e d o n e o f t h e f ir s t a t t e m p t st o p r o v i d e a t h o r o u g h a n a ly s is o f t h e i m p a c t o f a s p e ci a le v e n t . B u r n s a n d M u l e s ( 1 9 8 6 ) a r g u e d t h a t a f r a m e w o r ko f a n a ly s is w a s n e e d e d t h a t e s t a b l is h e d t h e n a t u r e o f t h eb e n e f i t s a n d c o s t s i n v o l v e d ; i n d i c a t e d h o w t h e y m a y b em e a s u r e d a f t e r t h e e v e n t , u s i n g m u l t i p l i e r s w h e r e a p p r o -p r i a t e ; a n d , k n o w i n g t h is , a l l o w e d r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e st o b e m a d e b e f o r e t h e e v e n t . T h e A d e l a i d e s t u d y w e n t al o n g w a y t o w a r d s a c h i e v i n g t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s . N e v e r t h e -l e ss , t h e s t u d y r e t a i n e d a t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e - f r e e o u t l o o ka n d i g n o r e d i m p o r t a n t a s p e c ts o f t h e p o l it i c al e c o n o m yo f s u c h e v e n t s . A c r i t i c i s m w h i c h m a y e q u a l l y w e l l b ea p p l i e d t o t h e p o s i t iv i s ti c a p p r o a c h o f R i t c h i e ( 1 9 8 4 ;R i t c h i e a n d A i t k e n 1 9 8 4 ; R i t c h i e a n d Y a n g z h o u 1 9 8 8 )w i t h h i s e m p h a s i s o n t h e q u a n t i f i a b l e i m p a c t s o f t h eh a l l m a r k e v e n t ( H a l l 1 9 8 9 c ) .P e r h a p s i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e e x c e s s o f e c o n o m i c a n a l y -s is a n u m b e r o f s tu d i e s o f t h e s o c i a l i m p a c t s o f h a l l m a r k

e v e n t s h a v e e m e r g e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s . O f p a r t i c u l a r in t e r -e s t a r e t h e s t u d i es o f W o r l d F a i r s a n d E x p o s i t i o n s( B e n e d i c t 1 9 83 ; R y d e l 1 9 8 4 ; H a l l 1 9 88 ; L e y a n d O l d1 9 88 ; O l d 1 9 8 8) a n d t h e A m e r i c a s C u p ( C o w i e 1 9 8 5 ;S h a w 1 9 85 , 1 98 6; C e n t r e f o r A p p l i e d a n d B u s i n e ss R e s e -a r c h 1 9 8 7 ; H a l l a n d S e l w o o d 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 8 9 ) . I n d e e d , t h eA m e r i c a s C u p h a s p r o b a b l y b e e n o n e o f t h e m o s ta n a l y s e d h a l l m a r k e v e n t s t o d a t e . H o w e v e r , i t i sv a l u a b l e t o n o t e t h a t t h e b r o a d a n a l y si s o f g o v e r n m e n tf i n a n c e d s t u d ie s ( C e n t r e f o r A p p l i e d a n d B u s i n e s sR e s e a r c h 1 9 8 7 ) p r o d u c e d m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t c o n c l u s i o n sa b o u t t h e b e n e f i t s o f th e e v e n t t o t h o s e w h o s p e ci f ic a ll ye x a m i n e d e x t e r n a l i t i e s s u c h a s c r i m e a n d h o m e l e s s n e s s( H a l l a n d S e l w o o d 1 9 8 9 ) .

G e t z a n d F r i sb y ( 1 9 8 7 b) h a v e e v a l u a t ed m a n a g e m e n te f f e c t iv e n e s s a s p a r t o f a s u r v e y o f c o m m u n i t y - r u n f e s t i-v a ls in O n t a r i o ( 1 9 8 7 a ) . R e l a t e d t o t h e c o m m u n i t y re s e -a r c h o f G e t z a n d F r i s b y i s t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o ff e s t i v a l s a n d c u l t u r a l p e r f o r m a n c e ( D u v i g n a u d 1 9 7 6 ;L a v e n d a 1 9 80 ; M a n n i n g 1 9 8 3 ) . A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n ds o c i o lo g i c a l c r i t iq u e s h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s f o r s e v e r a ls t u d ie s o f t h e p o l i ti c a l d i m e n s i o n o f h a l l m a r k e v e n t s( H a l l a n d S e l w o o d 1 9 8 8 ; L e y a n d O l d 1 9 88 ; H a l l 1 9 8 9 c) .H o w e v e r , t h is a r e a o f s t u d y h a s r e c e i v e d o n l y li m i t e da t t e n t io n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p o l i ti c a lp r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e h o s t i n g o f e v e n t w o u l da p p e a r t o c r u c i a l t o t h e i r s u c c e s s :

In th eir quest for viability and legitimacy, enlightened inves-tors and community leaders must balance local and outsideneeds and in te re s t s . . , i f the constructive impact of tourismis to be realized, collaborate approaches between diverses takeholder groups wil l be needed. T o survive and prosp er inthe decades ahead, tourism must develop some multiple con-stituencies (Heenan 1978: 32)

onc lu s ion s

T h e s t u d y o f h a l lm a r k e v e n t s is a r e la t i v e l y n e w a r e ao f t o u r i s m r e s e a r c h m a r k e d b y s i g n i f i c a n t d e f i n i t i o n a l ,m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l d i f fe r e n c e s b e t w e e n r e s e -a r c h e r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e i m p o r t a n c e a t t a c h e d t o e v e n t sw i t h i n n a t i o n a l a n d r e g i o n a l t o u r i s m m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g ie se m p h a s i s e s t h e u r g e n c y f o r r e s e a r c h to b e c o n d u c t e db e f o r e , d u r i n g , a n d a f t e r t h e e v e n t . M o r e o v e r , a s c o m -m e n t a t o r s s u c h a s H e e n a n ( 1 9 7 8 ) a n d J a f a r i ( 1 9 8 8 ) h a v eo b s e r v e d , t h e r e i s c l e a r l y a n e e d t o g o b e y o n d c o n v e n -t i o n a l e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s t o e x a m i n e t h e s o c i a l a n d p h y -s i c a l i m p a c t s o f s u c h e v e n t s .T h e p r e s e n t w o r k h a s p r o v i d e d a c o m p a r i s o n o f th ev a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s o f s t a g e d t o u r i s t e v e n t s a n d t h e i rc h a r a c te r i s ti c s . I t h a s n o t e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h es i z e o f a n e v e n t , t h e m a j o r l e v e l o f p u b l i c f i n a n c i a l i n v o l -v e m e n t , o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d l e a d e r s h i p a n d t h e e c o n o m i ca n d s o c ia l im p a c t s o f t h e e v e n t o n t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y .I n a d d i t i o n , i t h a s h i g h l i g h t e d s o m e o f t h e d i r e c t i o n sw h i c h h a v e b e e n t a k e n i n th e a n a l y s is o f h a l l m a r ke v e n t s . H o w e v e r , i t w o u l d b e u n r e a l i s ti c to e x p e c t t h a t


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r e s e a r c h e r s w i l l r e a c h a c c o r d o n a s i n gl e f r a m e w o r k f o rt h e a n a l y si s o f h a l l m a r k e v e n t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t m a y b ea n t i c i p a t e d t h a t f u t u r e r e s e a r c h o n h a l l m a r k t o u r i s te v e n t s w i l l p a y a s m u c h a t t e n t i o n t o th e i m p a c t s o fe v e n t s o n t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y a s i t p r e s e n t l y d o e s t o th et o u r i s t p r o d u c t a n d i ts p o t e n t i a l e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s .H a l l m a r k e v e n t s w i ll c o n t i n u e t o b e a m a i n s t a y o f

t o u r i s m m a r k e t i n g . T h e t a s k o f e v e n t p l a n n e r s a n d t o u -r i s m r e s e a r c h e r s i s t o a s s is t i n m a x i m i s i n g t h e b e n e f i t s o fh o s t i n g e v e n t s w h i l e m i n i m i s i n g t h e u n d e s i r a b l e c o s ts t ot h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y , t h e r e b y e n s u r i n g t h e s u cc e ss o n e o ft h e m a j o r r e a s o n s f o r c o n d u c t i n g h a l l m a r k e v e n t s - t h ec r e a t i o n o f a s u s t a i n e d a n d v i a b l e t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y i n t h eh o s t c o m m u n i t y .

e f e r e n c e s

B e n e d i c t , B . ( e d . ): T h e A n t h r o p o l o g y o f W o r l d F a i rs . S c o l a r P re s s,L o n d o n 1 9 8 3 .B u r n s , J . P . A . ; M u l e s , T . L . : A F r a m e w o r k f o r t h e A n a l y s i s o fM a j o r S p e c i al E v e n t s . I n : B u r n s , J . P . A . ; H a t c h , J . H . ; M u l e s ,T . L . ( e d . ) , T h e A d e l a i d e G r a n d P r i x: T h e I m p a c t o f a S p ec i a lE v e n t . p p . 5 - 3 8 . T h e C e n t r e fo r S o u t h A u s t r a li a n E c o n o m i cStudie s , Ade la ide 1986.Burns , J . P . A . ; Ha tc h , J . H . ; Mule s , F . J . ( e d . ) : The Ade la ideG r a n d P r i x : T h e I m p a c t o f a S p e c ia l E v e n t . T h e C e n t r e f o rS o u t h A u s t r a l i a n E c o n o m i c S t u d i e s , A d e l a i d e 1 9 8 6 .B u c k , R . C . : M a k i n g G o o d B u s i n e ss B e t t e r : A S e c o n d L o o k a tS ta ge d Tour i s t A t t r a c t ion s . Jou rna l of Tra v e l Re se a rc h 15 , 3 ,3 0 - 3 2 ( 1 9 7 7 )C e n t r e f o r A p p l i e d a n d B u s i n e ss R e s e a r c h : A m e r i c a s C u p D e f e n c eS e r i es , 1 9 8 6 /8 7 , I m p a c t o n t h e C o m m u n i t y . C e n t r e f o r A p p l i e da n d B u s i n e s s R e s e a r c h , U n i v e r s i t y o f W e s t e r n A u s t r a li a , N e d -lands 1987.C o p p o c k , J . T . : T o u r i s m a s a T o o l f o r R e g i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t . I n :D u f f i e l d , B . S . ( e d . ), T o u r i s m : A T o o l f o r R e g i o n a l D e v e l o p -m e n t , p p . 1 . 2 - 1 . 1 5 . T o u r i s m a n d R e c r e a t i o n R e s e a rc h U n i t .U n i v e r s i t y o f E d i n b u r g h , E d i n b u r g h 1 9 77 .C o w i e , I . : H o u s i n g P o l i c y O p t i o n s i n R e l a t i o n t o t h e A m e r i c a s C u p .U r b a n P o l i c y an d R e s e a r c h 3 , 4 0 - 4 1 ( 19 8 5)D a v i d s o n , L . S . ; S c h a ff e r, W . A . : A D i s c u s si o n o f M e t h o d s E m -p l o y e d i n A n a l y s i n g t h e I m p a c t o f S h o r t - T e r m E n t e r t a i n m e n tEve n ts . Journa l of Tra v e l Re se a rc h 18 , 3 , 12- 16 (1980)D e l l a B e t t a , A . J . ; L o u d o n , D . L . ; B o o t h , G . G . ; W e e k s , R . R . :E s t i m a t i n g t h e E c o n o m i c I m p a c t o f a S h o r t - T e r m T o u r i s t

E v e n t . J o u r n a l o f T r a v e l R e s e a r c h 1 6 ( F a l l) , 1 0 - 1 5 ( 19 7 7)Duv igna ud , J . : Fe s t iva l s : A Soc io logic a l App roa c h . C ul ture s 3 ,15-25 (1976)G e t z , D . : T h e I m p a c t o f T o u r i sm o n H o s t C o m m u n i t i e s a R e s e a r c hAp proa c h . In : Duf f ie ld , B . S . (e d . ) , Tour i sm : A Too l forR e g i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , p p . 9 . 1 - 9 . 1 3 . T o u r i s m an d R e c r e a t i o nR e s e a r c h U n i t , U n i v e r s i t y o f E d i n b u r g h , E d i n b u r g h 1 9 77 .G e t z , D . : T o u r i s m , C o m m u n i t y O r g a n i s a t i o n a n d t h e S o c i a l M u l t i -p l i e r . I n : L o n g , J . ; H e c o c k , R . ( e d . ) , L e i s u r e , T o u r i s m a n dS o c i a l C h a n g e , p p . 8 5 - I 0 0 . C e n t r e f o r L e i s u r e R e s e a r c h , D u n -fe rm l ine Col le ge of Phys ic a l Educ a t ion 1984.G e t z , D . ; F r i s b y , W . : R e p o r t o n a S u r v e y o f C o m m u n i t y - R u n F e s t i -v a l s i n O n t a r i o . D e p a r t m e n t o f R e c r e a t i o n a n d L e i s u r e S t u d ie s ,U n i v e r s i t y o f W a t e r l o o , W a t e r l o o 1 9 87 a.G e t z , D . ; F r i sb y , W . : E v a l u a t i n g M a n a g e m e n t E f f e c t i v e n e s s i n

C o m m u n i t y - R u n F e s t i v a l s , s u b m i t t e d t o T h e J o u r n a l o f T r a v e lRe se a rc h (1987b)

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R i t c h i e , J . B . R . : A s s e s s i n g t h e I m p a c t o f H a l l m a r k E v e n t s : C o n -c e p t u a l a n d R e s e a r c h I s s u e s . J o u r n a l o f T r a v e l R e s e a r c h 2 3 , 1 ,2 - 1 1 ( 1 9 8 4 )R i t c h i e , J . B . R . ; A i t k e n , C . E . : A s s e s s i n g t h e I m p a c t s o f t h e 1 98 8O l y m p i c W i n t e r G a m e s : T h e R e s e a r c h P r o g r a m a n d I n i t i a lR e s u l t s . J o u r n a l o f T r a v e l R e s e a r c h 2 2 , 3, 1 7 - 2 5 ( 1 9 8 4)R i t c h i e , J . B . R . ; B e l i v e a u , D . : H a l l m a r k E v e n t s : A n E v a l u a t i o n o fa S t r a t e g i c R e s p o n s e t o S e a s o n a l i t y i n t h e T r a v e l M a r k e t . J o u r -n a l o f T r a v e l R e s e a r c h 1 4 ( F a l l) , 1 4 - 2 0 ( 1 9 7 4)R i t c h i e , J. B . R . ; Y a n g z h o u , H . : T h e R o l e a n d I m p a c t o f M e g a -E v e n t s a n d A t t r a c t i o n s o n N a t i o n a l a n d R e g i o n a l T o u r i s m : AC o n c e p t u a l a n d M e t h o d o l o g i c a l O v e r v i e w . P a p e r p r e p a r e d f o rp r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e 3 7 t h A n n u a l C o n g r e s s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a lA s s o c i a t i o n o f S c i e nt i fi c E x p e r t s i n T o u r i s m ( A I E S T ) , C a l g a r y ,C a n a d a , A u g u s t , 1 9 8 7 .

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L o n d o n 1 9 8 6 .S h e p h a r d , D . : C o m m u n i t y o r g a n i s a t i o n s a n d h a l l m a r k e v e n t s , a c a s es t u d y o f t h e W e l l e s l e y A p p l e B u t t e r a n d C h e e s e F e s t i v a l .U n p u b l i s h e d u n d e r g r a d u a t e h o n o u r s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t , W a t e r -l o o : D e p a r t m e n t o f R e c r e a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f W a t e r l o o , W a t e r -loo 1982 .S i r a c u s a, J . : B r i s b a n e G r a b s a t t h e 9 2 g a m e s . T i m e s o n S u n d a y , 2 1S e p t e m b e r , 6 ( 1 9 8 6 )

G e o p hy s ik C onsu lting G m bHdelineation ofsubsurface layer boundariesdetection ofgroundwater levelmagnetic anomaliescavitiesevaluat ion ofdynamic elast ic parameterspipel ine surveysmarine s i te and rou te surveysprospecting forminera l deposi ts sand gr av el c layetc.

refraction seismics on landwith P- and S -w ave generat ionmarine ref lect ion seismicsgeoelectr ic measurementsound ing and mapp ing )

land and m ar ine magn et icselectromagnetic surveysVLF, radar)oceanographic measurements

Bu reau for ppl ied G eoph ysicsM a r t h a s t r a 6 e 1 0, D - 2 3 0 0 K ie l 1 G e r m a n y T e le fo n 0 4 3 1) 6 7 2 4 2 4 /

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