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title:Handbook of Brewing Food Science and Technology (Marcel Dekker, Inc.) ; 64author:Hardwick, William A.publisher:CRC Pressisbn10 | asin:0824789083print isbn13:9780824789084ebook isbn13:9780585139173language:EnglishsubjectBrewing--Handbooks, manuals, etc.publication date:1995lcc:TP570.H23 1995ebddc:663/.3subject:Brewing--Handbooks, manuals, etc.

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1

Commercial and Economic Aspects

William A. Hardwick*

Anheuser-Busch, Inc., St. Louis, Missouri

I. Introduction

A. The Probable Birth of Commercial Brewing

About 10,000 years ago, early man stopped following wild animal herds and settled into a communal existence based primarily on the planting and cultivation of crops (see Chapter 2). Since he had been gathering grains for some millennia, he probably already had a recipe for making beer. As greater yields of grain rewarded his agricultural efforts, it would make sense that he enlarged his brewing operation so some of his brewed product could be used for barter.

B. Earliest Goverment Control

When history found early man in the Tigres, Euphrates, and Nile flood plains, he was already producing beer and selling it at home and abroad. As one might suspect, the early rulers of these civilizations had established taxes and rules for selling beer to the consuming public. Most notable of these was Hammurabi, ruler of Babylon, who had a great number of his laws chiseled into a large boulder and placed in a public place. Among these laws were rules for operating a beer parlor, including the punishment to be meted out in cases of transgression. These rules stood for over 1000 years and were adopted by neighboring people as well.

Drunkenness was discouraged by rulers in many early civilizations. In ancient China, the rulers of several dynasties severely punished drunken behavior (Hardwick, 1983).

C. Early Taxation

In the New World, thousands of years later, a permit was issued from Spain by Don Antonio de Mendoza to Don Alfonso de Herrera of Mexico, to construct a brewery. The same

*Retired.

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b. The Antitrust Division of the Justice Department. This division has no unique responsibility where the brewing industry is concerned. It is concerned with all businesses in the United States and must challenge any that appear to carry out business maneuvers that would restrict fair competition.

Mergers and Acquisitions. The Antitrust Division has been active where brewing company mergers are concerned. During the 1950s and 1960s brewery mergers were scrutinized closely by this division and several antitrust suits were brought against brewers who planned mergers or outright purchase of competitor brewing companies. Elzinga (1990) describes the various mergers that took place during this period and lists those that were challenged by the Antitrust Division, the outcomes are also given. It should be noted that the recent Antitrust Division attitude is more relaxed in this area. This is probably because these latter mergers were not by large national brewers, but involved regional brewers who were having financial troubles and could recover some capital by selling out to a competitor. As Elzinga points out, the early antitrust activity against Pabst, Schlitz, Falstaff, and Anheuser-Busch was partly responsible for these companies concentrating primarily on internal growth.

Beer Marketing Practices. The BATF and the Department of Justice oversee general marketing practices of the brewing industry. Major concern is that monopolistic practices harmful to general commmerce not be permitted to develop in the country. Some critical areas follow.

Pricing. The complex code of uniform pricing is enforced by the such agencies as the Federal Trade Commission. Enforcement of pricing rules that are not clear frequently end up in the federal courts.

Elzinga (1990) reviews such a situation. In 1955, Anheuser-Busch, Inc. lowered the price of Budweiser in the St. Louis area, but not elsewhere. They were challenged in court by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) which charged that this was price discrimination against other brewers serving the St. Louis region. After months of litigation, including the U.S. Supreme Court, the matter was settled in the court of appeals where the court disagreed with the FTC and ruled that the Anheuser-Busch local price reduction was fair competition and gave consumers there a chance to buy Budweiser for less money.

The establishment of marketing principles and rules for specific promotional practices is frequently hammered out in federal court as well. Elzinga (1990) also points out the folly of brewers making special payments to selected customers for preferential treatment of their products. This violates both tax and beer marketing laws and can prompt federal court action. In the past, such transgressions have resulted in serious penalties (fines) to the brewers.

Advertising. Everyone gets a crack at the regulation of beer advertising. The BATF enforces honesty in claims made for a brand of beer; the Justice Department gets involved with the legality of claims made for a given beer; and the states, through various offices, will challenge product claims made for malt beverages sold within their boundaries. The federal regulations apply to all aspects of beer manufacturing and commerce. The individual states, however, can still determine just what a beer package label can have, what its advertisement can say, or its alcoholic content before it can be sold within their boundaries.

Retail Outlets. Breweries are forbidden to sell their products directly to the general public. Exceptions have been made that accommodate the numerous brew-pubs springing up across the countrythe traditional brewer must sell his products through independant retail outlets. Even here, actions are scruitinized to ensure that monopolistic or other unfair selling practices do not develop. Numerous court records stand as evidence of this;


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Figure 1

Brewing schematic.

Most small breweries at startup are very simple and can be inexpensive. A basic brewing unit in its simplest form would consist of the following:

1. Malt Storage Area

This area must be kept dry (damp malt spoils quickly). Malt is a partially germinated field grain, and as such, it contains large numbers of natural soil microorganisms per gram of


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malt. They pose no health threat but they can initiate growth quickly when sufficient moisture is present. Their metabolic by-products generally are odorous and unpleasant; beer brewed from it will not be of good quality.

The malt storage area must permit easy entry and exist of the malt. Both the malt husk and kernel are brittle and tend to shatter when handled excessively. This results in loss of malt starch from the kernel and formation of dustlike fragments from the husk.

Insects and rodents must not gain access to the stored malt. Both are destructive and leave undesirable by-products behind (see Chapter 17). Smelly outside odors should be kept out of the malt storage area. Malt tends to absorb odors and if this happens, it will carry them to the work and ultimately to the beer.

2. Malt Mill

The malt kernel must be broken up so that the conversion of grain starch, protein, etc. can be completed during mashing. This is done by rolling mills that crush it to a fine particle size while doing minimal damage to the husk. This malt husk will become the clarifying agent at the end of mashing.

Malt mills consist of rolls that crush the grain rather than shatter it. These specialized mills have been used by brewers for almost two centuries. For most of this time, the mills were relatively simple two-roll mills. In recent decades, large modern breweries have changed to higher-volume five- and six-roll mills. As a consequence, the smaller capacity two-roll mills can be bought from used equipment suppliers. These mills must be kept clean and dry (see Chapter 12).

3. Mash Tank

The mash mixing tank can be a specialized entity or it can be a multipurpose tank accommodating both mashing and wort clarification. It is advantageous to have a source of hot water available to this vessel so that more than one temperature can be employed during mashing. A false bottom made of a suitable screen will permit double-duty performance as a lauter tun. The preferred metal for this equipment is stainless steel.

4. Boiling Kettle

Many small breweries use a boiling kettle of classic shape and construction as a showpiece. No other piece of brewing equipment can compete with a highly polished, shapely copper brew kettle in this respect. Copper is a good conductor of heat and, unlike stainless steel, can be directly heated by open flame. Stainless steel is still the material of choice, however, if steam is available. Considerable advantage can be obtained by placing the brewing vessels so that the work can flow by gravity from one vessel to the next. A brewing tower can be constructed so that this is possible.

5. Hot Wort Receiver Tank

The hot wort tank is employed to remove the coagulated material that has fallen out of solution during kettle boil. This hot trub or hot break can be removed in a separate vessel or, if the operation is small enough, the kettle itself can be used. The hot wort must be swirled in a cylindrical vessel to cause a whirlpool effect. This action will concentrate the insoluble mass in the bottom center of the tank where it will remain if the wort is withdrawn carefully. When this is done in the kettle, a gentle swirling with a paddle will suffice to gather the trub.

6. Wort Cooler

Usually a small plate and frame heat exchanger with adequate cooling capacity works admirably. The boiling wort should be cooled to the desired temperature for cold trub separation.


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7. Fermenters

Fermenters can be simple open tanks or they can be more sophisticated closed tanks equipped with cooling jackets or coils with regulators for control of temperature and pressure. Whatever their design, they must be readily cleanable and the entire fermentation system (piping, valves, etc.) must be easily sterilized.

8. Filtration Unit

A filter unit (often, but not always, using a diatomaceous earth filter aid) is used for beer that will be sold away from the brewery. Brew-pubs with good settling procedures often dispense their beer without a filter.

9.Packaging Equipment

Packaging or kegging equipment used in the microbreweries is often preowned and can be purchased from several suppliers as totally reconditioned systems.

I. Customizing: The Personal Touch

When the founding group includes experienced brewers, the new brewery can incorporate unique features to personalize the process and product. One recent startup (with an experience European brewer) incorporated a centrifuge instead of a filter to clarify the beer after fermentation.

Yakima Brewing, started up by the author in 1982, had the following features that were unique to small breweries at the time.

1. A copper brew kettle with direct gas-fired burners.

2. Use of the kettle as a whirlpool trub separator.

3. Conical bottom stainless steel pressure fermenter/storage tank (unitanks) to avoid beer transfer prior to filtration.

4. A unique shell and tube wort cooler combined with the transfer line from the kettle to the fermenter.

Sierra Nevada, an early and successful California microbrewery, had a unique in-bottle conditioning system, incorporating a small addition of special yeast to the beer immediately prior to the bottle filler. This prevents oxidative degradation of the beer during prolonged storage.

J. Recycling Use of Unique Used Equipment

1. Dairy tanks are favorites for new low-budget breweries. Bulk tanks can be used for fermentation and beer storage. They require extra care, however, to avoid premature yeast settling and/or oxygen pickup. These dairy tanks were designed to be easily cleaned and sanitized; and essential requirement in brewing as well. Dairy piping is ideal for beer and wort lines for the same reason.

2. In general, almost any stainless steel tank can be adoptedtypes 304 or 316 are best. The elimination of crevices and blind spots as well as careful cleaning are essential for good sanitation.

3. Other sources worth investigating for used equipment are jam and candy manufacturers, cereal food processors, and any other food processors using stainless steel tanks


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and equipment. Dealers in used equipment advertise in several trade magazines such as Food Engineering, Food Packing, and Food Science.

K. The Brew-Pub

A carefully sited brew-pub with adequate funding can be the most flexible and satisfying brewery of all for an ambitious and adventurous brewer. The advantages of brewing and selling on site are:

1. Immediate feedback from the consumers. It is good for the ego to get enthusiastic reactions if the beer is well received. If the feedback is negative, you have great motivation to change things immediately!

2. The brewer has total quality control over the beer from mash-in to the consumer's glass!

3. Beer age can be tightly controlled; draft beer that is overage can be quickly, economically, and easily disposed of (tax free).

4. Final clarification and filtration is simplified and the expense and bother of packaging is eliminated!

L. Basic Essentials of a Successful Brew-Pub

1. Good beer! Even with the most expensive, well-engineered brewery installation, it is up to the brewer to make a good, consistent glass of beer. A few brew-pubs are surviving in spite of inferior beer but this is usually due to heavy sales of outside beers and/or liquor plus other positive factors. Poor-quality beer or grossly variable flavor has been the downfall of many otherwise well-planned new enterprises.

2. Proper sizing of the brewery. As part of the effort toward good bear, the brew size should be calculated to ensure that there will be little or no old beer. For an all-draft operation, no beer should be served that is more than three or four weeks old. For an average-sized pub in a good location, this would dictate a brew size no larger than ten barrels. This would be very profitable at two to three brews per week and would allow production of at least five different beersall fresh at the tap.

3. Location close to a fairly large population is important for an economic operation. Adding a brewery inside an established and successful restaurant is perhaps ideal if sufficient space is available, but a combination can be built on a suitable site. Space requirements are flexible but a ten barrel system can be operated in about 1000 sq. ft (with adequate ceiling height, 1012 ft.). All floors and walls must be waterproof, easily cleaned, and easily sterilized when (and if) needed.

4. Local zoning regulations, water quality, and wastewater requirements should be investigated prior to any site lease or purchase.

5. Management should, preferably, be splitwith a Brewer responsible for the beer and a restaurateur in full charge of the food and serving staff. It cannot be overemphasized that an experience brewer is the key to a successful brewery or brew-pub. The chef cannot do it in his spare time!

6. While there are several good equipment supply companies now operating that can produce excellent turn key brewing units, an experienced brewer on board from the early planning stages is an invaluable insurance for success. Some equipment supply companies and consulting brewers are listed in the Appendix and many others are available in the Microbrewery References section that follows. The best advice is to ready widely and do not rely on any single source of information.


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Appendix: Microbreweries and Pub Breweries Operating in the United States in 1989

Alaska

Alaska Brewing and Bottling Co.

Douglas

Chinook Alaskan Brewing and Bottling Co.

Juneau

Yukon Brewing Co.

Anchorage

Arizona

Bandersnatch Brewing Co.

Tempe

Barleys Brewpub

Phoenix

Camelback Brewing Co.

Paradise Valley

Carry Eds Brewing Co.

Cave Creek

Electric Dave Brewery

South Bisbee

Hops Brewing Co.

Phoenix

California

Alpine Village Brewing Co.

Torrance

American Pacific Rim

Los Angeles

Anderson Valley Brewing Co.

Boonville

Angeles Brewing Co.

Chatsworth

Back Alley Brewery and Bistro

Davis

Belmont Brewing Co.

Long Beach

Bison Brewing Co.

Berkeley

Bolt Brewery

Fallbrook

Brewhouse Grill

Mammoth Lakes

Brewpub on the Green

Fremont

Buffalo Bill's Brewpub

Hayward

Butterfield Brewery

Fresno

Calistoga Brewing Co.

Calistoga

Central Coast Brewing Co.

San Francisco

City of Angeles Brewing Company Ltd.

Santa Monica

Crown City Brewery

Pasadena

Dead Cat Alley Brewing Co.

Woodland

Devil Mountain Brewery

Walnut Creek

Emery Pub

Emryville

Firestone/Fletcher Brewery

Los Olivos

Fullerton Hofbrau

Fullerton

Grapevine Brewing Co.

Grapevine

Golden Gate Brewery Inc.

Berkeley

Golden Pacific Brewing Company

Emryville

Gordon-Biersch Brewing Company

Palo Alto

Gordon-Biersch Brewing Company

San Jose

Gorky's Russian Brewery (2)

Hollywood, L.A.

Grapevine Brewery

Lebec

Heritage Brewing Co.

Dana Point

Hogshead Brew Pub

Sacramento

Humbolt Brewery

Arcata

Huttenhains Brewing

Benicia

J and L Brewing Co.

San Rafael

Karl Strauss' Old Columbia Brwry. & Grill

San Diego

Kelmer's Brewhouse

Santa Rosa

Koryo Winery Company

Gardenia

Lind Brewing Co.

San Leandro

Local Brewing Company Inc.

San Luis Obispo

Los Angeles Brewing

Los Angeles

Mainstreet Brewpub

Chico

Mammoth Lakes Brewing Co.

Mammoth

Marin Brewing Co.

Larkspur

Marukan Vinegar Inc.

Paramount

Mendocino Brewing Company

Hopland

Mission Brewing Co.

San Diego

Montery Brewing Company

Monterey

Napa Valley Brewing Company

Calistoga

Nevada City Brewing Company

Nevada City

North Coast Brewing Company

Ft. Bragg

Obispo Brewery

San Luis Obispo

Old City Brewing Co.

San Diego

Old Columbia Brewing Co.

San Diego

Ozeki San Benito

Hollister Visalia

Pacific Coast Brewing Co.

Oakland

Papa Joe's Brewery

Napa

Pasa Robles Brewing Co.

Pasa Robles

Redding Brewing Company

Redding

Rubicon Brewing Company

Sacramento

St. Stans Brewing

Modesto

San Andreas Brewing Company

Hollister

San Francisco Brewing Co.

San Francisco

Santa Cruz Brewing Co.

Santa Cruz

The Saxton Brewery

Chico

Seabright Brewery Pub

Santa Cruz

Seacliff Cafe Res. & Vest Pocket Brew.

San Franciso

Shields Brewing Co.

Ventura

Slo Brewing Company

San Luis Obispo

Slo Brewpub

San Luis Obispo

Sonoma Vintners Club Inc.

Healdsburg

Stanislaus Brewing Company Inc.

Modesto

State Street Brewing Co.

Santa Barbara

Suderwerk Privatbrauerei

Davis

Sutter Buttes Brewery

Yuba City

Takara Sake Inc.

Berkeley

Thousand Oaks Brewing Company

Berkeley

Tied House Cafe & Brewery (2)

Mountain View

Trukee Brewing Company

Trukee

Triple Rock Brewing Company Inc.

Berkeley

Twenty Tank Brewery

San Francisco

Willett's Brewing Company

Napa


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Winchester Brewing Company

San Jose

Xcelsior Brewery

Santa Rosa

Colorado

Boulder Brewing Company

Boulder

Brekenridge Brewery and Pub

Breckenridge

Carver Brewing Co.

Durango

Coppersmith's Brewing Co.

Ft. Smith

Durango Brewing Co.

Durango

Odell Brewing Co.

Ft. Collins

Old Colorado Brewing Co.

Ft. Collins

Valley Brewing Company

Paonia

Wynkoop Brewing Company

Denver

Connecticut

Charter Oak Brewers Inc.

Bristol

The Connecticut Brewing Co.

Hartford

New England Brewing Co.

Norwalk

New Haven Brewing Co.

New Haven

District of Columbia

Clark's U.S.A.

Wash. D.C.

The Old Heurich Brewing Co.

Wash. D.C.

Florida

Hops Grill and Brewery

Clearwater

Jackquin Florida Distilling Co.

Auburnadale

Jacques Bobbe & Associates

Orlando

McGuire's Irish Pub, Inc.

Pensacola

Miami Brewpub/Garlic Gril &

BrewpubMiami

The Mill Brewery #1

Gainesville

The Mill Brewery #2

Tallahassee

Sarasota Brewing Co.

Sarasota

Tampa Bay Brewing Co.

Tampa

Winter Park Brewing Company

Winter Park

Georgia

Friends Brewing Co.

Atlanta

Highland Brewery

Atlanta

Hawaii

Honolulu Brewing Co. Ltd.

Honolulu

Koolau Brewery

Honolulu

Pacific Brewing Co. Inc.

Wailaku

Idaho

Fishers Brewpub/Coeur d'Alene Brew Co.

Coeur d'Alene

H & R Brewing Company

Spirit Lake

Snake River Brewing Co., Inc.

Caldwell

The Sun Valley Beer Company

Ketchum

Illinois

Chicago Brewing Co.

Chicago

Chiefs Brewing Co.

Champagne

Goose Island Brewing Co., Inc.

Elmhurst

J.E. Siebel Sons Company Inc.

Chicago

Pavichevich Brewing Co.

Chicago

Sieben Brewing Co.

Chicago

Tap and Growler

Berwyn

Weinkeller

Berwyn

Indiana

Indianapolis Brewing Co.

Indianapolis

Iowa

Dubuque Star Brewing Company

Dubuque

Fitzpatrick's Brewing

Iowa City

Grain Processing Corporation

Muscatine

Millstream Brewing Co.

Amana

Kansas

Free State Brewing Company Inc.

Lawrence

Kentucky

Oldenberg Brewing Co.

Ft. Mitchell

Louisiana

Abite Brewing Company Inc.

Abite Springs

Maine

Brew Associates

Portland

Coastal Brewing Inc

Portland

D.L. Geary Brewing Company Inc.

Portland

Gritty McDuff

Portland

Maryland

Baltimore Brewing Co.

Baltimore

British Brewing Co.

Glen Burnie

Sissons Restaurant South

Baltimore

Wild Goose Brewing Co.

Cambridge

Massachusetts

The Boston Brewery

Boston

Cambridge Brewing Co.

Cambridge

The Commonwealth Brewing Co., Ltd.

Boston

Mass. Bay Brewing Company Inc.

Boston

Northhampton Brewery

Northhampton

Michigan

Kalamazoo Brewing Co. Inc.

Kalamazoo

Minnesota

Brew Pubs, Inc.

Minneapolis

Cold Spring Brewing Company

Cold Spring

James Page Brewing Company

Minneapolis

James Page Brewing Company

New Ulm


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Summit Brewing Company

St. Paul

Sherlock's Home

Minnetonka

Taps Waterfront

Minneapolis

Missouri

Boulevard Brewing Co.

Kansas City

Montana

Bayern Brewing Inc.

Missoula

Montana Beverages Ltd.

Helena

Nevada

Union Brewery Beed

Virginia City

New Jersey

Clemment Brewing Co.

Vernon

Eastern Brewing Corp.

Hammonton

New Mexico

Albuquerque Brewing and Bottling Co.

Albuquerque

Preston Brewery Inc.

Embudo

The Santa Fe Brewing Co. Inc.

Gailsteo

New York

Brooklyn Brewery

Brooklyn

Buffalo Brew Pub

Amherst

Buffalo Brewing Co.

Lackawanna

The Manhattan Brewing Co. Inc.

New York City

The Old New York Brewing Co. Inc.

New York City

Rochester Brewpub

Henrietta

W.A. Gillespie Brewing Co. Inc.

Yonkers

Wm. S. Newman Brewing Co. Inc.

Albany

North Carolina

Dilworth Brewing Co.

Charlotte

Greenshields Pub and Brewery

Raleigh

Loggerhead Brewing

Greensboro

Weeping Radish Brewery and Restaurant

Manteo

Weeping Radish Durham Ltd.

Partners

Durham

Ohio

Cleveland Brewing Co.

Cleveland

Columbus Brewing Co.

Columbus

Great Lakes Brewing Co.

Cleveland

Hoster Brewing Co.

Columbus

Oregon

Bayfront Brewery

Newport

Bridgeport Brewing Company, Inc.

Portland

Cornelius Pass Roadhouse & Brewery

Hillsboro

Deschutes Brewery and Public House

Bend

Eugene City Brewing Co.

Creswell

Fulton Pub and Brewery

Portland

Highland Pub and Brewery

Gresham

High Street Pub

Eugene

Hillsdale Brewery and Public House

Portland

Hood River Brewing Company

Hood River

Lighthouse Brew Pub, Inc.

Lincoln City

McMennamin's

beaverton

Oak Hills Brewpub

Beaverton

Oregon Trail Brewery

Corvallis

Pizza Deli

Cave Junction

Portland Brewing Company

Portland

Rogers Zoo

North Bend

Rogue Brewing Co. & Public House

Ashland

Steelhead Brewing Co.

Eugene

Thompson Brewery

Salem

Widmer Brewing Company (2)

Portland

Pennsylvania

Dock Street Brewing Co.

Philadelphia

Happy Valley Brewery

State College

Pennsylvania Brewing Co.

Pittsburgh

Samuel Adams Brewhouse

Philadelphia

Stoudt Brewing Company

Adamstown

Rhode Island

Hope Brewing Co.

Prividence

South Carolina

New World Brewery Inc.

Aiken

Tennessee

Bohannon Brewing Co.

Nashville

Texas

Addison Brewing Company

Addison

Dallas Brewing Co.

Dallas

Reinheitsgebot Brewing Company

Plano

Utah

Salt Lake City Brewing Co.

Salt Lake City

Schirf Brewing Co./Wasatch Brewpub

Park City

Vermont

Catamount Brewing Company

White River Junction

Mountain Brewers Inc.

Bridgewater

The Vermong Pub and Brewery

Burlington


Page 107

Virginia

Blue Ridge Brewing Co.

Charlottesville

The 19th Street Brewery

Virginia Beach

Old Dominion Brewing Co.

Ashburn

Virginia Brewing Co. (2)

Virginia Beach

Washington

Big Time Brewing Co.

Seattle

Fort Spokane Brewery Inc.

Spokane

Hale's Ales Limited

Colville

Hale's Ales Limited

Kirkland

Hart Brewing, Inc.

Kalama

Kemper Brewing Company

Poulsbo

Kufnerbrau

Munroe

Noggins Brewpub

Seattle

Pike Place Brewery, Inc.

Seattle

Red Hook Ale Brewery

Seattle (2)

Roslyn Brewing Co.

Roslyn

Tri-City Brewing Company, Inc.

Kennewick

Yakima Brewing and Malting Co., Inc.

Yakima

Wisconsin

Appleton Brewing Co.

Appleton

Bio-Technical Resources Inc.

Manitowoc

Brewmaster's Pub Ltd.

Kenosha

Capital Brewery Co., Inc.

Middleton

Capital Brewery Co., Inc.

Monroe

Cherryland Brewing, Ltd.

Sturgeon Bay

Chilton Malting Company, Inc.

Chilton

Lakefront Brewery, Inc.

Milwaukee

Sprecher Brewing Co.

Milwaukee

Walter Street Brewing Co.

Milwaukee

Wyoming

Otto Brother's Brewing Co., Inc.

Wilson

Source: Modern Brewery Age Blue Book (1990), Brewers Almanac (1990).

Microbrewery References

Trade magazines:

The New Brewer, P.O. Box 287, Boulder, CO 80306.

All About Beer, 4764 Galacia Way, Oceanside, CA 92056.

Brewer's Bigest, 4049 W. Peterson Ave., Chicago, IL 60646.

Modern Brewery Age, 50 Day Street, Norwalk, CT 06854.

Suppliers:

JV Northwest, 28120 S.W. Boberg Rd., Willsonville, OR 97070.

Pub Brewing Company, 185 Route 17 North, Mahwah, NJ 07430.

Consultants:

Siebel Institute, 4055 W. Peterson Ave., Chicago, IL 60646.


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6

Barley and Malt

N. T. Kendall

Brewing and Malting Barley Research Institute, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

I. Introduction

Barley is the world's most important cereal after wheat, maize, and rice. Much of the world's barley is produced in regions where the environment is less suitable for other major cereals. From the equator to 70N, from moist northern Europe to arid Australia, from below sea level in the Middle East to high altitudes in the Himalayas, ubiquitous barley is being sown or harvested throughout the year. As shown in Table 1, barley production fluctuates, but the trend is always upward.

Table 2 shows average barley yields in the principal barley-producing countries of the world. European yields are highest for some or all of the following reasons: (a) Abundant, reliable rainfall. (b) A long growing season. Many producers sow winter varieties, as do Australians. (They do not enjoy abundant rain.) Although better able to adapt to harsher terrain, barley is less cold tolerant than wheat. For this reason most of the barley grown in the former Soviet Union and North America is sown in the spring. (c) Deep rich soils, cultivated and fertilized over hundreds of years. Land values in highly populated regions encourage intensive cropping techniques.

This chapter concerns barley for malting. Worldwide, the greatest use for barley is livestock feed.

A. Origins of Barley

Fragments of barley grains and husks, C14 dated at approximately 7900 B.C., have been found in Iran. In 1979, an article in Science placed the origins of barley some 10,000 years before this date. Further evidence of the antiquity of barley is the diversity of genetic forms. Predominant types evolved to fit prevailing conditions in very different regions.

Ancient Chinese beers, called kiu, were brewed over 4000 years ago from barley, maize, and millet, as well as from rice. In ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, hieroglyphs indicate that barley was the grain of preference for brewing. Barley was introduced much


Page 11

for example, actions taken by the Federal Trade Commission working to enforce such fairtrade legislation as the Robinson-Patman Act.

c. The Environmental Protection Agency. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) polices the brewing industry just as it does other industries. It scrutinizes what brewers take from the environment, what they do with it, and what they send back. The brewing industry is more fortunate than many industries because it is relatively clean. Water, grains, and other natural food substances are the raw materials used and their residues are relatively harmless. Some volatile matter does escape from the brew kettle and brewing waste streams do have high biological demand values. This makes their disposal relatively expensive since a waste treatment facility must be employed to reduce this material to elemental innocuous substances that will not harm public streams.

Modern breweries recover every waste material they can and remove as much water from the material as is practicable and sell the residue primarily to the animal feed industry or, in several instances, to the food industry (see Chapter 18 for details).

The EPA monitors the effluent streams leaving the brewery, the volatile matter in its stack exhaust, and the volume of waste materials that follow disposal channels. They also monitor the volume of water used by the brewery. This usage is considerable since a successful brewery operation is kept extremely clean. There has been cooperation between the EPA and the brewing community to keep any adverse environmental influence as minimal as possible.

B. Government Regulation in Other Countries

As stated earlier, other countries regulate their brewing industries essentially the same as the United States. Several have been at it much longer. Many of the laws are similardoubtless this is the result of one country copying what had been proven useful in another. There are some marked differences. The German Reinheitsgebot, a law that forbids the use of any grain material except German malt for brewing beer to be sold in Germany, has been severely curtailed by court action. The ownership of pubs by brewing companies was allowed in England; recently, however, this practice has been severely curtailed. Countries in the rest of the democratic world forbid this practice.

C. Regulation by the States

States regulate several aspects of beer marketing but not uniformly. A brief summary of the regulations are given here.

1. Labeling Requirements

The Federal Alcohol Administration has developed a set of labeling regulations for the states to adopt; about half the states use them. Some states require a statement of alcohol content on the label, others do not. No uniform pattern is followed, although several states require that a brewer get premarketing approval of his labels. The BATF labeling regulations on ingredients, the adjunct list, and the FDA label requirements, need not be repeated extensively in the state requirements; beer being shipped across state boundaries is subject to federal regulations.

2. Alcohol Content

Control of alcoholic content seems to have a particular appeal to the various states, although there is only general agreement on what level of alcohol should be in the beers sold within their boundaries.


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Table 1 Production of Barley by Major Producing Countries (Thousands of Tons)198219831984198519861987198819891990Average

Denmark 6537 4423 6072 5251 5134 4292 5419 4982 43505402

France 10,036 8759 11,699 11,470 9950 10,528 9800 9840 10,0009314

W. Germany 9460 8944 10,284 9690 9377 8571 9587 9716 90509314

Spain 5269 6662 10,789 10,698 7431 9282 12,070 9100 95008476

United Kingdom 10,960 9980 11,055 9470 10,015 9225 8705 8070 78069830

E. Germany 4055 3882 4138 4366 4293 4198 3798 4700 44004089

Poland 3647 3262 3555 4086 4412 4335 3800 3904 38203796

USSR 43,000 50,000 41,800 46,500 53,889 58,409 44,463 48,509 56,00046,612

China, P. Rep. 6968 6807 7296 6243 5632 6041 6180 5688 57006478

Turkey 6400 5425 6500 6500 6300 6000 7000 4900 60036022

Australia 1939 4890 5554 4868 3611 3477 3301 4100 36083787

Canada 13,966 10,209 10,279 12,387 14,634 13,957 10,212 11,672 13,00012,230

United States 11,233 11,066 13,021 12,850 13,249 11,354 6314 8784 876010,604

Other 33,544 30,381 33,476 33,342 34,464 30,842 36,623 34,769 34,04033,191

Total166,834164,690175,518177,991182,391 9800167,272168,734176,037170,238


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Table 2 Yield of Barley Crops by Major Producing Countries (Tons per hectare)198219831984198519861987198819891990Average

Denmark 4.28 3.25 5.15 4.76 4.76 4.55 4.65 4.98 4.524.54

France 4.2 4.09 5.35 5.1 4.8 5.35 5.26 5.39 5.585.01

W. Germany 4.68 4.4 5.13 4.97 4.82 4.64 5.22 5.56 5.364.98

Spain 1.46 1.78 2.68 2.52 1.71 2.13 2.89 2.14 2.142.16

United Kingdom 4.93 4.66 5.59 4.96 5.22 5.01 4.55 4.86 4.764.95

E. Germany 4.13 4.37 4.78 4.95 4.8 4.71 4.35 5.24 4.814.68

Poland 2.95 2.97 3.37 3.29 3.3 3.37 3.04 3.32 3.213.2

USSR 1.45 1.58 1.37 1.6 1.8 1.91 1.5 1.75 2.11.67

China, P. Rep. 1.81 1.77 1.94 1.81 1.68 1.78 1.67 1.74 1.771.77

Turkey 2.04 1.872 1.94 1.97 1.88 2.12 1.46 1.781.9

Australia 0.79 1.57 1.58 1.48 1.56 1.46 1.47 1.74 1.571.46

Canada 2.71 2.35 2.25 2.61 3.03 2.79 2.46 2.39 2.812.6

United States 3.08 2.81 2.86 2.74 2.73 2.82 2.04 2.61 2.862.73

Other 1.82 1.68 1.97 1.77 1.88 1.73 2.02 2.05 1.821.86

Total40.3339.1546.0244.544.0644.1643.2445.2345.093.11

later to the New World, Oceania, and other former colonies for precisely the same reason. Early settlers recognized the benefits of good, potable beer.

Barley is preferred by brewers and maltsters because it retains its husk during processing. Wheat and rye lose their husk during harvest, but can be malted, especially for distillers. Malting barley can be simply defined as barley that will make good malt. The adhering husk is exploited in two ways:

1. To protect the growing acrospire or sprout during germination, and thus permit complete modification of the barley endosperm. During germination, barley is gently turned to prevent the rootlets from matting together. Delicate acrospires of unprotected kernels would be damaged or broken by the turning and further germination and modification might cease.

2. To filter insoluble material from the wort (unfermented beer) during lautering. Insoluble material, if boiled in the brew kettle, imparts an undesirable grainy taste to beer and can upset physical stability as well.

B. Botany

Barley is a grass of the family Gramineae, subfamily Festucoideae, tribe Triticeae, and genus Hordeum. Although related to wheat and rye, neither has formed a viable hybrid with barley, which is further evidence for the antiquity of barley.

Kernel characteristics and certain special features of the spike (head, ear) are the significant parts of the plant's anatomy for this review. Knowledge of their morphology and function is at the heart of varietal identification by other than chemical means.

The spike consists of flowers arranged in single-flowered spikelets, attached to each node of a flat, zigzag rachis. Each spikelet bears two glumes and a floret. Kernels develop from fertile spikelets. Six-rowed barley has three kernels at each node on alternate sides of the ear, resulting in six rows of kernels. In two-rowed barley, only one kernel devel-


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ops at each node on alternate sides and results in two rows of kernels. Lateral kernels have insufficient space for symmetrical development. As they grow, they must overlap, which imparts a twist. Two-thirds of the kernels of six-rowed varieties are thus affected. In a mixture, this trait affords a means of determining the proportion of each type. All two-rowed kernels are symmetrical. Identification features include awn characteristics, the ratio of width to length, differences in the ventral crease, and the nature of the hairs on the rachis and glumes. Figure 1 shows the anatomy of a barley corn.

Threshing separates the barley kernel from the rachis leaving a scarlike basal marking. A ventral crease extends down the length of the grain beneath the husk ending at the awn tip; the awn is generally broken away during threshing so that only a broken tip remains. The awn is the beard of barley. The embryo is located dorsally near the basal marking. Ragged rachillae, sometimes with hairs attached, extend briefly along the ventral crease. Two brachts cover the barley kernel; the palea surrounds the ventral surface while the lemma covers the dorsal side and overlays the margins of the palea. A porelike structure called a micropyle is located near the basal marking and embryo. It appears to regulate and direct the penetration of water and air into the embryo. Tiny fissures or cracks in the lemma also appear to permit moisture permeation into the kernel.

Both six-rowed and two-rowed barleys make excellent malts and beers. For a fuller discussion of the anatomical aspects of barley, the reader is referred to Hough, Briggs, and Stevens (1971) and Adamic (1977).

C. Selection and Grading of Malting Barley

Malting barley usually commands a premium price over feed grades, because of higherquality criteria. In many years malt barley is a cereal farmer's most lucrative crop, while feed barley may pay the least. Grades are established to provide a basis on which to nego-

Figure 1

Gross anatomy of a barley kernel.


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tiate the premium. Grading systems are often numerical and, for the most part, applied by visual inspection.

1. Barley Selection

Barley selectors are familiar with the kernel characteristics of those varieties they wish to buy. Whether or not a sample merits further consideration for intake into the malthouse is decided within seconds. Visual variety identification may be complemented by physical tests. The pattern produced by electrophoretic separation of the proteins is compared with that of a known standard. Unequivocal identification of the variety by DNA fingerprinting or antibody techniques is now available.

Malting barley growers know the quality factors involved, and what must be done in the field to achieve them. Typically these factors include:

1. A pure lot of an acceptable variety.

2. Freedom from immaturity, disease, stain and weathering, and damage by frost or hightemperature drying. Barley with these faults will not attain over 95% germination and vigorous growth.

3. Less than 5% peeled and broken kernels.

4. A moisture content below 14%.

5. Plump uniform kernels (based on retention on screens).

6. An acceptable protein level, which varies from 913%, in approximate proportion with the starch-based adjunct levels used by brewers.

D. Development of New Malting Barley Varieties

Over 90% of the malt produced from malting barley is purchased by brewers. Malting barley breeders are well aware of the qualities required in cultivars destined for brewing. In addition, any new malting line must be agronomically competitive with barleys designed for animal feed only.

Barley is a self-pollinating crop. This means that the offspring of any plant are genetically identical to that plant and to each other. Breeders create variability by preventing self-pollination (removing the anthers) and introducing pollen from another plant. Superior types from the progeny are then selected. At least ten years of testing ensue to be certain that the new variety offers advantages to both industry and grower.

Barley breeding is conducted by private companies, universities, and in some cases, by publicly funded research stations. Following the initial cross, seed is grown out and may be increased in a growth chamber. Selected plants, now known as the F2 generation, are grown out. During winter, seed may be sent to warmer climes to allow two generations to develop in the same year. Succeeding generations are tested for field yields, disease resistance, and malt quality.

Cultivars with potential proceed to larger-scale trials, conducted within the proposed area of adaptation. Individual countries vary in their testing, but in general, lines must show promise within three years of cooperative trials. The American Malting Barley Association, the Barley and Malt Group of the European Brewing Congress (EBC), the Brewing and Malting Barley Research Institute in Canada, and parallel organizations in other countries become involved when malting quality is gauged. New varieties should at least be equal to, and preferably superior to, recognized standards.

Superior lines advance to pilot-scale malting and brewing by the industry. Concurrently with the last two years of field trials and seed increases, plant-scale brews are made


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to confirm commercial acceptability. After 1012 years the new variety is released. Fewer than one in 10,000 crosses make it to variety status.

E. Barley Genetics

The science of genetics can be used to predict only the simplest crosses. The number of pure lines possible from a cross increases geometrically with the number of factors by which the parents differ. In other words, if the parents differ in 21 respects, then 221 or 2,097,152 different pure lines could be produced.

Chromosomes are those structures inside every cell, along which the genes are arranged. Genes are made of DNA. Barley has seven pairs of chromosomes and the number of genes is variously estimted in the hundreds of thousands. Recent research has pinpointed the location of certain genes on certain chromosomes. From a collaborative effort between research scientists, a map is being compiled, using restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RELPs) to show these locations. Armed with such a map, breeders will simply have to look for a certain gene to know that a plant will have the characteristic(s) conferred by that gene. This can be done on any small bit of tissue, such as the first leaf. It will no longer be necessary to wait for the plant to mature to test for a desired trait. Time and expense will be saved.

Field trials and commercial brews will always be the final arbiters. The interested reader will find further information on barley and malting science in Shewry (1992) and Palmer (1989).

F. Malting Barley Varieties

Most brewers prefer to use relatively few varieties in their grists (the mixture of ground cereals added to water in the mash mixer). Few names are long remembered, as they are rendered obsolete by an increasing rate of replacement. Rare is the variety that has been in use for more than ten years.

Some currently acceptable varieties are:

United States

Robust, Excel, Morex

Canada

Harrington, Bonanza, Argyle

New Zealand

Triumph, Corniche

Australia

Schooner, Grimmett

Europe

Pipkin, Halcyon, Alexis, Plaisant, Triumph

Plant breeders have proprietary rights in most countries and have a vested interest in the promotion of their lines. Marginal varieties can be released, leaving the market rather than the selection process to decide.

Since 1950, there has been a steady rise in field yields and brewhouse extracts. To what extent these increases are due to superior varieties, improved soil management, or better disease and predator control is difficult to assess.

Future barleys will have equally active enzyme systems from reduced levels of protein, modify rapidly, and produce worts of low viscosity. They will incorporate genetic resistance to predators and pathogens for both economic and ecological reasons.

G. The Malting Industry

Since breweries are by far the largest users of malt, it is not surprising that the development of the malting industry parallels that of the breweries. Many older breweries used to


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have malthouses on the premises, some still do. Most countries now have independent maltsters, vying for the available trade.

The location of malting plants is determined by the physical requirements of the process which are:

1. A supply of malting barley;

2. Ample water of excellent quality, together with effluent removal facilities;

3. A reliable supply of energy; and

4. Access to transport.

In general, equipment in malthouses is modern and highly automated. Major improvements have been made in energy efficiency, dust and noise control, and pollution reduction. Some plants use compartments, while others employ rotating drums or the wanderhaufen system (moving heap in which the whole batch moves slowly along the compartment). Space and energy are saved in tower maltings.

Most production is in batches, varying up to 200 tons at steep (see Sec. I.M.2). There are few truly continuous malting plants, and fewer mini- or micromalting operations as there are mini- or microbreweries.

In direct heating of the kiln and traces of sulfur eliminate any possibility of nitrosamine (a suspected carcinogen) formation.

H. The Malting Process

Malting is a controlled natural process rather than a manufacturing operation. Essentially, barley kernels are allowed to grow under precisely defined conditions in order to bring about specific, desirable changes in the physical and chemical properties of the kernel. Growth is then stopped by removal of water. Flavor components are developed by gently heating and curing the malt.

Finished malt resembles barley, but only superficially. Within the kernel, natural enzymes formed and stimulated by controlled moisture, aeration, and temperature have:

1. Broken down cell wall material in the endosperm;

2. Rendered some of the protein soluble in water; and

3. Started to degrade some of the starch granules to fermentable sugars.

As mentioned earlier, malting barley is barley that will produce good malt. Feed varieties simply do not have the enzymatic profile required to produce a good beer. Years of good breeding and rigorous testing have gone into every malting variety to ensure that brewers' specifications can be met. Barley is cleaned, sized, segregated by variety and protein content, and stored for several months to break any dormancy.

Barley entering a malthouse becomes food for human consumption, so the presence of rodents, birds, or insects is unacceptable. The amount of water-soluble extract obtained from malt is dependent to a large extent on the amount of starch in the kernel. From this extract brewers produce beer. The economic significance of extract from malt is that it is the highest raw material cost in beer. Low-protein (13% dry basis or lower), plump kernels have a higher proportion of starch and, other factors being equal, produce a higherquality brewers' malt. To ensure that these quality criteria are met, barley purchased for malting throughout the world is selected and tested by individual lots. Figure 2 shows a typical schematic flowchart of the malting process. The following steps are involved.

1. Cleaning and Grading

On intake, barley is cleaned to remove dust, chaff, weed seeds, thin barley, and other grains. The amount of cleanout varies with the plumpness and cleanliness of the crop, and may


Page 116

Figure 2

Schematic flowchart of malthouse.


Page 117

be as high as 8%. This represents a direct and significant loss to the maltster, as the rejected material is sold as a by-product at prices very much below that paid for malting barley.

Cleaned barley is graded according to size. Plump and medium grades of barley, retained in sieves with slots 2.5, 2.4, 2.2 and 2.0 mm wide are malted separately. Barley that passes through a 2.0 or 2.2 mm sieve is too thin for malting and is sold as feed. The plumper grades of barley are used to produce brewers' malt while the thinner, higher-protein grades are used to produce distillers' malt, for which higher enzyme levels are required. To reduce protein in the kernel, late additions of nitrogen fertilizer to the growing plant should be avoided.

2. Steeping

Growth is initiated by the absorption of water into the kernel in conical-bottomed steep tanks. Water at 1216C and air, and air separately, are provided to barley over a period of 4048 h. Water enters the embryo through the micropyle, a small opening, until the moisture content of the kernels rises to 44 to 46%. The water is changed every 68 h, and is never recycled. Malthouses create a significant volume of effluent with a high BOD (biological oxygen demanda measure of the amount of oxygen required to eliminate pollution). The initial flush removes surface dust, soil, and microorganisms, and leaches out some tannins. Tannins are husk components with an astringent taste; several have been found to inhibit barley germination. Compressed air bubbled through the steep agitates the barley to ensure all surfaces are washed.

The kernel embryo gets a disproportionate share of the early moisture. When moisture of the grain is about 35%, the embryo will contain 70%; this stimulates germination. Gibberellins, plant hormones, are synthesized by the embryo and diffuse to the aleurone layer of the barley kernel. Here they stimulate the production of hydrolytic enzymes capable of degrading barley starch granules, protein, and nucleic acids. Enzyme production also takes place in the embryo.

Later aerations remove the carbon dioxide formed as a respiratory product of initial growth. The final aeration is called the couch in which the barley rests. Maltsters arrange for the barley to leave the steep about 1C above the temperature of the germination stage.

3. Germination

From the steep tank, the barley falls by gravity, or is gently conveyed to the germination vessel. Over a period of four days at 1316C and 100% humidity the barley grows. The bed is gently turned by machine to prevent the rootlets from matting and to promote uniform growth throughout the bed. The acrospire grows under the hull about three-quarters of the length of the kernel. Heat and carbon dioxide are the principal by-products of kernel respiratory activity as it provides the energy required to carry out the germinative changes.

Using large volumes of air and water sprays, the temperature is controlled and carbon dioxide removed. Germination is considered complete when the endosperm is fully modified, which means:

1. The cell walls are largely dissolved to expose the starchy interiors of the cells. When crushed between finger and thumb a smooth paste should be revealed.

2. Those catabolic enzymes are formed which will convert high-molecular-weight carbohydrates to low-molecular-weight carbohydrates and sugars.


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3. Degradation of some proteins to soluble peptides has begun. These peptides will nourish yeast in the fermentation process; some will remain in the finished beer giving it mouthfeel and texture. Fully germinated barley is called green malt. Germination is carried out in drums, on rotating floors, in Saladin boxes or the wanderhaufen system, in batch sizes from 60 to 250 tons. At this point, germination is halted by the removal of water in a kiln. A more detailed discussion of the physiology and biochemistry of malting can be found in Hough et al. (1982) or MacGregor and Bhatty (1993).

4. Kilning

Kilning can be carried out in the same vessel as germination. To save energy, kilns are often arranged on two levels, one directly above the other. Initial drying takes place in the upper kiln, using the residual moisture removing capacity in the warm air coming from the lower kiln. Air fully laden with moisture is then exhausted to the atmosphere.

To prevent denaturation of the enzymes required by the brewing process, green malt is gently dried. The drying air temperature is increased from 50C through various levels to a final temperature around 80C. Air forced through the bed gradually lowers the moisture content of the malt to 4%. Removal of water is relatively easy at first, but becomes more difficult as water from the center of the kernel must be transported.

Later stages of kilning are referred to as the curing process, during which most of the flavor components of malt are generated. These are predominantly heat-induced chemical compounds called Maillard reaction products; they characteristically develop when amino acids and sugars are heated together. Prolonging curing or raising the temperature increases the color of the malt by extending the Maillard reaction and selectively varies the proportion of surviving enzymes. Sophisticated controls recycle the warm air to make certain that no drying power is needlessly lost. Following kilning, the brittle rootlets are easily removed and sold as a high protein (25% dry basis) feed supplement for livestock.

The malt is stored, often for several weeks, to regain homogeniety and equilibrium, prior to blending and shipment. Only at this final stage is blending carried out in order to meet varying customer specifications. Malt is shipped to domestic breweries by dedicated rail cars or truck. For export, bags or containers are used. Malt is hygroscopic and must be kept dry.

The yield of malt from barley is about 75%. Some typical losses consist of:

Cleanout from raw barley

79%

Respiration during steeping and germination

45%

Drying (barley, 13.3%; malt; 4%)

910%

Malt rootlets and hulls

34%

5. Malt Analysis and Shipment

Control of all aspects of the steeping, germinating, and kilning process must be reliable and precise. Variances as small as 1% in the moisture level or 1C in the temperature have a significant effect on the analytical values of the final malt.

Customers require differing analyses to meet their own product specifications, but most will want to know:

1. Extractboth as is and dry basis, from coarsely and finely ground malt.

2. Moisture content.

3. Diastatic power, the time to render all the starch soluble, the content of a-amylases.

4. Malt protein, wort protein, and viscosity.

5. pH and color of wort made from the malt.


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Table 3 Typical Purchase Specifications for Brewers' MaltPhysical analysisHectoliter wt. (kg/h) 56.3Growth (acrospire length01/4

01/41/2

01/23/4

93/41

86overgrown

5100 kernel wt. (gs), dry basis (DB) 35.1Assortmenton 7/64 in. screen (2.73 mm)

58.3on 6/64 in. screen (2.34 mm)

33.5on 5/64 in. screen (1.95 mm)

7.2through 5/64 in. screen (1.95 mm)

1.0Chemical analysisMoisture (%) 4.1Extract, fine grind (as is) (%) 78.5Extract, coarse grind (as is) (%) 77.1Extract, fine grind (DB) (%) 81.9Extract, coarse grind (DB) (%) 80.4Difference, (DB) (%) 1.5Conversion (min)

handbook of brewing

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