Handbook ofDrug Abuse Prevention

Edited by

Zili SlobodaThe University of Akron

Akron, Ohio

and

William J. BukoskiNational Institute on Drug Abuse

Bethesda, Maryland

Springer

Contents

I. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

1. The Emerging Science of Drug Abuse Prevention 3William J. Bukoski

Introduction 3Landmarks of Drug Abuse Prevention Science 4The Future Direction of Drug Abuse Prevention Science:

Bridging Neurobiological, Behavioral, and Prevention Sciences 10The Public Health Model and Genetic Epidemiology 12Prevention Research on Gene-Environment Interactions 13The Importance of Basic Neurobiological Research for Prevention Science 15The Interaction between Biology and Environment:

Implications for Advancing Prevention Science 16Summary 20

II. SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF PREVENTION

2. Effective Mass Media Strategies for Drug Abuse Prevention Campaigns 27Philip Palmgreen and Lewis Donohew

Introduction 27Effects of Televised Public Service Ads 29What Works and Why 31A Sensation-Seeking Approach to Drug Abuse Prevention 31

Sensation Seeking 32Sensation Seeking and Substance Use 32Message Sensation Value and SENTAR 34Summary of SENTAR Principles 37The Flexibility of SENTAR 38Extensions to Nonmedia Settings 39

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3. Drug Abuse Prevention Curricula in Schools 43Gilbert J. Botvin and Kenneth W. Griffin

Introduction 45Traditional Prevention Approaches 46

Information Dissemination and Fear Arousal 46Affective Education 48Alternatives Programming 48

Social-Influence Approaches 50Psychological Inoculation 50Correcting Normative Expectations 50Social Resistance Skills Training 51

Competence-Enhancement Approaches 60Beyond Social Influences 60Toward Generic Skills Training Approaches 61

Issues in School-Based Prevention 62: Program Development 62

Program Implementation 63Program Evaluation 66Program Dissemination 68

Conclusion 69

4. Dissemination of Research-Based Family Interventions for the Preventionof Substance Abuse 75Kami L Kumpfer and Steve Alder

Introduction 75Adolescent Drug Abuse 76Why Family-Strengthening Interventions Are Needed 76Need To Improve the Dissemination of Effective Interventions 77The Powerful Influence of Families on Youth 78

Family Protective and Resilience Factors 79Literature and Practice Searches for Effective Family Interventions 79

Behavioral Parent Training 80Family Skills Training or Behavioral Family Therapy 81Family Therapy 82In-Home Family Support 82

Family Interventions that Address Risk and Protective Factors 83Principles of Effective Family-Focused Interventions 83Dissemination of Effective Family-Focused Interventions 88Recommended Future Family Intervention Research 89

Research on Effective Dissemination Strategies of Science-BasedFamily Programs 89Applied Research on the Effectiveness of Science-Based Programswith Diverse Populations 90Research on the Relative Effects of Family-Focusedversus Child-Focused Interventions 90Longitudinal Studies of Family Intervention Effectiveness 91Cost-Benefit and Cost-Effectiveness Analyses 91

Conclusion 91

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5. Peers and the Prevention of Adolescent Drug Use 101E. R. Oetting and R. S. Lynch

Introduction 101The Paths to Drug Abuse 104

Developmental Stages in the Evolution of Drug Use 106The Family 108The School 109Peers 110Other Socialization Factors I l l

Personality and the Formation of Deviant Peer Clusters 112Deviant Norms 115Sensation Seeking 115Summary: Personality Traits and Deviance 116

Prevention and Peers 116Changing Social Norms 118

" Changing Risk Factors 119Conclusion 119

6. Mobilizing Communities To Reduce Risk for Drug Abuse:A Comparison of Two Strategies 129Michael W. Arthur, Charles D. Ayers, Kelly A. Graham, and J. David Hawkins

Introduction 129Social Development Model 130Community Mobilization 131Overview of the Interventions 132

Method 133Data Collection 133Data Analysis 134

Results 134Community Mobilization 134Transfer of the Science-Based Prevention Technology 135Completion of Community Risk Assessments 136Completion of Risk-Reduction Action Plans 136Implementation of Risk-Reduction Activities 138

Discussion 138Implications for Science-Based Prevention Programming 140

Directions for Further Study 142

7. Community-Focused Drug Abuse Prevention 145Barry M. Kibel and Harold D. Holder

Introduction 145The Emergence of Coalitions 146Beyond Simple System Solutions 147Drug Abuse Prevention: What Works 150

Environmental Strategies 151Oases of Stability 151

New Challenges for Community-Focused Planning 152New Challenges for Community-Focused Evaluation 153

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New Challenges for Community-Focused Research 154Conclusion 155

8. Drug Abuse Prevention in the Workplace 157Royer F. Cook

Introduction 157The Scope of the Problem: The Prevalence and Impact of Substance Abuse

in the Work Force 158Theoretical Perspectives 159Programs, Practices, and Data 162

Employee Assistance Programs 162Drug Testing Programs 163Health Promotion Approaches 164

Conclusion 169

9. Prevention Approaches in Methadone Treatment Settings:Children of Drug Abuse Treatment Clients 173Richard F. Catalano, Kevin P. Haggerty, and Randy R. Gainey

Introduction 173Risk Factors for Teenage Drug Abuse 174Prevention in a Treatment Context 178Protective Factors 180Principles for Treatment Programs for Children 180Focus on Families 181

Parent Training 183Home-Based Case Management 185

Program Implementation Issues 189Outcome Summary 189Benefits and Costs 190Conclusion 190

III. PREVENTION AS SOCIAL CONTROL

10. Drug Tests in Prevention Research 199Robert L DuPont and Keith E. Saylor

Introduction 199Literature Review 200

Drug Testing in the Workplace 201Drug Testing in the Criminal Justice System 202Drug Testing in Athletic Programs 203Drug Testing of Youth 203

Psychological Mechanisms of Drug Testing: A Social Cognitive Perspective 204Outcome Expectations 204Perceived Self-Efficacy 204

Why Use Drug Tests in Research? 205Drug Tests and How They Work 208

Biology of Drug Use 208

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Drug-Testing Technology 209Other Methods 209Samples Tested 209Issues 211Practical Questions 212

Conclusion 212

11. Anti-Drug-Abuse Policies as Prevention Strategies 217Mary Ann Pentz

Introduction 217What is Prevention Policy? 218

Formal Regulations and Informal Directives 218Supply and Demand Reduction 219Levels of Prevention Policy: Federal, State, and Local 220How Local Policy Change Fits the Federal Agenda 222

; Theoretical Support for Local Policy Change 222Research Support for Local Policy Change 224Major Prevention Policy Research Issues 226Proposed Research Methods 227

Formative Evaluation Research 227Systemic Epidemiology 227Content and Process of Policy Change 229Developing Prevention Policy Typology 229Developing Measures and Variables 231Research and Measurement Designs 234Development and Refinement of Analysis Methods 235

An Ideal Prevention Policy 235Linking Compatible Policies 235Implementation of Mutually Enhancing Policies 236Use of Prevention Programs To Enhance Policy 237

Summary 237

IV. THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PREVENTION

12. Forging a Relationship between Drug Abuse Epidemiologyand Drug Abuse Prevention 245Zili Sloboda

Introduction 245The Roles of Epidemiology and Prevention 246

Epidemiology 246Prevention 246

Defining Drug Abuse 246Drug Use and Abuse in the United States 250

Prevalence (Existing Cases) of Drug Use 251Incidence (New Cases) of Drug Use 252Changing Trends in the Prevalence of Drug Use 253Emerging Drug Abuse Patterns 255

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Origins and Pathways to Drug Use and Abuse 256Dependence 257

Translating Epidemiology for Prevention 258Conclusion 260

13. Risk and Protective Factors of Adolescent Drug Use: Implicationsfor Prevention Programs 265Judith S. Brook, David W. Brook, Linda Richter, and Martin Whiteman

Introduction 265A Developmental Model 266

The Influence of Each Domain 267Interactions of Personality, Parental, and Peer Factors 273

Risk/Protective Interactions 273Protective/Protective Interactions 275

Implications for Prevention and Treatment 276Prevention Implications of Individual Domain Findings 276Implications of Domain Linkage Findings 277Implications of the Interactive Findings 278

Effective Prevention and Treatment Programs 279Developmental Timing of the Intervention 279Family Interventions 280Multidimensional, Broad-Based Interventions 281Selective or Targeted Intervention Programs 282

Conclusion 282

14. Bridging the Gap between Substance Use PreventionTheory and Practice 289Brian R. Flay and John Petraitis

Introduction 289Differences in SU and SU Prevention 289Major Influences on SU 291

Substance-Specific Cognitions 291Prior Experience with su 291Substance-Related Attitudes and Behaviors of Other People 292Family Environment 292Deviant Behaviors and Unconventional Values 292Personality Traits and Affective States 292Biological Influences 293Comorbidity 293Self-Medication 294

The Theory of Triadic Influence 294Three Streams and Multiple Levels of Influence 294Within-Stream Mediating Processes 295Between-Stream Influences 296Developmental Influences 297

The Role of Theory in SU Prevention 297Efforts To Incorporate Theory in su Prevention 299

Conclusion 301

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15. Preventive Intervention Targeting Precursors 307John E. Lochman

Introduction 307Childhood Aggression 307

Co-occurrence of Predictors 308Co-morbidity of Outcomes 309

Social Competence 310Physiological Arousal 311Prior Expectations 311Dominance Behaviors 312Stress and Coping 312Deviant Peer-Group Associations 313

Parenting Practices 313Harsh Parenting 314Poor Monitoring 315Parental Warmth 315Parenting and Childhood Temperament 316Parental and Childhood Social-Cognitive Processes 316

Preventive Intervention 317Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention 318Multicomponent Prevention Programs for Parents and Children 318

16. Designing Prevention Programs: The Developmental Perspective 327Marvin W. Berkowitz and Audrey L Begun

Introduction 327A Developmental Perspective 328

Proximal versus Distal Causes 328Developmental Tasks 330

Developmental Stages and Prevention 330Prenatal Development 330Infant and Toddler Development 332Preschool Development 334Elementary School Development 335Middle School and Early Adolescent Development 337High School and Middle to Late Adolescent Development 338Adult Development 340

Implications for Prevention 341Source and Focus of the Prevention Message 341Phenomenology of Receiving Prevention Messages 342Developmental Appropriateness 343

Conclusion 344

V. SPECIAL POPULATIONS

17. Gender Issues in Substance Abuse Prevention 351Louise Ann Rohrbach and Joel Milam

Introduction 351Gender Differences in the Prevalence of Drug Use 352

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Gender Differences in Onset and Stages of Drug Use 352Biological Factors 353

Risk and Protective Factors for Substance Abuse 353Early Precursors of Substance Abuse 354Social Environment Factors 354Psychosocial and Intrapersonal Factors 355Attitudes and Cognitions 356

Gender Issues in Treatment and Prevention 357Treatment Programs 357Prevention Programs 357Implications for Substance Use Prevention Interventions 358

Conclusion 359

18. Preventing Substance Use among Latino Youth 365Charles R. Martinez, Jr., J. Mark Eddy, and David S. DeGarmo

' Introduction 365Methodological Complexities 366Epidemiology of Substance Use 366Etiology of Substance Use 368

A Social Interaction Learning Perspective 369Acculturation and Related Issues 371A Convergent Perspective 372

Intervention Strategies 373Community Engagement 374Culturally Specified Latino Family Interventions 374Parent Training 375A Comprehensive Approach 376

Conclusion 376

19. African-American Substance Use Epidemiology and Prevention Issues 381William L Turner and Michael J. Hench

Introduction 381Prevalence of Substance Use and Abuse 382

Gender Differences 383Age Differences 383Disproportionate Adverse Consequences of Drug Use and Abuse 384

Prevention 385Family and Community Prevention Efforts 386

Treatment Considerations 388Conclusion 388

20. The Effectiveness of Alcohol and Drug Abuse Preventionamong American-Indian Youth 393Fred Beauvais and Joseph E. Trimble

Introduction 393Demography of American-Indians and Alaska Natives 394

Rates and Patterns of Substance Use 394Etiology and Correlates of Use 395

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Overview of Prevention Activities 396Social Skills 398Peers 399Family 399School-Based Programs 400Policy 400

Community-Centered Prevention 400Research Challenges 403Community Readiness 404Cultural Sensitivity 405

Conclusion and Future Directions 405

21. Drug Abuse Prevention Research for Asian and PacificIslander Americans 411W. William Chen• Introduction 411

Extent of Substance Use and Abuse among Asian and Pacific-Islanders 412Factors Affecting Drug Use and Abuse among Asian and Pacific-Islanders 415

Biophysiological Influences 415Ethnocultural Influences 416Psychosocial Influences 417

Prevention Research Targeted at Asian and Pacific-Islanders 418Methodological Issues Related To Prevention Research 419

Sample Selection 420Data Collection 420Survey Instruments 420

Summary and Recommendations 421Recommendations for Epidemiological Studies 421Recommendations for Primary Prevention Research 422Recommendations for Treatment/Tertiary Intervention 423Recommendations for Protective Factor Research 423

VI. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN BIOLOGY AND SOCIALCONTEXT—RISKS FOR MULTIPLE BEHAVIORAL ANDMENTAL DISORDERS

22. Basic Science and Drug Abuse Prevention: Neuroscience, Learning,and Personality Perspectives 429Michael T. Bardo, Thomas Kelly, Donald R. Lynam, and Richard Milich

Introduction 429Contributions from Neuroscience 430

Genetic Approaches 430Environmental Approaches 431

Contributions from Learning Theory 432Conditioning Theories 432Behavioral Pharmacology 433

The Contribution of Basic Research on Personality 435The Structure of Personality 436

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The Biology of Personality 437The Stability of Personality 437

Implications for Prevention Interventions 438Conclusion: Integrating Basic Sciences Research with Prevention 440

23. Cross-National Comparisons of Co-Morbidities between SubstanceUse Disorders and Mental Disorders 447Ronald C. Kessler, Sergio Aguilar-Gaxiola, Laura Andrade, Rob Bijl,Luiz Guilherme Borges, Jorge J. Caraveo-Anduaga, David J. DeWit, Bo Kolody,Kathleen R. Merikangas, Beth E. Molnar, William A. Vega, Ellen E. Walters,and Hans-Ulrich Wittchen

Introduction 448Methods 449

Samples 449Measures 451Analysis Methods 451

Results 452Prevalences of Substance Use, Problems, and Dependence 452Cross-Sectional Bivariate Co-Morbidities 453Temporal Priorities 455Predicting Substance Use Problems and Dependence 458Population-Attributable Risks of Substance Disorders

Due to Mental Disorders 467Discussion 468

24. Drug Prevention Research for High-Risk Youth 473Leona L Eggert and Brooke P. Randell

Introduction 473Influences on Adolescent Drug Involvement 474

Co-Occurring Drug Involvement, Aggression, Depression, ^and School Deviance 474Antecedent Risk Factors: Personal, School, Peer, and Family Influences 475

Comprehensive Indicated Prevention Approaches 477The Social Network Support Model 479Family-Focused Preventive Interventions 480School-Focused Preventive Interventions 483Peer-Focused Preventive Interventions 483Individual-Focused Preventive Interventions 485

Future Directions and Recommendations 485Generalization Studies 486Preintervention Studies 487

Conclusion 488

25. Research Designs for Family Studies 497Michael Vanyukov, Howard Moss, and Ralph E. Tarter

Introduction 497Definition of Family 498

Spatial Relationships among Family Members 498Temporal Relationships among Family Members 499

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General Model 500Ontogenetic Perspective of Substance Abuse Etiology 500

The High-Risk Paradigm 504Heightened Familial Risk for Substance Abuse 505A Categorical Approach to the Delineation of Elevated Familial Risk 505A Dimensional Approach to the Delineation of Heightened Familial Risk 506Between-Group Comparisons 507Retrospective, Cross-Sectional, and Prospective High-Risk Studies 508Family Resemblance and Transmission 508Contributions of the High-Risk Paradigm for Understanding DrugAbuse Etiology 510

Twin Paradigm 510Cross-Fostering (Adoption) Paradigm 513Twins Reared in Separate Environment Paradigm 514Reconstituted Family Paradigm 515

• Incomplete Nuclear Family Paradigm 515Summary 516

VII. RESEARCH DESIGN, MEASUREMENT, AND DATAANALYTIC ISSUES

26. Design Principles and Their Application in Preventive Field Trials 523C. Hendricks Brown

Introduction 523Direct and Indirect Estimation of a Prevention Program Effect 525Sources of Bias and Design Threats 527

Selection Bias 527Assignment Bias 527Statistical Power Threat 527Condition Bias 528Implementation Threat 528Participation Bias 528Measurement Threat 528Assessment Bias 528Attrition Bias 528Analysis Threat 529

Examples of Threats to Trial Integrity 529Design Threats in the Preintervention Stage 529Design Threats in the Intervention Stage 531Design Threats in the Postintervention Stage 535

Comparison of Different Threats Across Different Research Designs 536Combining Evidence Across Similar Intervention Trials 537

27. Major Data Analysis Issues in Drug Abuse Prevention Research 541David P. MacKinnon and James H. Dwyer

Introduction 541Planning the Experiment 541

Extra-Scientific Issues 542Design 542

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Data Collection 543Definition of the Theoretical Basis of the Program 544

Analysis Issues in the Estimation of Program Effects 545Mixed Model Analysis of Variance 545Analysis of Covariance 546Growth Models 546Categorical Dependent Variables 547Attrition 547Nested Effects 548Incomplete Randomization 548

Statistical Analysis of Mediating Variables 549Mediation Analysis 550

Future Directions 551Summary 552

28. Methodological Considerations in Prevention Research 557Linda M. Collins and Brian P. Flaherty

Introduction 557The Role of Theory and Models 557Measurement of a Single Variable 559

Reliability and Validity 559Validity and Reliability across Cultural Groups 560

Dealing with the Complexities of Change Over Time: Measurement 561Relationships among Constructs and Over Time 562

Statistical Power 562Effect Size 563Significance and Effect Size 563

Dealing with the Complexities of Change Over Time: Data Analysis 564Growth Curve Modeling 564Survival Analysis 565Latent Transition Analysis 565

The Trait-State Distinction 566Missing Data 567Mediation 568Reciprocal Causation 569Summary 570

29. Prevention Program Implementation 575Steven Schinke and Kristin Cole

Introduction 575Implementation Issues 576Case Study 577

Enhancing Sociocultural Relevance 577Ensuring Community Ownership 578Advisory Committee 580Volunteers 580Results of Community Organizing 580Benefits of Community Participation 581

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Drawbacks of Community Participation 582Assessing the Integrity of the Implementation 583

Conclusions and Recommendations 585

30. Family Management Practices: Research Designand Measurement Issues 587Thomas J. Dishion, Bert Burraston, and Fuzhong Li

Introduction 587The Study 588

Participants 589Procedures 589

Constructs 591Monitoring 591Limit Setting 591Relationship Quality 592Problem Solving 592Positive Reinforcement 593Authority Conflict 593Substance Use 593

Results 593Predictive Validity 600

Discussion 603Methodological Implications 603

Conclusion 604

31. Power Analysis Models and Methods: A Latent Variable Frameworkfor Power Estimation and Analysis 609Terry E. Duncan, Susan C. Duncan, and Fuzhong Li

Introduction 609Errors in Hypothesis Testing 610Sample Size, Effect Size, Level of Significance, and Determination of Power 613

Common Analytical Procedures for Power Estimation 614A Latent-Variable Framework for Analyses and Power Estimation 616

Extension of the Basic Growth Model for an Intervention Context 617Statistical Power Estimation 620

Conclusion 623

VIII. DRUG ABUSE PREVENTION: A LOOK INTO THE FUTURE

32. Application of Computer Technology to Drug Abuse Prevention 629Kris Bosworth

Introduction 629Technology Update 629

Interactive Voice Response Technology 632Computer-Mediated Communication 634Decision Support Systems 635Games 636The World Wide Web (Internet) 636

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Applications for Prevention 637Computer-Based Drug Abuse Prevention 639Lessons Learned 642Design and Development Issues 643Conclusion 644

33. Putting Science into Practice 649Gale Held

Introduction 649Diffusion and Knowledge Application Theory 649Potential Barriers to Applying Science to Practice 652

Different Interests/Different Jargon 652Timeliness 652Readiness 653From Ineffective Practice to Science-Based Practice 654

! Overcoming Barriers 655Research Design and Scope 655Knowledge Dissemination 656Guidelines and Knowledge Synthesis 659Application 662

Conclusion 666

Index 671