handbook of geotextiles - technicaltextile of geotextiles.pdf · 1 special publication no. 08.2.34...

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SPECIAL PUBLICATION No. 08.2.34 February, 2012

HANDBOOKOF

GEOTEXTILES

THE BOMBAY TEXTILE RESEARCH ASSOCIATIONL.B.S. MARG, GHATKOPAR (W), MUMBAI - 400086

TEL. : 022-25003651 / 2652EMAIL : [email protected]

WEBSITE : www.btraindia.com

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ISBN 978-81-7674-132-3

© 2012 THE BOMBAY TEXTILE RESEARCH ASSOCIATION

All rights reserved. No part of thispublication may be reproduced or used inany form, whatsoever without the writtenpermission from the publisher

Published by :THE BOMBAY TEXTILE RESEARCH ASSOCIATIONL.B.S. MARG, GHATKOPAR (W), MUMBAI - 400086TEL. : 022-25003651 / 2652Fax : 022 -25000459EMAIL : [email protected] : www.btraindia.com

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PREFACE

Geotech sector is one of the rapidly growing sectors of Indian technical textile industry. Estimates of

around 15-20% growth per annum are often talked about, for the next few years. This is obvious

because of the large number of projects that are on-going and in the pipeline in various parts of the

country, coupled with active role being played by the Ministry of Textiles; Government of India in

promoting these knowledge based textile products. The Centre of Excellence (COE) for Geotech set

up by the government of India at Bombay Textile Research Association (BTRA), Mumbai, is one of

the series of steps in this direction.

At BTRA, a state of the Art accredited Geotech lab is functioning which caters to testing needs as per

national and international standards. A Resource centre with an excellent collection of reference

materials, standards and specifications are available for those interested.

One of the bigger hurdles in use of geotextiles in India is lack of awareness on all aspects of utility of

these products by the construction engineers. While attempts of creating awareness on the

application potential of geotextiles is being made by various agencies, one handicap that needed

attention was the absence of critical information on raw materials, manufacturers and their

products, range of products available, application areas, potential users of geotextiles, test facilities

within national and international accreditation and this was a great constraint. When this point was

discussed at a meeting of Indian Technical Textile Association (ITTA) (a body of all those who

interested in promotion of technical textiles), BTRA was entrusted with the task of bringing out a

suitable guide book for this industry. Hence this handbook is an attempt to address the long felt

need of Geotech industry. This handbook is based on the knowledge and experience of

manufacturers, raw material suppliers and other nodal agencies. The handbook is being circulated

as a part of our long-term goal of enhanced usage of geotextile in infrastructural projects and we

hope will be a ready reckoner for all stockholders of the industry.

This handbook is result of sustained efforts of Mr Vitin Gupta, Mr V Kannan of Reliance Industries

Ltd and Mr Amol Shivdas of BTRA to whom our thanks are due.

Dr. A N DesaiMumbai DirectorDate: 12th February, 2012 BTRA

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction ---------------------------------------------------- 1

2. Functions ------------------------------------------------------ 7

3. Application matrix---------------------------------------------- 10

4. Geotextiles in Roads ------------------------------------------- 11

5. Case studies on usage of Geotextiles in Roads --------------- 31

6. Jute Geotextiles ----------------------------------------------- 47

7. Case studies on Jute Geotextiles in Roads -------------------- 51

8. Geotextiles in Erosion control --------------------------------- 55

9. Case Studies - Geotextiles In Erosion Control --------------- 59

10. Polymer Gabions in Erosion Control --------------------------- 73

11. Case studies on Polymer Gabions in Erosion Control --------- 77

12. Geobags and Geotubes for Erosion control ------------------- 83

13. Case studies - Geotubes in erosion control ------------------- 91

14. A few geosynthetics products --------------------------------- 99

15. Geogrids -------------------------------------------------------- 101

16. Case studies on Geogrids ------------------------------------- 107

17. Prefabricated Vertical Drains ---------------------------------- 115

18. Miscellaneous case studies ------------------------------------ 117

19. International Case studies ------------------------------------- 123

20. Standards on geotextiles -------------------------------------- 141

21. Properties and Testing of Geotextiles ------------------------ 145

22. Profile of few Indian Geotextiles Manufacturers ------------- 161

23. Appendices -------------------------------------------------169

I. Indian Govt supports covering COEs---------------------- 171II. Associations for Geotextiles ------------------------------ 172

III. List of Nodal agencies in India --------------------------- 173IV. List of NHAI consultants ----------------------------------- 176V. List of NHAI contractors ---------------------------------- 179

24. References -------------------------------------------------185

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1. INTRODUCTION

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1. INTRODUCTIONGeosynthetics wherein geotextile is a part are, used in a wide variety of applications forinfrastructure projects like Roads, River & Sea Bank Protection, Canal Lining, Landfills,Airport taxiways etc. In broad terms there are around 9 categories of Geosynthetics.

1 Geotextiles2 Geogrids3 Geonets4 Geomembranes5 Geosynthetic Clay Liners

6 Geofoam7 Geocells8 Drainage / Infiltration Cells9 Geocomposites

Geotextile is any permeable textile material used with foundation, soil, rock, earth, orany other geotechnical engineering related material as an integral part of a man-madeproduct, structure, or system.

Geotextiles forms one of the largest groups of geosynthetic material. Its functions andproperties are deeply studied, so now it is widely accepted and used in various areas ofgeotechnical structures. Most important factor that makes it prominent is its longer lifeand resistance to biodegradation because of its synthetic fiber content rather thannatural content like Jute, cotton, wool, or silk. Unlike natural fibers like cotton, jute etcsynthetic fibers which are constituent of geosynthetics, have higher strength and notprone to degradation under soil condition and hence have longer life. The syntheticfibers are made into porous structures of woven, non woven or knitted. The originalterm used for geotextiles, and still sometime used is filter fabrics. This is because of the

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fact that geotextiles are porous to liquid flow across their manufactured plane and alsowithin their thickness.

Literature available shows that geotextiles have been effectively used outside India since1950. Paper entitled as “Use of Plastic Filters in Coastal Structures”, proceedings fromthe 16th International Conference Coastal Engineers, Tokyo, by Barrett, R.J., describesthe work originating in late 1950s using geotextiles behind precast concrete seawalls,under precast concrete erosion control blocks, beneath large stone riprap, and in othererosion control situations.

In the late 1960s Rhone-Poulenc Textiles in France worked on use of nonwoven needlepunched fabrics for unpaved roads, beneath railroad ballast, within embankments andearth dams. Main emphasis was on the functions like separation and reinforcement but itwas recognised that fabric can also transmit water within the plane of their structure,acting as drains. This drainage function of geotextile leads to various other usages likedissipation of pore-water pressures, and horizontal and vertical flow interceptors. Sotoday geotextiles is well recognised for all these functions.

As per the Ministry of Textile, Government of India, Current Geotextiles Market in India(Imports and domestic production) as per 2007-08 is around Rs 272 Crore, comprisingimports of an estimated Rs 105 Crore and domestic production of around Rs 167 Crore.In terms of product category, the market includes Rs 241 Crore of synthetic woven/non-woven Geotextiles (85 Crore of woven and 67 Crore of Non-woven) as well as otherproducts like Geogrids and Others (Geomembranes, Geonets and Geocomposites). Agro-based Geotextiles (made of Jute and Coir) are also developing and finding acceptance asa class of products. Market size for these products was around Rs 31 Crore. Thedomestic market has shown a healthy growth rate of 15-18% on YOY basis as per theindustry estimate.

Geotextile Structures

There are two principal geotextile types, or structures:wovens and nonwovens. Other manufacturingtechniques, for example knitting and stitch bonding areoccasionally used in the manufacture of specialtyproducts.

Early laying of Geotextiles in India

Non Woven Geotextile

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Nonwovens: Nonwoven geotextiles are manufactured from either staple fibers (staplefibers are short, usually 1 to 4 inches in length) or continuous filaments randomlydistributed in layers onto a moving belt to form a felt-like "web". The web then passesthrough a needle loom and/or other bonding machine interlocking the fibers/filaments.Nonwoven geotextiles are highly desirable for subsurface drainage and erosion controlapplications as well as for road stabilization over wet moisture sensitive soils.

Wovens: Weaving is a process of interlacing yarns to makea fabric. Woven geotextiles are made from weavingmonofilament, multifilament, or slit film yarns. Slit filmyarns can be further subdivided into flat tapes andfibrillated (or spider web-like) yarns. There are two steps inthis process of making a woven geotextile: first,manufacture of the filaments or slitting the film to createyarns; and second, weaving the yarns to form thegeotextile. Slit film fabrics are commonly used for sedimentcontrol, i.e. silt fence, and road stabilization applicationsbut are poor choices for subsurface drainage and erosion control applications. Thoughthe flat tape slit film yarns are quite strong, they form a fabric that has relatively poorpermeability. Alternatively, fabrics made with fibrillated tape yarns have betterpermeability and more uniform openings than flat tape products.Monofilament wovens have better permeability, making them suitable for certaindrainage and erosion control applications. High strength multifilament wovens areprimarily used in reinforcement applications

Polymers Gabions: Polymer Gabions are rectangular orcylindrical baskets fabricated from polymer meshes andusually filled with stone and used for structural purposessuch as retaining walls, revetments, slope protection, andsimilar applications

Geogrids: A geogrid is geosynthetic material used toreinforce soils and similar materials. Geogrids arecommonly used to reinforce retaining walls, as well as sub-bases or subsoils below roads or structures. Soils pull apartunder tension. Compared to soil, geogrids are strong intension.

Geobags: Geobags are sand-filled high-strength geotextilebags available in the various sizes and are used inriverbank, beach protection, and offshore breakwaters.

Polymer Gabion

Geogrids

Woven Geotextile

Geobags

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Geotubes: Geotextile tubes are large tube likestructures fabricated from high strength geotextilewith soil-in-fills. Geotextile tube is formed in situ bythe hydraulic pumping of local soil into theprefabricated geotextile tube. This leads to a flexible,monolithic, continuous structure that is highlyresistant to water currents. Sand is widely used asthe soil in-fill material because of its lowcompressibility but other hydraulically pumped soiltypes can be used. Geotextile tubes are normallycharacterized in terms of theoretical diameter.

Geocomposites: They combine the best features of different materials in such a waythat specific applications are addressed in the optimal manner and at minimum cost.Thus, the benefit/cost ratio is maximized.

PVDs The prefabricated vertical drain is a long flattube of woven or non-woven geotextile with a coreinside. For construction of structures on sitesunderlain by thick strata of soft cohesive soils, amethod of foundation soil improvement is generallyrequired to prevent bearing capacity failure and or toavoid excessive total and differential settlements.These soft soils have a very low bearing capacity todue to their saturated state; the PVD’s are used toincrease the bearing capacity of the soil by removingthe excessive water present inside.

Geotextile Polymers

Almost all geotextiles available in the India aremanufactured from either polypropylene orpolyester. Polypropylene is lighter than water(specific gravity of 0.9), strong and very durable.Polypropylene filaments and staple fibers are usedin manufacturing woven yarns and nonwovengeotextiles. It is preferred as it is inert materialand geotextiles made of polypropylene are inert tochemical attack and can be used in harsh climaticconditions.

High tenacity polyester fibers and yarns are also used in the manufacturing of geotextiles. Polyesteris heavier than water, has excellent strength and creep properties, and is compatible with mostcommon soil environments. In addition natural fibers like Jutes are also used for geotextiles.

To know about products like geonets, geocells etc readers are encouraged to visithttp://gmanow.com/

Geotubes

PVD

Raw material - Polypropylene

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2. FUNCTIONS

Geosynthetics have six broad functions:

1. Separation2. Reinforcement3. Filtration4. Drainage5. Barrier6. Protection

Based on these functions geotextiles possesses wide range of applications in various

areas of geotechnical structures.

Separation:

Separation of two dissimilar materials which intend to serve different purposes in such a

way that their integrity and functioning remains intact. This is achieved by placing

flexible porous textile between two dissimilar materials.

When stone aggregates are placed over a subgrade consisting of fine aggregates in

flexible pavement, then there are two possible mechanisms that can take place. One is

that fine soil attempts to enter into the voids of stone aggregate, thereby ruining its

drainage capability; the other is that the stone aggregates attempts to intrude into the

fine soil, thereby deteriorating the stone aggregate strength. This would diminish the

performance of the aggregates as well as the subgrade layer. However, with the use of

geotextiles between these two layers will avoid these mechanisms, leading to

satisfactory performance of both the stone aggregates and subgrade layer.

Without Geotextiles With Geotextiles

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Geotextiles as filter fabric

Geotextiles as drainage layer

Reinforcement

Low strength fine grained silt and clay are good in compression but poor in tension. In

such case, geotextiles materials which are good in tension can recover the deficiency of

low strength soil. Geotextiles reinforcement is defined as synergistic improvement in the

total system strength created by the introduction of a geotextiles into a soil and

developed primarily through the following three mechanisms: One, lateral restraint

through interfacial friction between geotextile and soil/aggregate. Two, forcing the

potential bearing surface failure plane to develop at alternate higher shear strength

surface. And three, membrane type of support of the wheel loads.

Filtration: (Permittivity)

It is defined as “the equilibrium geotextile-

to-soil system that allows for adequate

liquid flow with limited soil loss across the

plane of the geotextile over a service

lifetime compatible with the application

under consideration. Influencing

characteristic of this function is apparent

opening size because to perform this

function the geotextile needs to satisfy two

conflicting requirements: the filter’s pore size must be small enough to retain fine soil

particles and at the same moment it should allow the flow of water perpendicular to the

plane of fabric (Permittivity). The geotextile must also have the strength and durability

to survive construction and long-term conditions for the design life of the drain.

Additionally, construction methods have a critical influence on geotextiles drain

performance. Figure explains the filtration function of geotextile.

Drainage

Drainage refers to the ability of geotextile

whose three-dimensional structure provides

an path for flow of water through the plane

of the geotextile. Thus drainage is defined

as the equilibrium soil-to-geotextile system

that allows for adequate liquid flow with

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Geotextiles as barrier

limited soil loss within the plane of the geotextiles over a service lifetime compatible

with the application under consideration. Above figure also illustrates the Transmissivity

function of geotextile.

Barrier (Sealing) Function

A geotextile performs this function when

impregnated with asphalt or other

polymeric mixes rendering it relatively

impermeable to both cross-plane and in-

plane flow. In this function geotextile is

placed on the existing pavement surface

following the application of an asphalt tack

coat. The geotextile absorbs asphalt to

become a waterproofing membrane

minimizing vertical flow of water into the pavement structure.

Protection (Cushion) Function

A geotextile can be used in any landfill project for properly protecting the geomembrane

from tearing or puncturing during construction. Research indicates that a properly

selected nonwoven, needle-punched geotextile cushion installed above and/or below the

geomembrane can effectively protect it from construction and operational damage.

Geotextiles as protection

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3. APPLICATION MATRIX

Category Sub-Category Functions Potential/ Chartpresentation

NEW ROADS -

BELOWSUBGRADE

REINFORCEMENT

SEPARATION

DRAINAGE

ROADS

OLD ROADS-

PavementInterlayer- topreventreflectivecracking

REINFORCEMENT

MOISTUREBARRIER

RIVERBANKS

EMBANKMENTPROTECTION

FILTER FABRIC

SEA EROSIONCONTROL

As Geotubes for

Protection

Geotube

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4. GEOTEXTILES IN ROADS

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4. GEOTEXTILES IN ROADS [1]

A large variety of detrimental factors affect the service life of roads and pavements

including environmental factors, subgrade conditions, traffic loading, utility cuts, road

widening, and aging. These factors contribute to an equally wide variety of pavement

conditions and problems which must be addressed in the maintenance or rehabilitation

of the pavements, if not dealt with during initial construction. Pavement maintenance

treatments are often ineffective and short lived due to their inability to both treat the

cause of the problems and renew the existing pavement condition. The main cause of

distress in pavements is that they are quite permeable with 30 to 50% of precipitation

surface water infiltrating through the pavement, softening and weakening the pavement

subgrade and base, accelerating pavement degradation. Existing pavement distress such

as surface cracks, rocking joints, and subgrade failures cause the rapid reflection of

cracking up through the maintenance treatment.

Therefore, the preferred strategy for long-term road and pavement performance is to

build in safeguards during initial construction. These performance safeguards include

stabilizing the subgrade against moisture intrusion and associated weakening;

strengthening road base aggregate without preventing efficient drainage of infiltrated

water; and, as a last resort, enhancing the stress absorption and moisture proofing

capabilities of selected maintenance treatments. Geotextiles are the most cost-effective

tools for safeguarding roads and pavements in these ways.

The four main applications for geotextiles in roads are subgrade separation and

stabilization, base reinforcement, overlay stress absorption, and overlay reinforcement.

Subgrade stabilization and base reinforcement involve improving the road structure as it

is constructed by inserting an appropriate geotextile layer.

Subgrade separation and stabilization applies geotextiles to both unpaved and

paved roads.

Base reinforcement is the use of geotextiles to improve the structure of a paved

road. Geotextiles are also helpful in rehabilitating distressed road surfaces.

The application of a layer of asphalt concrete called an overlay is often the

solution for damaged pavement. Geotextiles can be used as interlayers by placing

them below or within the overlay. Some geotextiles relieve stress and others are

able to reinforce the overlay. The products may also provide a moisture barrier.

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Though only widely recognized since the latter half of the 1900s, these

advantages were initially demonstrated as early as the 1930’s using conventional

textile materials.

4.1 SUBGRADE SEPARATION AND STABILIZATION

Introduction to the Problem

Temporary roads used for hauling and access roads that are subject to low volumes of

traffic are often constructed without asphalt or cement concrete surfacing. In these

cases, a layer of aggregate is placed on the prepared subgrade of these roads to

improve their load carrying capacity. Problems are usually encountered when the

subgrade consists of soft clays, silts and organic soils. This type of subgrade is often

unable to adequately support traffic loads and must be improved.

Typical Solutions

Excavating and replacing unsuitable materials is costly and time consuming. Other

methods of subgrade improvement include deep compaction, chemical stabilization and

preloading.

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The Geotextile Solution

Geotextiles are proving to be a cost effective alternative to traditional road construction

methods. As a result, the application of geotextiles to the construction of unpaved roads

over soft subsoils has become quite popular. Design has focused on the stabilization of

the subgrade and the reinforcement of the aggregate, leading to the identification of two

important functions: membrane action and lateral restraint. Membrane action is the

ability of a geotextile material to reduce and spread stress arising from the weak

subgrade. Lateral restraint, sometimes called confinement, is the lateral interaction

between the aggregate and the subgrade with the geotextile. The presence of the

geotextile restrains lateral movement of both the aggregate and the subgrade,

improving the strength and stiffness of the road structure.

Separation

At small rut depth, the strain in the geotextile is also small. In this case, the geotextile

acts primarily as a separator between the soft subgrade and the aggregate. Any

geotextile that survives construction will work as a separator.

Stabilization

For larger rut depths, more strain is induced in the geotextile. Thus the stiffness

properties of the geotextile are essential. A considerable reduction in aggregate

thickness is possible by the use of a geotextile having a high modulus in the direction

perpendicular to the road centerline; however, the benefits of the geotextile are not

wholly dependent on the membrane action achieved with a stiff geotextile. Lateral

restraint produced by the interaction between the geotextile and the aggregate is

equally important. The following general conclusions can be drawn relating to a typical

road base.

A geotextile element that functions primarily as a separator (typically when the

subgrade CBR ≥3) will increase the allowable bearing capacity of the subgrade by

40 to 50 percent. ((separation geotextiles)

A geotextile element that functions primarily to provide confinement of the

aggregate and lateral restraint to the subgrade (typically when the subgrade CBR

< 3) will both increase the allowable bearing capacity of the subgrade and

provide an improved load distribution ratio in the aggregate. The combined

benefits can enhance load carrying capacity of the road by well over 50 percent.

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With very weak subgrades, it is often beneficial to combine the benefits of both

separation and stabilization.

Design for Stabilization

The design of geotextile-reinforced unpaved roadways has been simplified into design

charts that relate aggregate thickness requirements to a range of subgrade strengths,

based on standard highway design loading and various allowable rut depths.

BASE REINFORCEMENT


Permanent roads carry larger traffic volumes and typically have asphalt or port-land

cement concrete surfacing over a base layer of aggregate. The combined surface and

base layers act together to support and distribute traffic loading to the subgrade.

Problems are usually encountered when the subgrade consists of soft clays, silts and

organic soils. This type of subgrade is often water sensitive and, when wet, unable to

adequately support traffic loads.

If unimproved, the subgrade will mix with the road base aggregate – degrading the road

structure - whenever the subgrade gets wet.

Typical Solutions

As with unpaved roads, a problematic subgrade is typically excavated and replaced, or it

is improved by the addition of cement, lime, or excess aggregate. In any case, the

traditional solution is often costly and always time consuming.


As was noted earlier, geotextiles are proving to be a cost effective alternative to

traditional road construction methods. In paved roads, lateral restraint also called

confinement is considered to be the primary function of the geotextile. With the addition

of an appropriate geotextile, the Soil-Geotextile- Aggregate (SGA) system gains

stiffness. The stiffened SGA system is better able to provide the following structural

benefits:

Preventing lateral spreading of the base Increasing confinement and thus stiffness of the base Improving vertical stress distribution on the subgrade Reducing shear stress in the subgrade

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INSTALLATION OF GEOTEXTILES FOR SEPARATION, STABILIZATION,

AND BASE REINFORCEMENT

1. Site Preparation

Clear and grade the installation area. Remove all sharp objects and large stones. Cut

trees and shrubs flush with the subgrade. Removal of topsoil and vegetation mat is

not necessary, but is recommended where practical. Excessively soft spots or voids

may be unsuitable for geotextile installation. Fill these areas with select material and

compact prior to geotextile installation. The problem area may be enhanced by using

a geotextile at the bottom of the excavation prior to backfilling.

2. Deployment of the Geotextile

Unroll the geotextile on the prepared subgrade in the direction of construction traffic.

Hold the geotextile in place with pins, staples, fill material or rocks. Adjacent rolls

should overlap in the direction of the construction. Depending on the strength of the

subgrade, the overlaps may have to be sewn.

3. Placement of the Aggregate

Place the aggregate over firm subgrades by back dumping aggregate onto the

geotextile and then spreading it with a motor grader. For weaker subgrades, dump

onto previously placed aggregate and then spread the aggregate onto the geotextile

with a bulldozer. On weaker subgrades, a sufficient layer of aggregate must be

maintained beneath all equipment while dumping and spreading to minimize the

potential of localized subgrade failure. Avoid traffic directly on the geotextile. When

using construction equipment on the aggregate, try to avoid any sudden stops, starts

or sharp turns. Maintain a minimum lift thickness of 6-inches (15 cm) except in cases

of low volume roads. Compact the aggregate to the specified density using a drum

roller. Fill any ruts with additional aggregate and compact as specified.

DESIGN OF GEOTEXTILE FOR ROAD WAY REINFORCEMENT

Combined use of geotextile (good in tension and poor in compression) and soil (good in

compression and poor in tension) suggests a number of situations in which geotextile

have made existing designs work better.

This section describes the design of unpaved roads; in which soft soil subgrade have

sand or stone aggregate placed directly above. No permanent surfacing, such as

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concrete or asphalt pavement, is immediately placed on the stone. There are many

thousands of kilometres of unpaved secondary roads, access roads, and the like, with

no permanent surfacing on them, At a later time, perhaps years after settlement takes

place and ruts are backfilled, a permanent surfacing may be placed.

Geotextile mobilises tensile strength via deformation of the soil subgrade. Deformation

of the soil subgrade takes place by imposed traffic which causes the subgrade

deformation and hence the geotextile deformation with the development of tensile

properties of geotextile. How much deformation is necessary with regard to vehicular

loading, the particular geotextile, the time it takes for adequate strength mobilisation,

and so on, are all pressing questions, but the deformation characteristics of the soil

takes the precedence. A soft, yielding soil subgrade is needed to mobilise the geotextile

strength and this is decided on the basis of California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of soil

subgrade. CBR test is done as per ASTM D 1833 or ISO 12236. The CBR value is

comparison of the subgrade soils resistance to the force of a 50 mm diameter plunger at

a given deformation, with that of the standardised crushed stone base material.

For the purpose of using geotextiles in

roadway applications on soil subgrade of

different strength, functions are subdivided

based on the CBR values of the soil

subgrade. This is tabulated as:

Design consists the calculations made for the

thickness of stone required without a

geotextile, then with a geotextile; the difference the thickness of stone that is saved. By

determining the cost of saved stone versus the cost of geotextile, so the value of using

geotextile is known.

Unsoaked Soaked

Separation > 8 > 3

Stabilisation 8-3 3-1

Reinforcement and

Separation< 3 < 1

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GIROUD AND NOIRAYS ANALYTIC METHOD OF DESIGN:

Giroud and Noiray use the geometric model shown in figure for a tire wheel load of

pressure pec on a B X L area, which dissipates through ho thickness of stone base without

geotextile and h thickness of stone base with a geotextile.

The geometry indicated results in a stress on the soil subgrade of po (without

geotextile) and p (with geotextile) as follows

po = + γho (1)

p = + γh (2)

Where,

P = Axle load

γ = unit weight of stone aggregate

Since the pressure exerted by the axle load through the aggregate and into the soil

subgrade is known, the shallow foundation theory of geotechnical engineering can now

be utilised. It is assumed throughout the analysis that the soil is functioning in its

undrained condition. Critical in this design method are the assumptions that without the

geotextile the maximum pressure that can be maintained corresponds to the elastic limit

of the soil, that is,

po = C + γho (3)

With geotextile the limiting pressure can be increased to the ultimate bearing capacity of

the soil, that is,

p* = ( + 2) C + γh (4)

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thus for the case of no geotextile reinforcement, equations (1) and (3) can be solved ,

resulting in equation (5), which yields the desired aggregate thickness response curve

without the use of geotextile:

C = (5)

Where,

C = Soil cohesion

P = axle load

pc = tire inflation pressure

ho = aggregate thickness, and

αo = angle of load distribution

For the case where geotextile reinforcement is used, p* in equation (4) is replaced by (p

- pg), where pg is a function of the tension in the geotextile; hence its elongation is

significant. On the basis of the probable deflected shape of the geotextile-soil system,

pg = (6)

Where,

E = modulus of geotextile,

= elongation (strain),

a = geometric property

S = settlement under the wheel (rut depth)

Combining equation (2), (4) and (6) and using p* = p - pg, gives equation (7), where h

is unknown aggregate thickness. It can be graphed for various rut depth thicknesses and

various moduli of geotextiles.

( + 2) C = - (8)

With these two sets of equations, the design method is essentially complete, since both

ho (thickness without geotextile) can be calculated. From these two values Δh = ho – h

can be obtained, which represents the savings in aggregate due to presence of the

geotextile.

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4.2 OVERLAY STRESS ABSORPTION AND REINFORCEMENT


Road surfaces must be maintained regularly. Commonly, a paved road becomes a

candidate for maintenance when its surface shows significant cracks and potholes. The

rehabilitation of cracked roads by simple overlaying is rarely a durable solution. The

cracks under the overlay rapidly propagate through to the new surface. This

phenomenon is called reflective cracking. Cracks in the pavement surface cause

numerous problems, including:

Riding discomfort for the users

Reduction of safety

Infiltration of water and subsequent

reduction of the bearing capacity of the subgrade

Pumping of soil particles through the crack

Progressive degradation of the road structure in the vicinity of the cracks due to

stress concentrations

Typical Solutions

In spite of reflective cracking, overlays are still the most viable option for extending the

life of distressed pavement. To lengthen the lifetime of an overlay, special asphalt mixes

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can be specified. Also, the thicker the overlay the longer it will last. Thick overlays are

expensive as are special asphalt mixes, but the alternative is reconstruction. Depending

on the cause of the problem, this can involve removing layers of pavement, improving

subgrades, and repaving.

This is extraordinarily expensive and time consuming.


A geotextile interlayer can be placed over the distressed pavement or within the overlay

to create an overlay system. The geotextile interlayer contributes to the life of the

overlay via stress relief and/or reinforcement and by providing a pavement moisture

barrier.

A stress relieving interlayer retards the development of reflective cracks by absorbing

the stresses that arise from the damaged pavement. It also waterproofs pavements that

typically allow 30 to 60% of precipitation to infiltrate and weaken the road structure.

Reinforcement occurs when an interlayer is able to contribute significant tensile strength

to the overlay system. The reinforcement limits the movement of the cracked old

pavement under traffic loads and thermal stress by holding the cracks together.

The benefits of geotextile interlayers include:

Delaying the appearance of reflective cracks

Lengthening the useful life of the overlay

Added resistance to fatigue cracking

Saving up to 2 inches of overlay thickness

INSTALLATION OF INTERLAYERS*

The recommendations provided here are applicable for laying of geotextile (paving

fabric) ,' between, two bituminous layers as part of pavement strengthening to provide a

water resistant membrane and crack retarding layer. It is recommended that paving

fabric should be used over the entire pavement area affected by cracking and not in the

form of strips over the pavement cracks.

Step - 1 Preparing the Surface

Before the application of paving fabric, thoroughly

clean the existing pavement using a broom and/or

compressed air to the satisfaction of the Engineer.

* (Guidelines by CRRI)

23

Confirm that the existing pavement is dry.

Fill cracks exceeding 3 mm wide with appropriate crack sealant/bituminous

material by a method approved by the Engineer.

Level faulted cracks or joints with vertical deformation greater than 12 mm; use

a fine- grained bituminous mixture or other suitable material.

Properly repair potholes and other pavement distress to make them even with

the existing pavement surface. Repair shall be performed as directed by the

Engineer.

Allow crack filler & patching materials to cure prior to the application of tack coat.

A profile correction course shall be laid, wherever required, before placing the

paving fabric.

Step – 2- Placing a Leveling course

Apply a leveling to uneven, rutted, or extremely rough surfaces. For best results,

place a leveling course (20 to 25 mm thick), whenever possible, before placing

the paving fabric.

This will maximize performance of the paving fabric by reducing reflective

cracking. A leveling course does several important things to promote success of

the overlay including providing a smooth surface on which to place a paving

fabric and a fresh, unoxidised surface to which the paving fabric or new overlay

can bond. Placing a paving fabric directly on an old surface can cause wrinkles,

which can themselves reflect a crack upward to the surface of the overlay.

Step - 3 Tack Coat Selection & Application

Selection of proper tack coat and application rate is one

of the most important aspects in construction and

performance of certain paving fabric interlayers.

The tack coat used to impregnate the fabric and bond

the fabric to the pavement shall be paving grade

bitumen of 80/100 penetration (VG-10).

Minimum air and pavement temperature shall be a t

least 10°C or more for placement of tack coat. Neither tack coat nor paving fabric

shall be placed when weather conditions, in the opinion of the Engineer, are not

suitable.

24

Tack coat should be applied uniformly at the specified rate using a calibrated

distributor spray bar. Hand spraying and brush application may be used in locations

of fabric overlap. Every effort shall be made to keep the hand spraying to a

minimum.

The target width of tack coat application shall be equal to the paving fabric width

application plus 150 mm.

The tack coat shall be applied only as far in advance of paving fabric installation as

is appropriate to ensure a tacky surface at the time of paving fabric placement.

Traffic shall not be allowed on the tack coat. Any spillage or excess tack coat should

be either removed or sand sprayed over it.

Common field problems with tack coat applications include proper temperature

control, clogged or leaking spray bars or nozzles, application of too much or too

little material, and non-uniform distribution. Distribution must be uniform; do not

turn the outer nozzles perpendicular to the spray bars.

Application Rate of Tack Coat

The tack coat shall be applied, uniformly to the prepared dry pavement surface at

the rate of 1 kg/m2 of as recommended by the paving fabric manufacturer and

approved by the Engineer.

Within street intersections, on steep grades or in other zones where vehicle

speed changes, the normal application rate shall be reduced by about 20 percent

or as directed by the Engineer.

Temperature Control

The temperature of the tack coat shall be sufficiently high (140°C) to permit a

uniform spray pattern. To avoid damage to the fabric, distributor tank

temperature shall not exceed 160°C.

The paving fabric shall be installed while asphalt is still tacky.

A noncontact thermometer is useful in determining binder temperature.

Measuring Tack Rate

Tack rate should not be reduced to solve construction problems. Such reductions

can cause subsequent system failure.

Tack rate should be verified using pre-weighed, thin pans place directly in the

path of the distributor truck. The pans can be recovered after passage of the

25

distributor truck and weighed to compute the tack application rate. If measured

tack rate is different from specified rate, it should be appropriately adjusted

before further use.

Insufficient tack rate is the leading cause of poor fabric interlayer performance

and failure. Insufficient tack will result in unsaturated fabric, which can lead to

overlay slippage and/or debonding and will not provide waterproofing.

Step -4: Placing the paving fabric

The paving fabric shall be placed on a dry

surface. In case, it rains after installing the

paving fabric, but before placing the overlay

over it, all excess water should be removed

and the fabric should be allowed to dry up

sufficiently before placing the overlay.

The paving fabric shall be placed with heat set side facing up, onto the tack coat

using mechanical or manual lay down equipment capable of providing a smooth

installation with a minimum amount of wrinkling and folding. Slight tension can

be applied during paving fabric installation to minimize wrinkling.

If, wet fabric is applied or if fabric is applied on damp pavement, blistering can

occur because of vaporization of moisture underneath the asphalt- impregnated

fabric.

Pavement that has recently received rainfall but has a dry surface can retain

enough moisture to cause blistering. If blisters appear, workers should eliminate

them by using a lightweight rubber-tired roller before overlaying.

The paving fabric shall be placed prior to the tack coat cooling and losing

tackiness.

Paving fabric shall not be installed in areas where the overlay bituminous layer

tapers to a thickness of less than 40 mm.

Excess paving fabric, which extends beyond the edge of existing pavement or

areas of tack coat application shall be trimmed and removed. Wrinkles or folds in

excess of 25 mm shall be slit and laid flat.

Brooming and/or pneumatic rolling should be done immediately after the

placement of the paving fabric to maximize paving fabric contact with the

pavement surface.

26

All areas with paving fabrics placed will be paved the same day.

No traffic except necessary construction equipment will be allowed to drive on the

paving fabric. After laying the paving fabric, some loose bituminous concrete

should be sprinkled on it in the wheel path of the paver and the tipper to ensure

that the fabric is not picked up between the wheels.

Turning of the paver and other vehicles shall be done gradually and kept to a

minimum to avoid movement and damage to the paving fabric. Abrupt starts and

stops shall also be avoided.

Additional tack coat shall be placed between the overlap to satisfy saturation

requirements of the fabric. Overlap shall be sufficient to ensure full closure of the

joint but not exceed 150 mm. Overlaps of adjacent rolls shall be staggered by a

minimum of one metre.

All overlaps shall be stitched unless specifically allowed by the Engineer not to

stitch.

The stitching procedure shall be as recommended by the manufacturer. .

The paving fabric should be pegged at suitable locations and as directed by the

Engineer, so as to avoid wrinkles and folds during the placement of the overlay.

Damaged fabric shall be removed and replaced with the same type of fabric.

Step - 5 Bituminous overlay construction

Bituminous overlay construction shall closely

follow fabric placement.

All areas in which paving fabric has been

placed will be paved the same day.

Excess bitumen which bleeds through the

paving fabric shall be removed by spreading

hot mix or sand on the paving fabric.

The hot mix should be placed between a temperature range of 130°C to 145°C so

as to give enough heat to the bitumen in the tack coat to rise up the fabric.

No reduction in the overlay thickness shall be made on account of the use of paving

fabric.

27

4.3 Use of Geotextiles for Subgrade Dewatering.


A high groundwater table can, and often does, interfere with the stability of subgrade

soils. For instance, some clay soils can swell or shrink as their water content increases or

decreases, respectively. Also, most soils are considerably weaker when they have high

water contents or have not been drained prior to loading. This means that weather-

related or seasonal fluctuations in groundwater levels can adversely affect permanent

structures founded on undrained soils. Draining saturated soils can increase their

strength and stability. Unfortunately, soils will only drain if there is an adjacent soil layer

or zone of higher permeability into which the water can escape. The lower the

permeability of the subgrade soils, the closer together the drainage layers/zones must

be to provide effective dewatering.

Typical Solutions

The traditional approach to subgrade dewatering is to dig a trench to the depth to which

the water table is to be lowered and filling the trench with coarse drainage stone.

Sometimes a perforated pipe is placed at the base of the trench to more efficiently

transport collected seepage to an outlet. Trenches are spaced to assure drainage of the

soil within a desired time period. Alternatively, in new construction, a coarse aggregate

drainage layer or “blanket” can be constructed beneath and before placing the subgrade

soil. Similarly, a pipe system is commonly placed within the drainage layer to transport

collected seepage. Since groundwater seeping into a drainage layer can carry subgrade

soil particles with it – a phenomenon called “piping”. To prevent piping, a layer of fine

sand is commonly used as a filter over a drainage layer or in lieu of coarse stone in a

trench.


Effective subgrade dewatering requires a very porous drainage media to accept seepage

and a properly graded filter to prevent piping. Geotextile materials have become

28

commonplace in subsurface drainage applications. Commonly, geotextiles are being

used in lieu of select grades of sand because they are less expensive, provide more

consistent properties, and are much easier to install.

The advantages of geotextile filters can be extended to the drainage medium. Where

coarse aggregate can be costly, have variable gradations, and be costly and burdensome

to install, a geocomposite drain incorporating a 3- dimensional plastic drainage core

wrapped with a filtration geotextile overcomes all of these limitations.

INSTALLATION OF GEOTEXTILES FOR SUBGRADE DEWATERING

Trench excavation shall be performed in accordance with details of the project

plans. In all instances excavation shall be done in such a way as to prevent large

voids from occurring in the sides and bottom of the trench. The graded surface

shall be smooth and free of debris.

The geotextile shall be placed in the trench loosely with no wrinkles or folds, and

with no void spaces between the geotextile and the ground surface. Successive

sheets of geotextiles shall be overlapped a minimum of 12-in. (300 mm), with

the upstream sheet overlapping the downstream sheet. After placing the

drainage aggregate in trenches equal to or greater than 12-in. (300 mm) wide,

the geotextile shall be folded over the top of the backfill material in a manner to

produce a minimum overlap of 12-in. (300 mm). In trenches less than 12-in.

(300 mm) but greater than 4-in. (100 mm) wide, the overlap shall be equal to

the width of the trench. Where the trench is less than 4-in. (100 mm), the

geotextile overlap shall be sewn or otherwise bonded.

Should the geotextile be damaged during installation, or drainage aggregate

placement, a geotextile patch shall be placed over the damaged area extending

beyond the damaged area a distance of 12-in. (300 mm), or the specified seam

overlap, whichever is greater.

Placement of drainage aggregate should proceed immediately following

placement of the geotextile. The geotextile should be covered with a minimum of

12-in. (300 mm) of loosely placed aggregate prior to compaction. If a perforated

collector pipe is to be installed in the trench, a bedding layer of drainage

aggregate should be placed below the pipe, with the remainder of the aggregate

placed to a minimum required construction depth. The aggregate should be

29

compacted with vibratory equipment unless the trench is required for structural

support.

31

5. CASE STUDIES ON USAGE OF GEOTEXTILES IN ROAD

Case Study -1: Use of Geotextiles in major district road (MDR) forseparation- Pune

Case study 2: Use of geotextiles as separator at Gadimoga

Case Study 3: Using of Geotextile in Ichalkaranji

Case Study 4: Woven Geotextiles for making paved roads at KOPT, WestBengal

Case Study 5: Use of High strength Geotextile for Ground improvement

Case Study 6: Geotextiles for prevention of Cracks in Roads in TataPowers Co.

33

5. CASE STUDIES ON USAGE OF GEOTEXTEXTILES INROADS

CASE STUDY -1: USE OF GEOTEXTILES IN MAJOR DISTRICT ROAD( MDR) FOR SEPARATION- PUNE

BRIEF SUMMARY

A 2km stretch on the problematic road MDR82 was identified.

The history revealed that this road was required to be constructed every year

owing to severe deformation and rut formation.

Soil analysis revealed that the soil is black cotton soil expanding in nature. It is

characterized by its extreme hardness and deep cracks when dry and with

tendency for heaving and swelling during the process of wetting.

Roadbeds made up of such soils when subjected to changes in moisture content

due to seasonal wetting and drying or due to any other reason undergo

volumetric changes leading to pavement distortion, cracking and general

unevenness.

Considering all above points and characteristics of soil, a scientific design of the

road cross-section was prepared and Geo-textile was fabricated. Laying of the

fabric was completed in April 2004.

The performance of the road was monitored every six months and in October

2010 (after 6 years 6 months) no abnormalities were reported.

Background of the road status along MDR82: On an average, rut depths were

observed to range from 200-300 mm. Along this particular stretch, every year new road

is constructed.

The reasons identified were,

(i) Presence of a swelling sub-grade, like black cotton soil,

(ii) Inadequate drainage,

(iii)Seasonal heavy traffic with higher axle loads,

34

Status of road along MDR82 in July 2003

During the process of severe rut formations, non-uniformity in load spreading

phenomena occurs. This results in inadequate sub-grade reaction at one side (where

thinning of the aggregate layer occurs) and more than adequate sub-grade reaction at

other side (i.e. where thickening of aggregate layer occurs). This type of situation

reduces the design life of the road affect the riding quality and increase maintenance

cost. In such situations, one of the viable alternatives is to strengthen the road by

introducing a reinforcement layer in the form of geo-textile at the interface of a granular

sub-base layer and

prepared subgrade.

Load spreading phenomena of sub-base on weak sub-grade

For the roads constructed on weak sub-grade, the inclusion of geo-synthetics, like geo-

textiles or geo-grids can lead to less deformation of the road and can reduce the

thickness of base materials needed. In many cases, this can be cost-effective, as the

savings in importing the base material and in repairs to the road can offset the cost of

reinforcement. A geo-synthetic placed at the interface between the aggregate base

course and the sub-grade functions as a separator to prevent two dissimilar materials

35

(sub-grade soils and aggregates) from intermixing. Geo-textiles and geogrids perform

this function by preventing penetration of the aggregate into the sub-grade. In addition,

geo-textiles prevent intrusion of sub-grade soils into the base course aggregate.

Localized bearing failures and sub-grade intrusion only occur in very soft, wet, weak

sub-grades. Therefore, separation is important to maintain the designed thickness and

the stability and load carrying capacity of the base course. The stabilization of roads on

weak sub-grade with a geotextile material is primarily attributed to the basic functions of

separation of the base course layer from the sub-grade soil, and a reinforcement of the

composite system. Geo-synthetics are thus a great boon for ease in construction over

soft soil as well as long-term performance of roads.

Schematic cross-section of geo-textile reinforced road (All dimensions are in meters)

Soil properties

The soil sample was collected 300 mm below natural ground surface along MDR82. All

the laboratory tests were conducted as per relevant Bureau of Indian Standards. The soil

is having a specific gravity of 2.80 and liquid limit equivalent to 69 % and plastic limit

equivalent to 33 %. The soil is having 62 % particles finer than 2 micron size, greater

than 2 micron but less than 75 micron size equivalent to 20.2 %, greater than 75 micron

but less than 4.76 mm size equivalent to 11.8 %, and > 4.76 mm equivalent to 5.9 %.

The soil can be classified as per IS: 1498, as CH type. CH indicates inorganic clays with

high plasticity.

In order to assess an un-drained cohesion of the soil, unconsolidated un-drained (UU)

tri-axial compression tests were conducted on saturated samples. Samples were molded

at maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. The tests were conducted

36

at three cell pressures namely: 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 kg/cm2 respectively. The results of

these indicate that the soil has got an un-drained cohesion equivalent to 52.5 kN/m2.

Table 1 presents the summary of soil properties. An average free swell of the soil

sample collected is obtained as 93 %, which indicates a high degree of expansion. CBR

value under un-soaked conditions is 7.8 % and with four days soaking in water CBR

values are obtained as 3 % and 1.8 % with 7 days soaking respectively. The black

cotton soil with pure fines in under soaked conditions, CBR value generally ranges from

1 - 1.5%.

The sub-grade soil is of a black cotton soil and expanding in nature. Potentially

expansive soils, such as, black cotton soils are montmorillonite clays and are

characterized by their extreme hardness and deep cracks when dry and with tendency

for heaving during the process of wetting. Roadbeds made up of such soils when

subjected to changes in moisture content due to seasonal wetting and drying or due to

any other reason undergo volumetric changes leading to pavement distortion, cracking

and general unevenness. A proper design incorporating the following measures may

considerably minimize the problems associated with expansive soils. As per IRC:37-

2001, one of the alternatives is to stabilize the soil using quick lime extending over the

road formation width along with measures for efficient drainage of the pavement

section.

Design details of geo-textile reinforced road

The design of the geo-textile reinforced road was carried out as per the procedure

outlined by Giroud and Noiray (1981). By taking the properties mentioned in Tables 1

and 2 the pavement block sections with and without geo-textile layer were arrived.

Keeping in view of the expansive nature of the sub-grade, the sub-grade is pre-treated

with lime and saturated with water trickling. The design particulars include the following:

un-reinforced aggregate thickness with traffic h0 is equivalent to 0.72 m and whereas

reinforced aggregate thickness with traffic hR works out to be 0.51 m. The reduction of

aggregate thickness, Δh, resulting from the use of a geo-textile, is 0.21 m. This results

in 29 % percentage savings in the aggregate requirement.

37

The construction methodology involves trimming of the existing road surface and

widening to obtain the road formation width for the entire 2 km stretch along MDR82.

This is followed by treating the sub-grade in two stages: (i) by forming lime + black

cotton soil mix trenches on both sides and (ii) spreading of lime on top of the prepared

sub-grade and tricking with water

38

Status of un-reinforced road along MDR82 as on September 3, 2004

The geo-textile is overlaid on a compacted soft murrum base and pegged along the

edges to keep it in position. After laying the geo-textile, a thin layer of soft murrum was

laid to cushion the geo-textile fabric. This is adopted to protect the geo-textile from any

damages during laying, installation and post-construction stages. The laying of the fabric

was completed in April 2004 and is currently in the monitoring stage. The surface of the

road was built on the sub-grade of almost identical conditions but without any ground

improvement. The initiation of a rutting can be noted in Fig. Contrary to this, the

reinforced stretch was observed to behave well with reduced deformations and rutting.

This shows the significant influence of a geo-textile layer along with a lime treatment in

enhancing the performance of the road stretch along MDR82.

View of the road during laying of geotextile

39

Condition of the Road after 7 years in 2011 (Without Geotextile)Condition of the Road after 7 years in 2011 (With Geotextile)

Status of the geo-textile reinforced road on September 3, 2004

CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, the design details, sub-grade treatment and construction methodology of

a demonstration project involving the use of Polypropylene woven geo-textile as a

separator cum reinforcement for a road were presented. A 2 km long stretch of road

along MDR 82 in the Daund Region of Pune district was selected for this project. The

project was undertaken to evaluate and compare the performance of a geo-textile

reinforced stretch of the road with adjoining stretches of road with conventional design

under identical conditions. Keeping in view of the site conditions, a 5 m wide

Polypropylene slit tape based woven fabric was custom designed and assessed for its

properties. Monitoring of this stretch is currently under progress. Preliminary

observations show that, in the geo-textile reinforced section of the road, there are no

signs of visible distress even after about five months; where as earlier experience

showed that road constructed as per standard conventional practice deteriorated within

6 months. This shows the significant influence of a geotextile layer along with a lime

treatment in enhancing the performance of the road stretch along MDR82.

Courtesy: Reliance Industries Ltd

40

CASE STUDY 2: USE OF GEOTEXTILES AS SEPARATOR AT GADIMOGAClient: M/S Reliance industries LtdConsultant: M/S L&T RambollSite Location: Village Gadimoga located about 25 Km from Kakinada, APCompletion Date: April 2007Products used: Woven Slit Film Geotextiles

Reliance industries is developing onshore terminal for KG D-6 field development near thevillage Gadimoga located in state of Andhra Pradesh.

As a part of the development for KG D6, RIL has constructed internal haul roads on theexisting ground conditions having soil with very low CBR value

RIL and consultant L&T Ramboll had proposed to use Tape Woven Geotextiles for theapplication of reinforcement and separator between Granular sub-base and sub-grade.The total quantity used in the project was 212660 m2.

A schematic sketch of the roads using the woven geotextiles is shown below:

Courtesy: Techfab (India) Industries Ltd

Design details for the roads

Cross-section of the road with Geotextiles

41

CASE STUDY 3: USING OF GEOTEXTILE IN ICHALKARANJI

Contractor: Ichalkaranji Municipality

This was one of the first projects where geotextiles were used in India. The Geotextileswere used in 1990, 21 years from now. The problem was deterioration of roadfrequently.

Laying of Geotextiles in 1990

Road without geotextiles

Road with geotextiles

42

Woven geotextiles were used and the problem was reduced to a great extent.

To check the efficacy of geotextiles after several years, Geotextiles were excavated after

10 years. The test results showed that strength of geotextiles have not changed

significantly in the machine direction, proving that Geotextile can be a long time solution

to the problems of the roads.

Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates pvt ltd

43

CASE STUDY 4: WOVEN GEOTEXTILES FOR MAKING PAVED ROADSAT KOPT, WEST BENGAL

BENEFITS: Paved roads are the ones which carry heavy

vehicular movement. At dockyard a typical load would be

movement of heavy containers. Also the bottom most is a

weak base of sub soil. Woven Geotextile improvise the

subgrade and strengthen the same. Base reinforcement and

bearing capacity is improved. Reduction in thickness of the

granular layer can also be done. Use of Woven Geotextiles prevents aggregate

penetration and mud pumping.

INSTALLATION: Woven Geotextile was laid on the weak sub

soil, after clearing and leveling the same. Laying of rolls was

done manually overlapping each other, which was then stitched

with nylon threads. Post this more soil is laid and layered with

a road roller. Water is sprinkled; soil settles down and then

starts the laying of paver tiles. This is a process driven simple

installation.

Sr. No. Parameter Results1 Grab Tensile in LBS (ASTM

D:4632-91)250- Warp250 -Weft

2 Elongation in % (ASTM D:4632-91)

15- WARP15- WEFT

3 Bursting Strength in P.Si (ASTMD:3786-87)

450

90- WARP4 Trapezoidal Tear Strength in LBS

(ASTM D:4533-91) 90- WEFT

5 Index Puncture Resistance in LBS(ASTM D:4833-91) 100

6 AOS in mm (ASTM D: 4751: 95) * 0.425

7 Water Permeability in Gal/SF/min(ASTM D: 4491) * 4

8 UV Resistance in % per 500Hrs 70*: Values are Maximum Average Roll Values. These are typical values at the time ofproduction. Handling and transportation may change these values.

Courtesy: Shri Ambica Polymer Private ltd

44

CASE STUDY 5: USE OF HIGH STRENGTH GEOTEXTILE FORGROUND IMPROVEMENT

Contractor: Simplex InfrastructureApplication of geotextiles as a separator cum drainage medium:

• A lagoon 210 m x 130 m was made by construction of earthen bunds of height 3.6 mon marshy land having very soft marine clay deposit of 4.0 to 8.0 m thickness.

• Sand drains of 250 mm were used to improve ground improvement.

• Geotextiles have been used to prevent the ingress of murrum bund into sand blanket.

Year of laying: 1997

Feedback: Geotextiles has been used as separator as ground improvement work at the lagoon site,since then it is still it is serving its function.

Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates Pvt. Ltd

Layout pattern of sand drain

Fabric Orientation in Bund

45

CASE STUDY 6: GEOTEXTILES FOR PREVENTION OF CRACKS INROADS IN TATA POWERS CO.

On permanent road structures we often see cracks generated and getting converted into

Ruts. The main causes for development of the cracks are; these road structures are

subjected to varying loads from the vehicles running over them as well as extreme

weather conditions have severe effects on the stability of the roads.

Conventional Method For Repair

Generally these roads are resurfaced with a fresh

coat of Bitumen. But the cracks start appearing again

on the resurfaced roads. This is due to reflection of

the cracks already formed on the earlier layer of

bitumen and this phenomenon is known as reflective

surface cracking.

Most Preferred Solution Globally

The most preferred method to delay the crack

formation on to new surface coat is to reinforce this

layer by introducing a Polypropylene Non Woven

Geotextile layer just beneath it (DBM). This layer does

two main functions; waterproofing or subsurface

drainage and reinforcement. This Geotextile layer acts

as a fluid barrier when impregnated with Bitumen from one side; also it drains the

surface moisture in lateral direction protecting the underlying layers. Secondly it acts as

a stress relieving layer and prevents the stresses developed in underlying layer to reflect

in new layer. Thus the useful life of the new layer is extended exponentially.

Why PP Non-Woven Geotextiles

The non-woven paving fabric is manufactured from high quality polypropylene fibres,

with heat treatment on one side to form a strong, flexible and dimensionally stable

fabric structure with optimum bitumen retention capacity. Polypropylene is one of the

46

most durable polymers with excellent resistance to both acidic and alkaline

environments. The affinity of Polypropylene for liquid asphalt ensures an excellent bond

between the fabric and the asphalt tack coat. High melting point of PP results in

withstanding high temperatures of bituminous mixes.

Introduction: A project was undertaken at Tata Power in 2007. The problem was heavy

rutting and appearance of cracked surface frequently.

Steps of Laying:

Basic preparations like cleaning with high pressure air,

filling of cracks and pot holes at the site were carried out.

A tack coat of bitumen was then applied the cleaned

surface of the road with the help of sprayers.

The fabric was then carefully laid on the tack coat with

the heat sealed side of the fabric facing the tack coat. It

was ensured that there are no wrinkles and folds on the

fabric to avoid formation of air pockets. Brooming of the

fabric was done to ensure complete removal of wrinkles.

After laying pegging was done to avoid wrinkle formation

during later operations.

A layer of DBM (dense bituminous macadam) was then

placed over the fabric. It was then compacted using road

rollers. A layer of BC (bituminous concrete) was then

placed over DBM and compacted. Traffic movement was

then allowed on the road.

Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates Pvt ltd

47

6. JUTE TEXTILE

49

6. JUTE GEOTEXTILE

Jute Geotextile is a natural geosynthetics made out of jute-fibers. Jute is a low cost,

renewable, biodegradable and eco-friendly natural product. Jute was tried long back as

field experiment s before the concept of

geosynthetics was thought of, Jute was applied

in a road at Dundee in Scotland in 1920,on

Strand Road at Kolkata, India in 1934 by

Bengal PWD and in a road in Mynamar during

World War II was reportedly successful. Use of

Jute geotextile for improvement of the

performance of various geotechnical structures

had been extensively studied, jute geotextile impart strength to the soil by performing

three basic functions like separation, filtration and drainage. An in depth research

carried out in this field has shown that Jute Geo-textile if properly treated with

appropriate chemicals can successfully protect the roads and embankments against

erosions and can also guarantee a desired durability.

Jute geotextile is having some of the advantages over synthetic geotextiles such as it is

much cheaper than synthetic fibre, It is easy to blend with other natural material and

synthetic fibres, it is environmental friendly, design biodegradable, hydrophobic, anionic

and easily available material. Initially it has got the high strength and non-hazardous

properties. It is also a renewable source of energy as natural biomass.

Applications of Jute Geotextile:

• Protection of all kinds of earth-slopes

• Stabilization of embankments of roads & railways

• Control of erosion of banks of rivers & waterways

• Strengthening of roads, including haul roads

• Control of settlement in roads & railway tracks

• Stabilization of all kinds of spoil heaps, PFA

• As anti-pollutant cover over solid wastes

• For quick development of greeneries, lawns

• Consolidation of soft soil

• Construction of concealed drains in hill roads

• As facilitator of vegetation-growth in arid & semi-arid zones

50

Jute Geotextiles in Roads

Jute Geotextiles as Separator to Improve Pavement Performance

The performance of pavements constructed on soft

soils can be improved using jute geotextiles. Jute

fabric when used as separator prevents the

penetration of subgrade material into voids of

granular base course. The permeability

characteristic of the fabric also aids in faster

dissipation of pore pressures and ensures better drainage which results in better long

term performance of the pavement. Provision of fabric enables subgrade develops its full

bearing capacity and thus controls rutting.

Jute Geotextile for Drainage and Filtration

To arrest the sinking of road pavement, a

systematic network of roadside trench drains and

cross trench drains are constructed using non-

woven jute geotextiles. The trench drains are made

of rubbles encapsulated in non-woven jute

geotextiles to stop the finer particle entering into

the voids of encapsulated rubbles, thereby

preventing clogging the trench drains.

51

7. CASE STUDIES OF JUTE GEOTEXTILES IN ROADS

Case Study 1: Construction of Highway Embankment on Soft Marine soil

at Kakinada Port, India

Case study 2: Widening of Munshirhat- Rajpur Road, India

53

7. CASE STUDIES ON USAGE OF JUTE GEOTEXTILES INROADS

Case study 1: Construction of Highway Embankment on SoftMarine soil at Kakinada Port, India

1. Leveling in Progress

2. Laying of Jute Geotextile

3. Condition of road after seven years of

construction

54

Case study 2: Widening of Munshirhat- Rajpur Road, India1. Jute Geotextile is laid on the

subgrade

2. Consolidation of brick metal laid

over JGT on widened portion.

3. Finished road after widening

55

8. GEOTEXTILES IN EROSION CONTROL

57

8. GEOTEXTILES IN EROSION CONTROL

Geotextiles are the most widely used Geosynthetics

products and find application in many infrastructure

projects. For river bank protection, the major function

of geotextiles is filtration.

WHAT IS GEOTEXTILE FILTER?

A Geotextile placed in contact with soil, allows water seeping from the soil to pass

through while preventing any movement of soil particles (with the exception of a very

small amount of the fine particles located near the filter).

CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS VIS-À-VIS MODERN

GEOTEXTILES PROTECTION

Conventional methods to tackle the problem of Soil

Erosion includes construction of flexible structures

such as rip-rap or heavy armor stones, concrete

blocks, articulated concrete mattresses to break up

the water forces. To prevent washing away of the

underlying soil, layers of granular materials (graded filters) are placed between

underlying soil and rip-rap. A typical graded filter consists of successive layers of

sand, gravel and stones, the particle size of which are calculated. At times, minimum

four layers of different materials may be required in conventional methods

Shortcomings

When rip-rap revetment is used to dissipate the hydraulic forces, turbulence occur within

the interstices of the erosion control structure resulting in erosion of the base soil

through the pores in the facing.

Modern Geotextile Filters

Geotextiles are frequently used as replacement for

grades, the advantages associated are

Comparable performance, Improved economy, Consistent properties and ease of placement. Reduction in number of granular layers Lower overall cost & faster construction

ConventionalMethod

Geotextile Protection

59

9. CASE STUDIES: GEOTEXTILES IN EROSION CONTROL

Case Study 1 - Geotextiles for Swan River Embankment Protection, Una, HP

Case study 2 - Geotextiles and Geobags For Churni River EmbankmentProtection, West Bengal

Case Study 3 - Geotextile Reinforced Embankment for Height Raising of JarositePond at Zinc Smelter, Debary, Udaipur

Case Study 4: Erosion control Measures for the Bhagirathi River

61

9. CASE STUDIES - GEOTEXTILES IN EROSION CONTROL

Case Study 1 - Geotextiles for Swan River EmbankmentProtection, Una, HP

Swan River Project

51km River Embankment Project to prevent flood Year of Laying- 2009 Two phases, 1st phase of 17km is complete, Imported Geotextiles used in 1st phase, 2nd phase Repol PP based Needle Punched Non

Woven Geotextiles specified, Repol PP based Needle Punched Geotextile

confirms the specifications laid down byauthorities.

Domestic product certified by IIT Delhi 131000 Sq. Mtr. Geotextiles used.

Process Of Construction Of Embankment

Base embankment is compacted A layer of 310GSM, 2.5mm Thick PP Needle

Punched Non Woven Geotextile is laid Gabions filled with Boulders are placed over the Geotextile

Function of PP Needle Punched Non Woven Geotextile

Geotextile functions as a filter, Prevents soil from embankment from being washed away, Reduced the damage to the base embankment considerably Extends life of embankment

Advantages of geotextile system v/s. Conventional riprap

Reduction in Granular layers Considerable saving of construction time Longer life of the embankment even after repeated floods.

Advantages of Polypropylene Non Wovens

Polypropylene is one of the most durable polymers Excellent resistance to both acidic and alkaline environments

62

Failure of Conventional Grade Filters

Construction of Embankment with PP Needle Punched Non Woven Geotextile

63

Laying of Geotextiles

Laying of Gabions over Geotextile (Single Rip-rap layer)

64

Laying of Gabions over Geotextile

Final Embankment with rip-rap and geotextiles

65

SPECIFICATIONS OF THE PP NON WOVEN GEOTEXTILE

The general specifications of the Polypropylene Non Woven Geotextile requiredin project were as follows.

Sr Test Standard Unit Specification

1 Weight (GSM) ASTM D 5261 GSM > 275

2 Thickness ASTM D 5199 mm > 2.5

3 Pore Size ASTM D 4751 mm 0.15 to 0.20

4 Water Permeability BS 6906/3 Ltr/Sqm/s 150 to 160

5 CBR Puncture Strength ASTM D 4833 N > 3850

6 Wide Width Tensile Strength ASTM D 4595 kN/m > 17.5

7 Grab Tensile Strength ASTM D 4632 N > 1100

8 Elongation at break ASTM D 4632 % < 50

9 Cone Drop BS 6906/6 mm < 15

10 Trapezoidal Tear Resistance ASTM D 4533 N < 450

66

Geotextiles Supplier: Techfab (India) Industries LtdCompiled by: Reliance Industries Ltd

67

STUDY 2 - Geotextiles and Geobags For Churni River EmbankmentProtection, West Bengal

68

PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF EMBANKMENT

Project started in 2009 and was completed in Jan 2010.

Base embankment was compacted

A trench 2’ x 4 ‘ was made at the top and bottom of the embankment

A thick layer of Geotextile as Filter Fabric was laid.

To secure the geotextile, the trench was filled with boulders placed in a metal gabion.

69

The embankment was protected with two layers of bricks

(as they were readily available)

Two layers of 6500 sand filled, PP geobags were placed at edge of the river to take

care of the soil erosion.

Function of Geotextiles and PP Non Woven Bags

Geotextiles function as a filter.

Geotextiles prevent soil from embankment from being washed away,

PP Geo-bags provide reinforcement to the edge of the embankment

Advantages of Geotextile system v/s. Conventional riprap

Reduction in Granular layers

Considerable saving of construction time

Longer life of the embankment even after repeated floods.

Compiled by: Reliance Industries Ltd.

70

Case Study 3 - Geotextile Reinforced Embankment for Height

Raising of Jarosite Pond at Zinc Smelter, Debary, Udaipur

Name of the Client : Hindustan Zinc LimitedYear : 2010Project Details :

The client intended to raise the height of the existing embankment to increase the

capacity of the jarosite pond. The height of the embankment varied from 6.0 m and

14.0m.

To minimize the foot print area of the embankment and the quantity of the embankment

fill, reinforced embankment slope was proposed by using Polyester Woven Geotextile as

reinforcement.

Use of woven geotextile to reinforce the steep embankment slopes was found to be a

technically viable and economical option.

Courtesy: Garware Wall Ropes Ltd.

During Construction of Reinforced

Embankment Slope

After Construction of Reinforced

Embankment Slope

71

Case Study 4: Erosion control Measures For the Bhagirathi riverMaterial: 240 GSM based on PPMF (polypropylene multifilament)

Department: Nadia Irrigation Division, West Bengal

Contractor: Jashjit Mukherjee

Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates Pvt Ltd.

73

10. POLYMER GABIONS IN EROSION CONTROL

75

10. POLYMER GABIONS IN EROSION CONTROL

1 Introduction

Coastal areas are prone to erosion due to continuous

impact of waves and tides. The waves slowly erode the

natural coast and over a period can cause danger to the

structures near shore. One of the most cost effective

techniques for the coastal area protection is the usage of

Rope or Polymer Gabions.

2 What is Rope or Polymer Gabions?

Polymer Gabions are 3-Dimensional flexible box like

structures fabricated from polymer ropes and usually filled

with stone and used for structural purposes such as retaining

walls, revetments, slope protection, and similar applications.

3 Modern Rope Gabion Vis-À-Vis Conventional Steel Gabion

Polymer Gabion made from PP has following advantages over steel Gabions:

Excellent flexibility: The inherent flexibility of the rope and the continuous

integral construction imparts excellent flexibility to the gabion, allowing it to

adapt itself to uneven surface profiles and to accommodate significant amounts

of differential settlements and movements while retaining structural integrity and

continuity.

High Resistance to corrosion: PP is highly resistant to the chemical and

biological environments normally encountered in most applications. Hence PP

gabions do not corrode even in aggressive marine environments.

High tensile strength: The PP rope used to produce gabions, has very high

tensile strength

Ease of Installation: Supplied in ready to fill collapsed form.

77

11. CASE STUDY: POLYMER GABION FOR EROSION CONTROL

Case Study 1: Polymer Gabions for Tithal Beach- Swami Narayan Temple,Daman

Case Study 2: Polymer Gabions for erosion control- Mahisagar River-Vadodara

79

11. Case Study on polymer gabions for erosion control

Case Study 1: Polymer Gabions for Tithal Beach- Swami NarayanTemple, Daman

Tithal beach (north of Daman) is known for its

prominent Swaminarayan and Saibaba Temple.

Over the years the beach started getting eroded

due to waves and it was estimated that within 5-

7 years the beach up to the temple would get

eroded and causing damage to the temple

complex.

Usage of PP rope gabions was suggested by

CWPRS, Pune. 20000 gabions were used to protect the beach in 2001-02. The

completed sea wall is as shown in the figures below.

GABION INSTALLATION:

Generally 6 steps are involved during the installation of PP Gabions:

(1) Preparing and compacting bed and laying of Geo-textiles as filter fabric.

(2) Laying of cushion layer of sand/ murrom

(3) Metal frame placement

Site location

Completed Polymer ( PP) Gabion sea wall

80

(4) Tying of PP Gabions with Metal frame.

(5) Filling PP Gabions with Stones / boulders

(6) Removal of Metal frame, and closing PP Gabions once it is filled with boulders.

Compiled by: Reliance Industries Ltd

81

Case Study 2 : Polymer Gabions for erosioncontrol- Mahisagar River- Vadodara

Owner: Irrigation Department, Vadodara Circle, Vadodara,

Gujarat

Contractor: M/s Rajkamal Builders, Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Site Location: At Mahisagar River, near Sindhrot village,

Vadodara

Completion Date: 30th June 2008

Product used: Copper & Polymer Gabion

Description of the Project:

Irrigation Department proposed the construction of a weir

across the Mahisagar River to ensure a perennial source of

water on the upstream side and to facilitate recharging of the

ground water table in the surrounding areas. Total height of

the weir is 9.0 meters from the river bed level. The

department was interested in an alternative to the conventional RCC wing walls of the

weir to make the project more economical and to reduce the completion time.

The Solution:

The predominantly sandy materials of the bank are prone to erosion due to the water

currents. The Design Circle of the Irrigation department finalized a solution wherein

copper and polymer gabions underlain by a geotextiles was used to protect the

embankment from erosion by river water currents. Gabions fabricated from copper &

polymer ropes were used in view of their excellent flexibility and resistance to corrosion

and the ease and speed of construction, which made it possible to complete the work in

time.

Courtesy: Techfab India Industries Ltd.

83

12. GEOBAGS AND GEOTUBES FOR EROSION CONTROL

85

12. GEO-BAGS and GEO-Tubes for Erosion Control

1. What are Geo-Bags?

The Geotextile bags functions essentially like Geo-tubes but are comparatively smaller insize, and used for erosion control of rivers as well as construction of breakwaters andbunds.

2. Typical Installations structures of Geobags

Typical Geobag Geobags for erosion control

Geobags for erosion control

G Geobags as channel lining for erosion control

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3 What are Geotubes?Geotubes are geotextile containment structures that are used to encapsulate soilto enable their use as flexible, erosion resistant mass-gravity structures inhydraulic and marine applications including:

Construction of coastline structures for shoreline protection, reclamation,break-water, Groyens, Dikes and Jetties.

Construction of river structures such as Dikes, Launching Aprons, Spurs etc.

4 Material of manufacture for GeotubesThe “Specially Engineered Textile” is composed of high tenacity 100%polypropylene/polyester yarns that are woven into a stable network such that theyarns retain their relative position. As geotextile material needs to be inert tobiological degradation and resistant to naturally encountered chemicals, alkalisand acids polypropylene is generally preferred.

5 Modern Geo-Tubes protection Vis-À-Vis Conventional Steel Gabion

1. Geotubes containment tubes are easy to install, both onshore as well asoffshore below the surface of water.

2. As a “flexible “armoured structure, they offer minimal impact to theenvironment

3. Provide a cost effective alternative to “hard” armor structures.4. Chemically inert to alkaline and natural acids.

Geotubes*Courtesy: Techfab (India) Industries Ltd

87

6 Typical Installation Structures

Picture Courtesy: Techfab (India) Industries Ltd

7 – GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USAGE OF GEOTEXTILES TUBE*

TERMINOLOGY

Geotextile Tube - A large tube equal to or greater than 0.6 m in diameter, fabricatedfrom “Specially Engineered Textile” in lengths equal to or greater than 10 m. Geotextiletubes used in coastal and riverine erosion control applications are most often filledhydraulically with slurry of sand and water. The geotextile tube can also be filled by acombination mechanical and hydraulic method.

Scour Apron - An apron of geotextile designed to protect the foundation of the maingeotextile tube from the undermining effects of scour. In coastal and river applications,scour can be present at the base of the geotextile tube due to wave and current action.Scour aprons may be on both sides of the main geotextile tube, or on only one side.Scour aprons also reduce scour caused during the hydraulic filling process of the maingeotextile tube. Scour aprons are typically anchored by a small Anchor Tube filled withsand at the water's edge or by sandbags placed in pockets sewn into the apron.

Injection Port - Also called as “Fill Port Sleeve” or “Fill Port”. Injection Ports aresleeves sewn into the top of the geotextile tube into which the pump discharge pipe isinserted. Injection Ports are typically 300 to 500 mm diameter and 0.9 to 2.0 m inlength. Fill Ports are spaced along the top of the tube to provide access to thecontractor. Spacing is usually no closer than 5.0 m to accommodate sand slurry but can

Different types of installation structure

* Courtesy: Techfab (India) Industries Ltd

88

be as far apart as 20 m for some viscous fill materials. After pumping, all Fill Ports are tobe closed in accordance with manufactures recommendation.

7.1 SITE PREPARATION

A. Areas in which geotextile tubes are to be placed shall be constructed to thelines and grades shown on the Drawings. All obstructions, which coulddamage the geotextile tubes, such as roots and projecting stones, shall beremoved.

B. Immediately prior to placing the scour aprons and geotextile tubes, theprepared area shall be inspected by the ENGINEER and no aprons orgeotextile tubes shall be placed thereon, until the area has been approvedby the ENGINEER.

7.2 PLACEMENT OF SCOUR APRON AND SACRIFICIAL GEOTEXTILE LAYERPlace scour apron in accordance with the lines, grades and dimensions shown onthe drawings. The ends of each apron shall be overlapped a minimum of 2.0 m.

7.3 PLACEMENT OF GEOTEXTILE TUBE

A. Place geotextile tube within the limits shown on the Drawings.

B. No portion of the geotextile tube shall be filled until the entire tube segmenthas been fully anchored to the foundation along the correct alignment.Means of assuring that the geotextile tubes are properly aligned andanchored shall be incorporated into the placement methodology presented inthe Plan of Construction.

C. Before injection of fill material, adjacent geotextile tube shall be overlappedat end joints or butted together so that there are no gaps between thetubes, unless shown otherwise in the Plan of Construction. Beneath thetubes, the ends of each Scour Apron shall be sewn together or overlapped aminimum of 2.0 m.

7.4 INJECTION OF FILL MATERIAL

A. Following the apron and geotextile tube placement, filling with materialsfrom a designated area shall be accomplished in accordance with theapproved Plan of Construction. The discharge line of the dredge shall befitted with a valve to allow control of the rate of filling. The valve systemshall be fitted with an internal mechanism such as a gate, butterfly valve,ball valve or pinch valve, to allow the contractor to regulate the dischargeinto the geotextile tube. Any excess discharge shall be directed away fromthe tube into a designated area.

1. Typically, the dredge discharge pipe should be limited to 250mm

89

diameter or smaller. Dredge discharge pipes below 150mm diametermay be too small to adequately fill the geotextile tube to the properheight. Care should be taken not to overfill or over pressurize the“anchor tube” that is incorporated into the Scour Apron.

2. The dredge discharge pipe shall be free of protrusions that could tearthe fill port. The dredge discharge pipe shall be supported above thefill port in a manner, which reduces stress on the fill port seams.Excessive movement of the dredge discharge pipe during filling canresult in damage to the fill port. (The geotextile tube manufactureshould be consulted as to the best method to affix the dredgedischarge pipe to the fill port).

3. Upon filling the geotextile tube, the fill port sleeves shall be closed andattached to the main geotextile tube in a manner sufficient to preventmovement of the sleeve by subsequent wave action or otherdisturbances. (The geotextile tube manufacturer should be consultedas to the best method to close and secure the fill port sleeve).

B. The geotextile tube shall be completely filled to its design height asdetermined by the geotextile tube manufacturer. The desired height shall be≥ 0.5 x Theoretical Diameter of the geotextile tube as specified by theproject engineer. For filling of the Geotextile tubes to the desired heightmore than one operation may be required to be carried out successively.

C. Once the geotextile tubes have been properly installed the area is ready tobe backfilled to the lines and grade as outlined on the Plan of Construction.If the geotextile tubes are not to be externally backfilled, the area shall beleft in a clean and properly graded manner.

91

13. CASE STUDY – GEOTUBES IN EROSION CONTROL

Case Study -1: Shoreline and restoration of beach at Dahanu in Maharashtra

Case Study -2: Geotextile tube sea wall at Uppada, Andhra Pradesh

Case Study -3: Reclamation Work using Geotextile Containers at Port Terminal,Hazira

93

13. CASE STUDIES -GEOTUBES IN EROSION CONTROL

Case Study -1: Shoreline and restoration of beach at Dahanu inMaharashtra

Client: Maharashtra Coastal Department

Contractor: Gohel & company

Installation Year: 2011

Product used: Geo-Tube, 20m in length

Overview

Dahanu is located on the western coast of India, facingArabian Sea on the border of Maharashtra and Gujrat. The1500m long beach is continuously eroding due to abrasiveaction of the sea waves. The increasing erosion of the beachhas also endangered the adjoining structures and habitationnear this location.

The conventional methods for restoration of the beach anderosion control have been tried and found ineffective, TheGeo-tubes made of engineered high strength woven fabric,have been thought of as an effective solution to the problemdue to their capability of controlling the shore erosion causedby strong wave action on the one hand and facilitating thenatural deposition of sand layer behind them in longer term.The geotextile tubes that have been proven worldwide as aneffective alternative to conventional methods of shoreprotection, erosion control, and reclamation was proposed as asolution to the problem here.

The schematic diagram of the proposed solution is shown here. The system has threecomponents

a) Main tube (3.0m theoretical dia.)

b) Anchor tube (1.0m theoretical dia.) and.

c) Scour Apron made of high strength woven geotextile to prevent scouring of the base.

94

The above system performs as erosion control mechanism for protection of shorelineand deposition of natural sand behind it. On the present project site the problem wasthat of continuous erosion of shoreline due to wave action.

To solve the problem, a Groyne made of Geo-tube was proposed (3.0m theoreticaldiameter) An anchor tube of 1.0m theoretical diameter was installed in front of this asan anchor toe.

Installation:

1. Submersible slurry pumps were deployed to fill the Geo-tubes. A sand slurry mixof 70% water and 30% sand was pumped through 10 BHP pumps.

2. This mix was pumped from the excavated pits made specifically to pump thesand slurry. The slurry was pumped into the Tech-tubes through the inlet portsprovided on top of the tubes. The pumping operation was conducted in stagesand planned according to the tides.

3. After each filling operation the Tech-tubes are left for expulsion of water fromfabric and consolidation of sand.

Scour Apron and Anchor Tube: Technical Specifications

Scour apron is required to be provided beneath the Geotextile tubes to control thesouring of the base. The Scour Apron shall be sewn with ANCHOR TUBE.

Geotextiletube Anchor

Tube

Scour Apron

Installation of Geotubes

95

Cover layer Geotextile for Protection as sacrificial layer: Technicalspecifications

A non woven needle-punched UV stabilized staple fiber geotextile shall be used assacrificial layer over the Geotextile tube. The geotextile provided shall be made of 100%Polypropylene UV stabilized yarn. The minimum weight to be used shall be 500Gms/sqm.

Courtesy: TechFab (India) Industries Ltd.

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Case Study -2: Geotextile tube sea wall at Uppada, AndhraPradesh

Name of the Client: Irrigation & CAD Department, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh

Year : 2008 to 2011

Project Details :

Coastal area of Uppada village in East Godavari district and the nearby villages namelySubbammapeta and Ameenabada are subjected to severe sea erosion for the pastseveral years.

A Geotextile tube sea wall was proposed to be built along the coast line to prevent theerosion. The materials identified for the construction includes geotextile tubes, geotextilebags and woven geotextile and polymer rope gabions. Geotextile tubes made ofpolypropylene woven geotextile, each 20m length and 3m diameter has been used asthe core of the sea wall.

The performance of geotextile tube sea wall with polymer rope gabions as armour layeris well appreciated after the recent cyclones.

As the dredged sand or locally available soils are used as fill material, geotextile tubesare cost effective. Compared to conventional structures, geotextile tube structures are20 to 40 % cost effective depending on the site conditions.

Typical cross-section of Geotextile Tube Sea Wall Geotextile Tube Sea Wall aftercompletion

Courtesy: Garware Wall Ropes Ltd

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Case Study -3 : Reclamation Work using Geotextile Containers atPort Terminal, Hazira

Name of the Client : Adani Hazira Port Private Limited, Ahmedabad

Year : 2011

Project Details :

As a part of land reclamation work at the port terminal, slope of height 10m was

supposed to be protected against erosion by the waves. Hence to protect the reclaimed

land from getting eroded due to the harsh marine environment, geotextile containers

filled with local available sand is stacked one above the other to form the required slope.

Polymer rope gabions filled with stones was provided as launching apron to prevent

scouring of the toe.

Reclamation using Geotextile Containers


99

14. A FEW GEOSYNTHTETICS PRODUCTS

GEOGRIDS

PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS

101

15. GEOGRIDS

Applications of geogrids:

Following are the major applications of Geogrids:1. Segmental Retaining Walls2. Landslide Repair3. Panel Faced Retaining Walls4. Reinforced Foundations5. Reinforced Steep Slopes6. Track Bed Stabilization7. Reinforced Embankments over Soft Soil8. Landfill Embankment9. Reinforcement of disjointed rock sections10. Reinforcement in Paved/ Unpaved roads.

102

DESIGN METHODOLOGY*

The use of naturally available soil bundled with PET geogrid and wall fascia can be used

to replace the traditional retaining wall construction in areas of limited spaces. The

implementation of such Reinforced soil walls here after referred as RS walls prove to be

economical, efficient and esthetic with reduced times of construction. The current

practice of design methodology determines the geometry and PET geogrid requirements

to check internal and external failure using limit equilibrium methods of analysis. In

external stability evaluations for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall (MSEW) structures

PET geogrid reinforced sections is treated as composite homogenous soil mass and the

stability is evaluated according to conventional failure modes for gravity type wall

systems. Differences in the present practice exist for internal stability evaluation which

determines the PET geogrid required, principally in the development of internal lateral

stress and the assumption as to the location of the most critical failure surface. Internal

stability is treated as a response of discrete elements in a soil mass. This suggests that

deformations are controlled by PET geogrid rather than total mass, which appears

inconsistent given the much greater volume of soil in such structures. Therefore

deformation analyses are not included in current methods. The design approach should

consist of following,

A) Working stress analysis

B) Limit equilibrium analysis

Analyses of MSEW Structures: An analysis of working stresses consists of,

1. Selection of PET geogrid location and a check that stresses in the stabilized soil

mass are compatible with the properties of the soil and inclusions.

2. Evaluation of local stability at the level of each PET geogrid and prediction of

progressive failure.

Limit Equilibrium Analysis: A limit equilibrium analysis consists of a check of the

overall stability of the structure. The types of stability that must be considered are

external, internal, and combined:

1. External stability involves the overall stability of the stabilized soil mass considered

as a whole and is evaluated using slip surfaces outside the stabilized soil mass.

* Courtesy: Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt Ltd

103

2. Internal stability analysis consists of evaluating potential slip surfaces within the

reinforced soil mass.

3. In some cases, the critical slip surface is partially outside and partially inside the

stabilized soil mass and a combined external/ internal stability analysis may be

required.

Design Requirement: Reinforced soil walls are designed to provide stability against

following conditions,

1. External stability:- Geometrical dimensions are determined

2. Internal stability:- Determine vertical spacing and strength of the PET geogrid

3. Facing Stability:- Based on type of connection, fascia stability need to be

checked.

Forces acting on the reinforced soil wall

The forces acting on the reinforced soil wall are as depicted in the Figure and considering

the stresses the stability checks that are carried are

1. External Stability:

A) Sliding Stability:

1. Earth pressure due to retained soil drive the wall in forward direction and resistance is

offered by the friction developed along the base of the wall which depends on self weight

of composite reinforced soil mass.

2. Resistance to sliding varies with following factors

104

a) Density of backfill, γ

b) Base length of PET geogrid

c) Angle of internal friction, φ and cohesion, c values of foundation soil

d) Angle of internal friction, φ of backfill.

Types of failure

Sliding force varies with following parameters

a. Wall height, h

b. Surcharge Loading or sloping surcharge (and its angle of steepness)

c. φ of retained fill

B) Overturning stability

a. Wall is subjected to over turning force due to earth pressure , which can be

calculated as product of destabilizing force and its height from toe of wall

b. Resistance is provided by the self weight of reinforced soil mass, which is the

product of self weight and its height from toe of wall

c. Resistance to overturning depends on

i. Geometry of wall

ii. Density of backfill material

C) Overturning force depends on,

a. Density of retained fill material

b. φ - value of retained fill soil

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c. Drainage conditions - If any water is present

d. Wall height

e. Back slope surcharge

D) Bearing capacity: - The load supporting capacity of foundation soil

a. Bearing capacity depends on the following parameters,

i. Width of wall

ii. Shear strength parameters of foundation soil i.e. c, φ

iii. Presence of ground water table

iv. Ground profile

2. Internal Stability:

A) For internal stability analysis reinforced soil mass is divided in two parts as

shown in Figure 3.

Active Zone – Soil in this zone have tendency to move outward which causes

the failure

Resistance Zone : It is the stable zone behind the potential failure plane

B) To stabilize the active zone PET geogrids are placed in active zone and are

extended in to the resisting zone which intersects the potential failure plane

Zone of Maximum Tension

106

It is very important to make the structure internally stable so that it acts as a composite

unit mass.

A) Tensile stresses are maximum in the PET geogrid at its intersection with potential

failure plan

B) This tensile stresses can

o Pull the PET geogrid out of resisting zone (Pullout failure)

o Can cause the failure of PET geogrid in tension (Tensile overstress)

Pullout resistance

o Resistance to pullout is provided by the part of PET geogrid embedded in

the resisting zone.

o With increase in embedded length resistance to pullout forces increase.

Resistance to tensile stresses

o Increase the strength of PET geogrid.

o Reduce vertical spacing (More number of PET geogrids).

107

16. CASE STUDIES ON GEOGRIDS

Case Study -1 Decongestion of National Highway 58 – Uttar Pradesh

Case Study 2: RS Wall Construction | NH-8 Bhilad to Dahisar

Case Study 3: Strengthening & Widening of Road at Palanpur -Swaroopgunj Package on NH-14

109

16. CASE STUDIES ON GEOGRIDS

Case Study -1 Decongestion of National Highway 58 – UttarPradesh

Owner: National Highway Authority of India (NHAI)

Contractor Name: Gayatri Projects Ltd.

Project Size: 11,700 sqm

Max. Height of Wall: 7.63 m

Project Type: Construction of Reinforced Soil Wall using Geogrid as soilreinforcement

Location: Meerut- Muzzaffarnagar (NH – 58 in the state of Uttar Pradesh)

System Offered: Geogrid with Panel Fascia

Consultant: EGIS – BCEOM International Ltd.

Completion Year: 2010

Project Brief

The National Highway connecting Meerut to Muzzaffarnagar needed a site solution thatwould not only be aesthetically pleasing, technically sound but would also create aseamless travel at all the Meerut – National Highway intersections.

Challenge

The biggest hurdle lay in the designing of the wallsinvolved, as it was identified that the side walls weremaking an acute corner with the abutment andsufficient space was not available to place theGeogrid. Compaction of soil in the acute cornerpresented several difficulties. The design and detailingof the soil reinforcement for the acute angle cornerswas a challenge. This required innovative and lateralthought process.

Geogrid Solution

The facing comprised of Panel fascia - T-shaped panel wall which is an extremely stablesystem and ideal for tall reinforced soil walls. While constructing a reinforced soil wall

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the geogrid is laid perpendicular to the fascia, which was not possible here due to thespace constraint caused by the acute corner. Thus the geogrid was laid parallel to theabutment wall and at a distance from the panel. Special bidirectional loops for thispurpose were used and as an additional safety measure panels were anchored with theabutment through steel strips. Since compaction in this narrow area was an importanttask, Strata used coarse grained soil. The design of the walls were carried out using theFederal Highway Administration – National Highway Institute (FHWA-NHI) guidelines andcomprised checks for external, internal and global stability under static and seismicconditions. The design calculations and construction drawings were proof-checked byEGIS – BCEOM International Ltd.

Post construction structural audit had been carried out by QC team suggests that theperformance of the structure has been impeccable.

Courtesy Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt Ltd.

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Case Study 2: RS Wall Construction | NH-8 Bhilad to Dahisar

Client: National Highway Authority of India (NHAI)

Contractor: IRB Infrastructure Developers Ltd.

Project Size: 106,366 sqm

Max. Height: 11.5 m

Project type: Construction of Reinforced Soil Walls using Geogrid

Location: Surat – Dahisar (NH-8 in the Gujarat section)

System Offered: Geogrid with Block Fascia

Design Consultant: STUP Consultants Pvt. Ltd.

Completion Year: 2011

Duration: 6 months

Project Brief:

The section of National Highway (NH-8), between Dahisar (suburb of Mumbai) and Surathas been plagued with high-traffic density consisting of heavy vehicles. In order to easethe traffic, the National Highway Authority of India decided to construct 16 newstructures over chain-age 300 to 375 and widen the road to six laning. Reinforced SoilWalls were selected for their ease in construction in constrained spaces, cost benefitsand quality assurances. Usage of the Block wall system on the basis of its cost and atime advantage, amongst other things was proposed.

Challenge:

The biggest challenge was time constraints.Even though the casting of blocks started ontime, the erection of the structures was delayeddue to the prolonged and erratic monsoonseason in 2010. Thus the hurdle faced, was inerecting all 16 structures before the nextmonsoon season which gave the solutionprovider only ten months to complete all thestructures.

Geogrid Solution:

Unique and advanced technology software (called “Site Tracker”) was custom built forthis project, which recorded the various reports and updates regarding the constructionof the structures. For smooth management and greater efficiency, the erection stages

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were divided into three independent projects and two separate casting yards wereestablished.

The Block wall system has been used as they have a built-in slope, are self aligning andare cast with an inter-locking system. The structures were designed using FederalHighway Administration – National Highway Institute (FHWA-NHI) guidelines andcomprised checks for external, internal and global stability under static and seismicconditions. To make the structure look aesthetically pleasing corner blocks andexpansion joint blocks were incorporated by the design team.

Courtesy: Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt Ltd

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Case Study 3 : Strengthening & Widening of Road at Palanpur -Swaroopgunj Package on NH-14

Client: National Highway Authority of India

Contractor: L&T, ECC Division, Ahmedabad

Consultant: Aarvee Associates

Salient Features of the Reinforced Soil Walls

Wall Facing Area: 55,349 Sqm

Wall Height: 10m

Soil Reinforcement: Knitted Geogrids & PVC coated polyester Geogrids

with Tensile Strength

of 40 to 250 KN/m

Facing: Segmental Panel Fascia

Design Methodology: BS 8006: 1995 (Static Condition)

FHWA-NHI-00-043 (Seismic Condition)

The Challenge:

Size of the panel was selected by the client, i.e. 1.25m x 0.6m. It has been decided touse this panel with PET Geogrid with friction / tongue and groove connection. Designsmust be checked for the connection strength for this type of panel-Geogridarrangement,

The Solution:

Testing was done at IIT-Madras for the friction based connection for Geogrid-PET withthis panel type. Design has been checked and verified with consideration of test results

Closure view of RS wall Elevation of the road

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and ensured the tension in Geogrid is less than the available connection strength atparticular normal pressure.

Property/Fill

Cohesion (C) –KN/m2

Angle ofInternal

Friction () -Degrees

Unit Weight() – KN/m3

ReinforcedInfill Soil

0 35 20

RetainedSoil

0 35 20

FoundationSoil

0 30 18

The design of the walls was carried out using the BS 8006: 1995 for StaticCondition & FHWA-NHI-00-043 for Seismic Condition, which comprised checksfor external, internal and global stability under static and seismic conditions.

The project was successfully completed in November 2009.

Courtesy: TechFab (India) Industries Ltd.

Isometric view of wall panel

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17. PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS

The prefabricated vertical drain is a long flat tube of

woven or non-woven geotextile with a core inside.

Ground improvement with vertical drains has been

an accepted practice for improving soft clay deposits

and has been widely used over the 60 years. The

time required for the settlement to occur is

considerably reduced as the length of the drainage

path through soil is reduced. The vertical drains are

required to have high permeability and sufficiently high drainage capacity so that pore

water escapes in horizontal direction towards the nearest drain. The water then flows

freely vertically along the drain to a drainage blanket placed on the soil surface or to a

highly permeable layer above or below the clay layer.

PVDs are generally installed vertically to the depth of 65m and are placed in triangular

or square configuration of 1 to 1.5m gap. Under excess hydrostatic pressure the water

travel horizontally along the inner core and come

out the soil.

Applications:

Land reclamation projects

Ports and harbour construction

Development of industrial sites.

Mitigation of liquefaction

Construction of highways, railways,

airfields and dykes.

PVD

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CASE STUDY: Usage of Prefabricated vertical drains for Essar Pillet Plant,Orissa.

Client: M/S Essar Limited, Essar Pillet Plant, Paradeep, Orrisa.

Installation

1. PVD Marking and positioning with RIG

2. PVD being inserted with RIG

3. PVD being cut after suitable length is inserted

4. Installed PVDs

Courtesy:

TechFab (India) Industries Ltd.

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21

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18. MISCELLANEOUS CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1: Doodh-ganga Canal Lining, Kolhapur, Maharashtra

Case Study 2: Gabion Gravity Retaining Wall, Lanjigarh, Orissa

Case Study 3: Installation of Geomembrane and Geotextile over the sideslopes and bottom of the Solid waste facility at GACL, Bharuch, Gujarat

Case Study 4: A Flexi Check Dam Made Using Geocomposite for EfficientUse of Water

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18. MISCELLANEOUS CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1: Doodhganga Canal Lining, Kolhapur, Maharashtra

Name of the Client: Doodhganga Canal Division

Year : 2006 to 2012

A portion of the canal lined with concrete had failed completely leading to seepage

losses upto 30%. Seepage from the canal was not controlled which has reflected in

water logging of adjoining creek and land areas.

To effectively prevent the seepage losses, geosynthetic lining using 1 mm thick HDPE

geomembrane was proposed. Nonwoven geotextile was used along with geomembrane

at the top and bottom to protect the geomembrane from puncturing. At the top, 75 mm

thick concrete cover of M10 grade was used to prevent damage and vandalism of liners

and for effective performance of the liner in the long run.

After installation of the geosynthetic liner, seepage from the canal was stopped

completely indicating the use of geosynthetic liner to effectively prevent the seepage of

water.

Installation of Liner Canal after Lining


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Case Study 2: Gabion Gravity Retaining Wall, Lanjigarh, Orissa

Name of the Client: Vedanta Aluminium Limited

Year : 2010

A 30.0 m high soil slope was to be retained to safeguard and protect the chimney and

peripheral road adjacent to the slope. For this purpose, gabion gravity retaining wall in

two tier configuration with sloping soil surcharge at the top was proposed. As gabion

structure is porous by nature, geotextile is used as filter material behind the wall to

prevent escape of soil particles.

Two – Tier Gabion Gravity Retaining Wall


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Case Study 3: Installation of Geomembrane and Geotextile overthe side slopes and bottom of the Solid waste facility at GACL,Bharuch, GujaratMaterial: Geomembrane, NW Geotextile

Year: 2005

Client: Gujarat Alkali Chemicals limited

Geomembranes with geotextiles as protective layer were used at Solid waste facility at

GACL. Following pictures depicts the laying of geotextiles and geomembranes.

Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates Pvt Ltd

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CASE STUDY 4: A Flexi Check Dam Made Using Geocomposite forEfficient Use of Water

Year: 2010

A flexible check dam can be inflated or deflated according to the water level for control

of flood or drought resulting in optimum use of water. In this innovative project, an

attempt has been made to design and develop rubber-textile composites, fabricating the

same into a flexible check dam and subsequent field evaluation for agricultural

application and easy management of water in watersheds. The work has been carried

out as a subproject under National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) of Indian

Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).

Initially, a proto has been developed using the rubber-textile composite and evaluated.

Further, five such flexi check dams have been built and installed in Odhisa (India) for

field evaluation. The initial evaluation has shown that control of water flow and timely

storage of water by the rubber dam resulted in increased crop production by 60% in the

kharif (monsoon), and 45% in rabi (winter) seasons. The farmers have opted for

multiple cropping as well as better agricultural inputs because of availability of water

throughout the seasons.

The dam has been functioning well on the principle of inflation and deflation. The

hydrostatic pressure is within 2 kPa. Any eddy current and higher velocity in upstream

do not cause any damage to the flexi check dam. The broken bottles and heavyweight

debris flowing from the upstream over the dam do not cause any damage. In the current

year (2011), the dam is performing well and is functioning according to expectation.

Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates Pvt Ltd

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19. INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1: Indian Woven Geotextiles for road construction in newsub-division development in New-Zealand

Case Study 2: Geotextiles in unpaved roads: A 35-year case history

Case study 3: Use of Geotextiles in Palm Islands, Dubai

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Laying of Geotextiles

19. INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1: Indian Woven Geotextiles for road construction innew sub-division development in New-Zealand

A soft sub-grade covered with the appropriate grade woven geo-textile stabilizes the

ground by spreading applied loads over a wider foundation, reducing rut depths and

preventing aggregate contamination. This reduces maintenance costs, improves

roadway life and permits unrestricted flow of traffic.

INSTALLATION: The sub-grade was properly compacted, depressions and holes were

filled and large stones, limbs and other debris were removed prior to placement to

prevent fabric damage from tearing or puncturing during stone placement. The woven

geotextiles was rolled out loosely, without wrinkles and folds, and placed in direct

contact with the soil. The geo-textile was covered with approximately 150 to 300 mm of

loosely placed GAP 40 mm aggregate prior to compaction. The aggregate was back

bladed into place to form a slight mount in the middle and to extend out beyond the

fence line. This was then rolled with a vibrating roller before putting 150 mm of concrete

surface layer on to it.

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The “separation” function of this economical high strength woven geo-textile preventedthe aggregate from becoming contaminated with the sub-grade soils below.

Sr.No. Parameter Result(lbf)

1 Grab Tensile in LBS (ASTM D:4632-91) WARP 200

WEFT 200

2 Elongation in % (ASTM D:4632-91) WARP 15

WEFT 15

3 Bursting Strength in PSi (ASTM D:3786-87) 400

4 Trapezoidal Tear Strength in LBS (ASTM D:4533-91) WARP 75

WEFT 75

5 Index Puncture Resistance in LBS (ASTM D:4833-91) 90

6 AOS in mm (ASTM D: 4751: 95) * 0.425

7 Water Permeability in Gal/SF/min (ASTM D: 4491) * 5

8 UV Resistance in % per 500Hrs 70

*: Values are Maximum Average Roll Values. These are typical values at the time ofproduction. Handling and transportation may change these values.

Courtesy: Shri Ambica Polymers Pvt Ltd.

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Case Study 2: Geotextiles in unpaved roads: A 35-year casehistory

By William M. Hawkins

Abstract

This article presents current information on geotextiles installed experimentally in an

unpaved road 35 years ago.

In 1972, geotextiles were largely untested, and the site was set up as an accelerated

field test to determine the comparative performances of several fabrics for use as a

geotextile. But because the site was still accessible 35 years later, it offered an

opportunity to review the ultimate potential lifetime of geotextiles in unpaved roads.

When the fabrics were exhumed in 2007, we learned that they had survived and

continued in service despite 2 factors that had worked against them:

1. The lack of adequate cover (in some cases, less than 6in. of stone) had adversely

affected the fabrics.

2. And, by current standards, an inadequate polymer stabilization package used when

these fabrics were produced.

The unusual opportunity to look at geotextiles this old in situ and the fact that some of

the fabrics survived and continued to perform under the adverse circumstances offers

important information. With current stabilizers, design, and installation procedures,

today’s geotextiles perform even better and longer.

Background

The purpose of geotextile separation is to prevent 2 simultaneous mechanisms that tend

to occur in a roadway cross section over time

The first is that the stone base tends to penetrate into the subgrade soil, thereby

compromising its load-bearing capacity. The second is that fine-grained subgrade soil

tends to intrude into the voids of the stone base, thereby compromising the stone base’s

drainage capacity. In both cases, when the base intermixes with fine-grained particles

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from the subgrade soil, the stone base (or the lower portion of it) is no longer effective

for load bearing or drainage. The situation is heightened in areas of freeze/thaw and

wet/dry cycling. Environmental changes such as frost, infiltration, drainage, and

increased loading all adversely challenge the paved or unpaved road base.

It should be noted that many unpaved roads eventually become paved (usually with

asphalt) and, if the stone base is protected from the beginning against subgrade soil

contamination, the paved road design can be done with confidence.

In 1972, nonwoven fabrics were being used in Europe in road support applications on

soft soils and at construction sites. The results appeared to be positive. Recognizing this,

DuPont, an established nonwoven fabric producer, developed a program to produce a

geotextile for use in similar applications. As part of that program, several existing fabrics

were installed in unpaved road test sections for performance evaluations.

The purpose of the performance evaluations was to determine which fabrics would best

perform the required functions of reinforcement, stabilization, and/or separation.

Several materials were installed and evaluated in different geographic locations; the site

near Smyrna, Del., is still functioning and is one of the oldest known existing accessible

geotextile separation applications. In June 2007, this particular site was visited and

samples were exhumed. Reviewed in this article is information about the initial

installation and its current conditions, the field performance, and current status for these

test sections. Through evaluation of physical, mechanical and chemical properties, the

separation performance, survivability and durability properties of the geotextiles were

evaluated and compared.

The Smyrna site and the 1972 design approach

The source of most of the historical information in this section is the original test

evaluation report by Crane and Hutchins (1974) and discussions with its co-author, Dick

Hutchins (2007).

The Smyrna, Del., test section that was created used a farm road built over a sandy clay

soil with a load-bearing capacity of CBR (California Bearing Ratio) &cong; 1.0 when wet,

and a CBR &cong; 6.0 when dry. Unlike the other test sections constructed by DuPont at

the same time, the Smyrna site was completely controlled by the designers.

During the initial testing, the Smyrna road was not repaired.

The test focused on providing useful information on the performance of potential

geotextiles used beneath stone base courses, in order to sell them into the road

construction industry. A number of different commercially available fabrics were

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Geotextiles removed after 35 years

available and used at the site. The Smyrna test used a 1000ft (310m) section of road

that was purposely under designed. The idea was to encourage or accelerate failure so

the test geotextiles could be evaluated quickly. Using 40-kN wheel loads above the low-

load-bearing soil normally calls for a 15-in. (38-cm) gravel base. However, only 6in.

(15cm) of gravel base (40% of design) was actually used, according to Hutchins in

2007.

The tests were run in 2 stages:

1. A dry run, in which the loaded vehicle transverse while the road was dry and then

samples

2. A wet test, in which loaded vehicles were run after a heavy rain and then samples

were excavated and removed.

The site is in the area of a fill. There is slope of about 0.5% from north to south.

The site’s climatic conditions can be generally characterized by noting that it is in FHWA

Region 1 and FHWA climatic zone I-A. This means that the site is located in an area with

high potential for moisture.

Normal road construction techniques were used for installation of the geotextiles. Heavy

construction equipment was used to make grade. Laborers spread the geotextiles by

unrolling the materials on the subgrade in advance of a dozer spreading base material.

In addition, a control section was installed where no fabric was placed under the 6-in.

(15-cm) gravel base.

A general description of the road would be a “private road through a farmer’s field.” The

number of passes on this road is low.

However, during planting and harvesting season, the loads are heavy and frequent.

From historical records, the CBR of the site before construction was 2 and the field CBR

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was approximately 8 (dry). The subgrade soil was a silty sand (SM) with 12% passing

the #200 sieve, and the modified base was a well-graded gravel (GW) with thickness of

4-8in. Specifics about the geotextiles and site soils are in Tables 1 and 2.

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The dry run (142 passes of loaded vehicles) produced no noticeable difference between

the sections where fabric was used and the control section.

After a heavy rain, the wet test was carried out. In the control section (without fabric),

complete failure occurred after 20 passes. At the other end of the longevity spectrum, in

the GT-A (see Table 1) section, after 120 passes only soft spots were observed. From

these initial tests, the GT-A fabric was determined to be the best candidate for these

types of geotextile separation and drainage applications.

It maintained sheet integrity and a conclusion was that this product provided the best

results of all materials used at the Smyrna road project. (After the wet test, all

candidates were excavated and evaluated.) It was concluded that, for heavy-duty

construction stresses such as this, fabrics should be at least equivalent to the GT-A, at

3.5oz/yd2 (136g/m2), and covered with at least 6in. of base material, or significant loss

of properties will occur.

Exhumed after 35 years

In June 2007, 35 years after installation, George Koerner of GSI and the author returned

to the Smyrna site to determine the status of the road and the condition of the

geotextiles. After the various test plots were located, photographs were taken to

characterize the general area conditions as well as the specific plots.

Exhumation of the samples followed. Pick and shovel were required to break up the hard

crust of the unpaved road surface, which was well compacted because the exhumation

was done in the most critical area–the tire tracks. After probing for the location of the

geotextile elevation, which was 4-8in. (10-20cm) below the ground surface, careful

removal of the fill by hand proceeded over an area of approximately 1 m2. The fabric

was brushed, more photos were taken, and then the samples were removed and stored

in plastic bags.

Geotextiles sample collection

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Technical evaluation

General observations

Photographs confirm that even though the geotextile was installed 35 years ago and the

project was under-designed, some of the geotextiles endured to effectively perform the

primary function as a permeable separator. In fact, it was obvious where the geotextile

was used because there was no significant rutting at those locations. It was equally

obvious where no geotextile was used, as lateral spreading of the embankment was

noted and rutting was clearly evident.

As observed from Table 3, there are 2 test sections—1 (GT-A) and 5 (GT-D) — that had

minimum cover (6in. or more) and were still performing well. The others were not

exhumed or were in “bad condition.” Test Section 7 (GT-E) had inadequate cover (only

3in.) and showed significant physical damage.

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Evaluation

As shown in Table 3, 8 different geotextiles (plus a control section with no geotextile)

were used at the site.

Table 1 shows the results of index and performance testing of 6 of the fabrics used at

this site, prior to installation. There were only 2 soils (subgrade and base) used for this

project, and their characteristics are given in Table 2.

The geotextile samples were brought to the lab to compare their current physical

characteristics with those of 1972. Unfortunately, only GT-A at 3.5oz/yd2 (136g/m2)

and GT-D (4.0oz/yd2) could be tested because the other geotextiles were significantly

damaged. Grab tensile results show, on average, a 37% strength retention and a 52%

(f) GT-F(e) GT-F

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elongation retention compared with historical production data for the GT-A and GT-D

products. Trapezoid tear strength retention was approximately 50% and puncture

strength 93% on average. Note that current testing was very limited. A summary of

results for the 2 geotextiles can be seen in Table 4.

Analysis of the magnified polypropylene filaments showed some degradation. For

photomicrograph analysis of the geotextile polymer, it was necessary to remove as

much soil and other interference as possible. Repeated attempts to clean the soil from

the geotextiles were ineffective, which is why mass per unit area and thickness results

are not reported. As can be seen from the photos, polymeric deterioration was readily

observed in all samples examined. This deterioration was not only observed in the outer

layer of the surface, but some was also apparent in the core of the fibers.

It should be pointed out that the stabilizer package used in 1972 was quite different

from, and much less effective than, today’s stabilizer. Currently, for example, the GT-A

and GT-D geotextiles use the latest in hindered amine light stabilizer packages (HALS).

HALS packages act as free radical scavengers no matter what type of free radical

develops.

Nevertheless, one of the goals of the 2007 study was to determine whether the same

amounts of antioxidants and ultraviolet stabilizers are present today as when the

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material was produced. In pursuing this goal, it became clear that a review of the heat

flow (melting) curve and a review of the thermo oxidative time and temperature as

compared to the 1972 stabilizer package would be of interest.

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was performed on the aged polypropylene

samples and compared to that of un-aged samples.

The oxidative induction temperature of GT-A went from 228° to 212°C in 35 years

(Table 5).

However, the oxidative induction times of GT-A and GT-B are near 1 minute. This

indicates that there is a small amount of the original package currently left in these

materials.

Summary and conclusions

This report is unusual in that it documents the use of a geotextile type of fabric and its

performance over a 35-year period.

The initial purpose of the test, 35 years ago, was to determine if and which fabrics would

perform effectively as a geotextile in a separation application under an unpaved road.

(Testing long term durability was not part of the initial purpose.) The 1972 tests showed

136

that GT-A could perform that function very effectively, even though it was not

specifically designed for that use and was installed with inadequate “safety factors”—too

little base cover for the extreme loads it was subjected to in wet and saturated

conditions. The loads used in the initial testing would normally require a minimum of

2.5x the base used.

As it turns out, the fabric GT-A has performed the separation function for 35 years and

is still working. Analyses of the fabric after 35 years for survivability and durability

indicate the stabilizers used then are not nearly as effective as those used today. The

fabrics suffered significant mechanical damage as a result of overloading but were still

performing. Indications of inadequate protection of the polymers by stabilizers are not

surprising because that need has been noted in other situations, and that is why the

stabilizers used today last much longer and are more effective.

However, site inspection and samples indicate that, if at least 6in. of gravel remains

over the geotextile, thermally spunbonded nonwoven geotextiles are still performing the

function as originally intended 35 years ago, even though the site was grossly

underdesigned. Unquestionably, good performance is predicated on adequate soil burial.

All geotextiles suffer survivability problems with a gravel thickness less than 6in.

Bill Hawkins, now retired, was a longtime employee at Fiberweb (and, previously,

DuPont) and remains one of the true pioneers in the geosynthetics manufacturing

business.

References

Cedergren, H. R. (1989), “Seepage, Drainage and Flow Nets,” J. Wiley and Sons, New

York, N.Y.

Crane, J. P. and R. D. Hutchins (1974), Typar Road Reinforcement. Report TR434930,

Project 704-236, Notebooks T-3420 and T3320. Textile Fibers Department, E. I.

DuPont De Nemours & Co. Inc.

Hutchins, R. (2007), personal communications.

Koerner, G. R. (1997), “Data Base Development for Determination of Long Term

Benefit/Cost of Geotextile Separators,” Geosynthetics-1997, NAGS Conference

Proceedings, Long Beach, Calif., pp. 701-713.

Koerner, G. R. (2000), “Geotextile Separation Study,” Geotechnical Fabrics Report

(GFR), Vol. 18, No. 5, Roseville, Minn., pp. 14-21.

Courtesy: Geosynthetics Magazine ( www.geosyntheticmagazine.com)

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Case study 3: Use of Geotextiles In Palm Islands, Dubai

Some facts:

1. Palm Islands Dubai which have been called the eighth wonder of the world are

man made islands.

2. Due to its immense scale and unique shape, The Palm, Jumeirah and The Palm,

Jebel Ali are visible from space with the naked eye. !!!

3. The two islands Jebel Ali and Jumeirah comprises of 172m3 and 90 million m3 of

sand and rocks.

4. The breakwater is 15.5 km and 12 km respectively and is built with Geotextiles.

Palm Islands Dubai

5. Palm Island Jumeirah house 32 luxury hotels and 2,000 villas, in addition to a

marine Park, shopping complexes and cinemas.

6. The basic break water construction was completed in December 2003 andconsists of a 12km long and 200-meter wide protective breakwater constructionin front of 17 fronds, each of which are 75 meters wide and two kilometers longwith the trunk connecting to Dubai.

Pictures of fronds and houses on the fronds Geotextiles usage in fronds of palm island

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Design Methodology:

Source: Fibertex Geotextiles

The water depth on the site is between eight and eleven meters and thebreakwater is designed to protect against the worst sea conditions. Thebreakwater rises four meters above sea level at low tide.

Small rocks of approx. 1 tons were dropped into the ocean. On the outside ofthe Crescent lies a layer created from rocks weighing between 1 and 4 tonsthat were lifted into place by a floating crane. The rocks were then pushed inplace by underwater excavators assisted by expert divers.

Two layers of “armour” made from rocks weighing as much as six tons wereplaced on top of the layer of smaller rocks and then the geotextile wasinstalled. It was rolled up on iron bars to prevent it from floating duringinstallation and the final installation was carried out by divers, with each sheetoverlapped and stitched to avoid any gaps.

Sand and gravel were then pumped in, forcing the geotextile in place. Finally,sand was pumped up from the sea bottom to create the inner beach of thecrescent.

With the crescent securely in place, 4.8 million cubic meters of rock werepositioned to create the land foundation of the inner island. Dredgers thenbegan working around the clock to transfer an astonishing 92.2 million cubicmeters of sand to build up the landmass.

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The geotextile that was used for protection of the crescent was Non-woven Geotextile, primarily of Polypropylene.

On the 17 fronds of the Palm, Nonwoven Needle punched PolypropyleneGeotextiles were also used for road construction and drainageapplications.

Compiled by: Reliance Industries Ltd

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20. STANDARDS ON GEOTEXTILES

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20. STANDARDS ON GEOTEXTILESFollowing standards are available for the usage of various Geosynthetics in the

infrastructure applications

1 IRC SP 59 Guidelines for Use of Geotextiles in RoadPavements and Associated Works

2 MORTH Specification Specifications for road and Bridge works,Revision 4 ( Section 700)

3 HRB S.No 12, 1994 State of the Art: Application ofGeotextiles in Highway Engineering

4 HRB SR.No.16, 1996State of the Art: Reinforced Soil

Structures Applicable to Road Design &Construction

5 AASTHO M 288-06 Standard Specification for GeotextileSpecification for Highway Applications.

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21. PROPERTIES AND TESTING OF GEOTEXTILES

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21. PROPERTIES AND TESTING OF GEOTEXTILES

Geotextile properties are important since the use areas or applications areas are

dependent on them. As functions and applications of geosynthetics have been identified

and developed, properties and test methods have followed to aid in proper design and

construction. For example, materials used for reinforcement depend heavily on

mechanical properties while filtration and drainage functions depend on hydraulic

properties. Most applications involve transport and storage of materials, construction in

relatively harsh environments and the necessity for a long service life, for which

endurance and durability properties are important.

The properties of geotextile can be grouped under two categories like index properties

and performance properties. Index properties being those obtained from tests on the

geotextile itself as isolated from any surrounding soil, and performance properties being

those determined from tests where the geotextile is in contact with soil.

Index properties are used for the quality assurance or quality control of geotextile and

performance properties are used for design. Table shows the major properties of

geotextile and their respective subtypes.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

Physical properties of geotextile are basic properties related to the composition of the

materials used to fabricate the geotextile and include the type of structure, specific

gravity, and mass per unit area, thickness and stiffness.

Type of structure:

The type of structure of a geotextile describes the physical make-up of the geotextile

resulting from the process used to manufacture the material. The structure of the

geotextile often dictates the application area for which the material is suitable. There are

three basic structures of geotextile and they are woven geotextile, non-woven geotextile

and very rarely used knitted geotextile.

Specific gravity:

The specific gravity of a geotextile is measured on the basic polymeric material or

materials used to form the geotextile. The specific gravity is defined conventionally as

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the ratio of the material’s unit volume weight to that of distilled, de-aerated water at a

standard temperature.

Some typical values of specific gravity of commonly used polymeric materials made into

geotextile are listed below.

Polymer Specific gravity

Polyester 1.22 to 1.38

Polyamide 1.05 to 1.14

Polyethylene 0.90 to 0.96

Polypropylene 0.91

Mass Per Unit Area:

Mass per unit area describes the mass of a geotextile material per unit area. Generally it

is denoted as gram per square meter. As per the test methods used to determine the

mass per unit area; ASTM D5261 and ISO 9864 the mass is measured to the nearest

0.01% of the total specimen mass, and length and width should be measured under zero

geotextile tension.

Thickness

Thickness of geotextile is measured as the distance between the upper and lower

surface of fabric, at a specified pressure. Measurement is done as per ASTM D5199 and

ISO 9863. ASTM D5199 specifies that thickness of geotextile should be measured to an

accuracy of at least 0.02 mm under a pressure of 2.0 kPa whereas ISO 9863 allows for

the specifier to select the pressure.

Thickness Testing Machine

Stiffness:

The property stiffness refers to the flexibility of the material and it should not be

confused with the modulus which is the initial portion of the stress-versus-strain curve.

The flexibility of a geotextile is determined by allowing the material to bend under its

own weight as it is being slid over the edge of a table. The test method is designated as

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ASTM D 1388. Stiffness is indicative of the geotextiles capability of providing suitable

working surface for installation.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

Mechanical properties of geotextile are important when the geotextile is subjected to

loading during its implementation. Geotextile is subjected to loads perpendicular to its

plane which can be introduced as the material is placed on irregular surfaces with soil

compacted on top. These loads can be significant and can often dictate the mechanical

properties specified for the geotextile. Failure to specify appropriate mechanical

properties for the construction conditions may result in physical damage (i.e. punctures,

tears and rips) to the geotextile. Loading can also be applied in the plane of the

geotextile resulting in tension of the material. This type of loading is generally

associated with the function or operation of the constructed facility and where the

mechanical properties of the geotextile are typically used in the design of the facility.

Mechanical properties pertaining to the shearing resistance between the geotextile and

the surrounding soil are also important as this resistance is responsible for transferring

load from the soil into tensile load in the geotextile.

Tensile Strength:

This is very important property of geotextile since it is having implications for design

procedures. Tensile strength is defined as the maximum tensile stress that the test

specimen can sustain at the point of failure. Tensile properties are used for quality

QC/QA and as design parameters for various applications. The tests used for QC and QA

purposes tend to be simpler and less time consuming to perform and interpret than

those used to generate design parameters. There are different types of tensile test like

the grab tensile test as per ASTM D4632, Narrow strip test as per ASTM D751 and wide-

width tensile test as per ASTM D4595 and ISO 10319. The photograph shows the tensile

testing machine used to carry out the tensile strength tests.

Compressibility:

The compressibility of geotextile is defined as the relationship between the material

thickness as a function of applied normal stress and is a test most appropriate for

geotextiles that need to maintain a certain thickness to ensure water transmissivity. For

geotextiles, non-woven needle-punched materials tend to be the most compressible,

while woven and non-woven heat bonded materials show small levels of compressibility.

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Burst strength Testing

Seam Strength:

Geotextiles are manufactured in rolls of a given width and length. Particular site work

requires a coverage area that exceeds the size of the manufactured roll and where

adjoining rolls may be mechanically or chemically jointed either in the field or in the

manufacturing plant. Geotextile may be jointed by sewing, stapling, gluing or melting.

Tensile tests are performed typically on wide-width specimens to assess the tensile

strength of seams. The strength of the seam is compared with the tensile strength of the

geosynthetic itself to arrive at seam strength efficiency. Seam strength is obtained as

per ASTM D4884 and ISO 13426.

Burst strength:

Burst strength tests are performed on geotextiles by

causing a circular piece of material clamped around its

perimeter to stretch into the shape of a hemisphere

by the application of pressure on one side of the

material. The material stretches in tension until

rupture occurs. In the field, geotextiles may

experience this type of loading when used as a

separator between soft subgrade and coarse

aggregate. As subgrade is squeezed upwards between

voids of the coarse aggregate, the geotextile takes on

a hemispherical shape similar to that experienced in

the burst strength test. The test is carried out as per ASTM D3786.

Tear strength:

During the installation of geotextiles, stresses may be imposed which cause tears to

initiate and propagate. Several types of tests have been developed to describe the

tearing resistance of geotextiles. The most common test is the trapezoidal tear test

(ASTM D4533). In this test, the specimen is formed in the shape of a trapezoid, as

shown below and a 15-mm cut is made along one end of the specimen. The two non-

parallel sides of the specimen are gripped in parallel grips of a tension load frame with

the two grips aligned parallel to the cut made in the material and separated by a

distance of 25 mm. This is accomplished by allowing folds to occur in the material

greater than 25 mm in width. Tension is then applied and the cut in the material

propagates across the specimen as individual strands of the geotextile are torn.

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Trapezoidal template for Trapezoid tearing strength test

Tongue Tear Test

Minimum values of tear strength are generally specified to control installation damage of

geotextiles.

Tongue tear test:

As indicated in ASTM D751, the tongue tear test uses a 75mm by

200 mm geotextile specimen with a 75 mm long initiation cut. The

geotextile is placed in testing machine with the cut ends in the

grips of the machine. An increasing tensile force is applied to

make the geotextile tear along the initiation cut. Photograph

shows the machine used for testing.

Puncture strength:

In addition to the possibility of tear during installation, geotextiles can experience

punctures from rocks, roots, sticks or other debris. A test as per ASTM D4833 measures

the puncture where a steel rod of 8 mm diameter is used to puncture a geosynthetic

stretched and clamped firmly over a cylinder of 45 mm inside diameter. The force

necessary to cause the rod to puncture through the material is known as the puncture

resistance. Puncture strength is measured by two methods. One is CBR static puncture

resistance test as per ASTM D6241 and ISO 12236 and another one is index puncture

resistance test as per ASTM D4833. Following photographs shows the arrangement used

in two different tests.

152

Index Puncture resistance test setup. CBR Puncture resistance test setup.

HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES:

Geotextile is permeable material so hydraulic properties of geotextile are important in

applications where the material is used to convey the flow of liquids and gases.

Geotextiles applications include drainage materials behind walls and within slopes,

roadways and landfills, filtration materials within roads and around drainage trenches

etc.

Porosity:

Porosity is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume. The void volume,

however, is difficult to measure, so the porosity has to be calculated from other physical

properties (mass per unit area, density and thickness). As a result, other measures,

including the percentage open area and apparent opening size (AOS), related to the

porosity but more easily measured and more directly related to particular applications

have been developed.

Percentage Open Area:

Property describes the ratio of open area to the total area. This property is measured by

subjecting geotextile to the light and light passing through open area is focused on

screen from which the open area is measured. This test is suitable only for woven

geotextile and not for non woven geotextile since the overlap of the weaves prevents

most light from shining through even though liquid transmission is still very possible.

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Permeability testing apparatus

Apparent opening Size:

The AOS test was first developed for woven geotextiles but is now also used for non-

woven materials. The test is described by ASTM D4751 and consists of passing glass

beads of successively larger diameter through the material until only 5% of the beads

pass through. The size of the beads in millimetres at which 5% passes is known as O95.

The corresponding size in the US sieve size is the AOS. The AOS or O95 represents the

largest particle that would effectively pass through the geotextile. The equivalent

opening size (EOS) has the same meaning as the AOS but can be specified for other

percentage passing values, such as O50 or O90. The AOS is typically specified in

conjunction with requirements for filtration, with proper specification providing for soil

retention without pore space clogging.

Permittivity:

Filtration is major function of geotextile. For filtration to take place, water has to flow

through geotextile across its plane. So permittivity is defined as the ability for fluid to

flow across the plane of the geotextile. It is formally defined as the cross-plane

permeability divided by the thickness of the geotextile. ASTM D4491 describes a

constant-head and a falling-head permeability test that is used to define permittivity

under zero normal- stress confinement. These tests are conducted like similar tests on

soils only with the apparatus sized to accommodate the flows associated with

geotextiles. Photograph shows the permeability testing apparatus.

Transmissivity:

Drainage is another important major function of geotextile and drainage of fluid takes

place when fluid flows through the plane of geotextile so Transmissivity is described as

ability for fluid to flow within the plane of the material and is defined as the in-plane

154Creep testing machine

permeability multiplied by the material thickness. The test method ASTM D4716

describes a constant-head test that can be conducted under varying normal stress

confinement. Fluid is caused to flow one dimensionally in the plane of the material from

one end to another under constant-head conditions.

ENDURANCE PROPERTIES:

Behaviour of geotextile during service condition over design life time is characterised

through endurance properties. Endurance properties of geotextile focus on how short-

term properties are affected by time during the service life of the facility. Issues of

endurance arise as the material is installed, while the load is sustained, and while fluid

flow is experienced. ASTM D5819 and ISO 13429 provide the guidelines for selecting

various endurance test methods.

Installation Damage:

During the installation of geotextile in the field it is subjected to harsh installation

stresses. The deformations and stresses experienced by geotextile during installation

can be more severe than the actual design stresses for the intended application and

arise from the placement and compaction of overlying fill. Damage may occur in the

form of holes, tears and ruptures, which influences the mechanical and hydraulic

properties of the material. Field trials can be performed using the site-specific ground

conditions, construction equipment and procedures with the installed material exhumed

immediately after placement to assess damage.

Creep and Stress relaxation:

Creep is defined as the elongation of a material under a

constant load. Stress relaxation is the reduction in

(relaxation of) stress when a material is loaded and then

held at a constant level of strain. Creep is an important

consideration in design as large levels of creep can lead to

excessive deformation of reinforced structures or possible

creep rupture of geotextile. Stress relaxation can result in

more loads being taken up by the soil, which may produce

unsafe conditions for situations where the soil is close to

failure. ASTM D5262 describes a test method for

determining elongation due to creep. The test is relatively

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simple to conduct and involves placing hanging weights on a geotextile specimen and

making periodic measurements of elongation.

Abrasion:

The abrasion of geotextile is defined as the wearing a way of any part of a material by

rubbing against another surface. Excessive abrasion can lead to a loss of properties, e.g.

strength, that are needed for proper functioning. The ASTM D1175 is test method for

abrasion resistance for textile fabrics. It covers six procedures: (1) inflated diaphragm,

(2) flexing and abrasion, (3) oscillatory cylinder, (4) rotary platform-double head, (5)

uniform abrasion, and (6) impeller tumble. Results of these tests are reported as the

percent weight loss or strength/elongation retained under particular test. Uniform

abrasion test is carried out as per ASTM D4886 and ISO 13427.

Clogging:

Clogging can occur over the long term as fluid flows through the geotextile carrying with

it suspended particles that become lodged within the material. Physical tests have been

devised and evaluated to match these long-term conditions and using site specific soils.

These tests suffer from the large amount of time that it takes to conduct the test. The

gradient ratio test as per ASTM D5101 has been adopted to reduce the amount of

testing time associated with other more direct physical tests.

DURABILITY PROPERTIES:

Temperature

Temperature has the principal effect of accelerating other degradation mechanisms.

When viewed as a degradation mechanism, temperature is therefore generally

associated with other mechanisms such as those involving oxidation, hydrolysis,

chemical, radioactive, biological and ultraviolet (UV) light processes. For geotextiles, test

method as per ASTM D1388 is used to quantify the behaviour at high temperatures and

ASTM D746 is used to find out the effect of cold temperature on impact strength of

geotextile.

Oxidation

Oxidation is a reactive process by which the elements of a material lose electrons when

exposed to oxygen and its valence is correspondingly increased. In geotextile, this

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reaction leads to a fundamental change in the polymer and a degradation of the

properties of the material. Polypropylene and polyethylene are generally the most

susceptible polymers to the oxidation process. A test method used for exposing

geotextile to the oxidation process is ASTM D794 specified for plastics. This test method

uses an oven to apply heat with a continuous fresh air flow. The test is carried out to a

point where there is an appreciable change in appearance, weight, dimension or other

specified properties pertinent to the application in question.

Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is a process by which a chemical compound decomposes by its reaction with

water. Geotextiles can experience hydrolysis degradation by internal or external yarn

degradation which becomes more significant for polyester materials and for liquids with

a high alkalinity. Polyamides can be affected by liquids with very low PH values. To

evaluate the effect of hydrolysis, simple tests are conducted where a material is

immersed in a liquid having a pH level of interest and at temperatures of 20 °C and 50

°C. The strength of the material is determined after a certain amount of immersion time

and compared with initial values to detect degradation levels.

Chemical degradation

Chemical degradation involves the change in material properties when the geotextile is

immersed in various chemicals of interest. ASTM D5322 describes a laboratory test

procedure for immersing geosynthetics in chemical liquids. Provisions are given for

controlling the temperature, the pressure and the circulation of the solution. ASTM

D5496 describes a procedure for immersion of field specimens. These tests are most

often used in association with geosynthetics used in landfills and as liners in reservoirs,

ponds and impoundments.

Ultraviolet light

UV light is the component of light from the sun with wavelengths shorter than 400 nm.

Photons of UV light can break down the chemical bonds (bond scission) of the polymer

and lead to degradation of properties. Since most geotextiles are buried in the ground,

the issue of UV degradation is important only during transport, storage and construction.

For situations where it is important to assess the degradation of geotextile to long-term

UV exposure, tests can be carried out by exposing geotextile to natural or artificial

radiation. Sources of artificial radiation include xenon arc lighting and fluorescent

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UV exposer

lighting. Effect of UV radiation on geotextile is evaluated as per ASTM D4355, in which

geotextile samples are exposed to light for designated time and then tested for its

retained strength and elongation. The results are then compared to the unexposed

geotextile for percent retained values. Photograph shows the machine used to expose

UV light on geotextile specimen.

PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES:

Geotextile is used in geotechnical structures, where it is placed within different soil

conditions for different applications. Performance properties can be defined as properties

which define the behaviour of geotextile with soil around it. And these properties are

evaluated using performance tests such as Asphalt retention, Direct shear, Clogging

potential and Pull out resistance test.

Deteriorating Asphalt Pavements Cracking is the most widespread type of destruction of

asphalt concrete pavements. Maintenance measures to repair cracking include patching,

sealing, milling, re-paving, and overlays. Although overlays are frequently utilized as a

method of repair, reflective cracking, or the propagation of the original cracks into the

new overlay, has been a major stumbling block. Cause of reflective cracking is the

infiltration of water through the cracks, which deteriorates the pavements. Paving

fabrics have the potential, when designed and installed properly, to retard reflective

cracking and provide a moisture barrier that prevents water from penetrating the road

structure both before and after cracking. Paving fabrics effectively control many types of

cracking. Asphalt retention ability of geotextile is measured as per ASTM D6140.

Geotextile is used for filtration and drainage in various applications. In such case,

performance of geotextile is based on the apparent opening size of fabric pores. If the

pore size is not adequate then it may lead to piping or clogging of geotextile-soil

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structure. So the performance of geotextile-soil together is evaluated by placing the soil

and geotextile in a permeameter, imposing a prescribed seepage regime, and

monitoring any change in the permeability of the soil– geotextile interface relative to

that of the undisturbed soil. Interpretation of the results involves comparison of

observed change against a threshold value of acceptability. Soil-geotextile clogging

potential by gradient ratio test is done as per ASTM D5101.

Direct shear test and pull out resistance tests are carried out to evaluate the shear

strength parameters of soil-geotextile system. Geotextile invokes strength at the

interface with a soil through mobilization of a shear resistance that is largely controlled

by friction. Interfacial friction angle between soil and geotextile and shear strength is

measured by direct shear test. The strength required to pull out geotextile out of soil

system is measured by pull out resistance test.

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Ready reference of test of Geotextiles

Sr.

no

Test Parameters ASTM ISO IS

1 Abrasion Resistance of Geotextiles(Sand Paper/Sliding Block Method)

D4886 13427 14714

2 Water Permeability of Geotextiles byPermittivity

D4491 11058 14324

3 Trapezoid Tearing Strength ofGeotextiles

D4533 14293

4 Deterioration of Geotextiles by Exposureto Light, Moisture and Heat in a XenonArc Type Apparatus

D4355 13162

(Part 2)

5 Tensile Properties of Geotextiles by theWide-Width Strip Method

D4595 10319 13162

(Part 5)

6 Grab Breaking Load and Elongation ofGeotextiles

D4632

7 Apparent Opening Size of a Geotextile D4751 12956 14294

8 Strength of Sewn or Thermally BondedSeams of Geotextiles

D4884 10321 15060

9 Nominal Thickness of Geosynthetics D5199 9863-1 13162 -3

10 Tension Creep and Creep RuptureBehavior of Geosynthetics

D5262 13431 14739

11 Cone drop ( Dynamic perforation ) 13433EN 918

13162 -4

12 Mass per Unit Area of Geotextiles D5261 9864 14716

13 Hydraulic Transmissivity of aGeosynthetic Using a Constant Head

D4716 12958

14 Static Puncture Strength of Geotextilesand Geotextile-Related Products Using a50-mm Probe

D6241 12236

15 Permittivity of Geotextiles Under Load D5493 10766

160

16 Hydraulic Conductivity Ratio (HCR)Testing of Soil/Geotextile Systems

D5567

17 Asphalt Retention of Paving Fabrics Usedin Asphalt Paving for Full-WidthApplications

D6140

18 Chemical Resistance of Geotextiles toLiquids

D6389

19 Effects of Temperature on Stability ofGeotextiles

D4594

20 Biological Clogging of Geotextile D1987

21 Deterioration of Geotextiles fromOutdoor Exposure

D5970

22 Determining Filtering Efficiency and FlowRate of the Filtration Component of aSediment Retention Device Using Site-Specific Soil

D 5141

23 Measuring the Soil-Geotextile SystemClogging Potential by the Gradient Ratio

D5101

24 Pore Size Characteristics of Geotextilesby Capillary Flow Test

D6767

25 Installation Damage of Geosynthetics D5818 13428

26 Geosynthetic Pullout Resistance in Soil D6706

27 Accelerated Tensile Creep and Creep-Rupture of Geosynthetic

D6992 14739

28 Determining the Coefficient of Soil andGeosynthetic or Geosynthetic andGeosynthetic Friction by the DirectShear Method

D5321 12957-1

29 Chemical Resistance of Geosynthetics toLiquids

D5322

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22. PROFILE OF FEW INDIAN GEOTEXTILESMANUFACTURERS

163

22. Profile of few Indian Geotextiles Manufacturers

1. CTM GEOSYNTHETICS

Name of Company CTM GEO SYNTHETICS ( division of ctm technicaltextiles ltd), a chatarbhuj lajpatrai group co.

Head-Office Address 205, new cloth market, ahmedabad - 380 002.Email Id [email protected] www.ctmgeosynthetics.comContact Number 079 - 22165163 / 09327988555Branches Offices Hyderabad, Guawhati, kolkataYear of Establishment Group established - 1948. Ctm technical textiles ltd. -

2005Manufacturing Location Ahmedabad.Products types Polyester geo grids -Capacity 15,00,000 sq meter in first phaseIn-house testing facilities All basic testing to be done in house.

2. GARWARE WALL ROPES Ltd

Name of Company Garware-Wall Ropes Ltd.

Head-Office Address Garware-Wall Ropes Ltd.,Plot No. 11, Block D - 1, M.I.D.C , Chinchwad, Pune -411019,Maharashtra, India.Phone no. : +91 - 20 - 3078 0000 / 3078 0187Fax : +91 - 20 - 3078 0350

Email Id [email protected]@garwareropes.com

Website www.garwareropes.comContact Number Phone no. : +91 - 20 - 3078 0000 / 3078 0187

Fax : +91 - 20 - 3078 0350Branches Offices New Delhi, Mumbai , Chennai ,Kolkata,

Vishakhapatnam

Year of Establishment 1976

Manufacturing Location Pune & Wai, (Maharashtra)Products types Polymer rope gabion

Woven geotextileSteel gabionGeotextile tubeGeotextile bag and containerAnti-buoyancy geotextile bagsGalvanized steel wire ropenetGarmat® - erosion control matHDPE geomembraneNonwoven geotextile

164

Geosynthetic clay linerPolymer geogridGeocellGeonet and geocompositeAncodrain®

Accreditations ISO 9001: 2008In-house testingfacilities

Universal testing machine,Cone drop testing machioneMullen burst testing machine,Water permeability testing apparatus,Sieve Tester,Adhesion tester,FRI tensile tester,Creep tester, etc

Export Australia, Srilanka, UAE, etc.Major customers Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd., • Hindustan Zinc Ltd,

Vedanta Alumina Ltd Binani Zinc • Ranbaxy Laboratories• Jubilant Organosys Ltd • Hindusthan Zinc Limited •Southern Railway • Maharashtra PWD • Tamilnadu PWD •Kerala PWD • Surat Municipal Corporation • CIDCO •MMRDA • MIDC • Gujarat Electricity Board • Chennai PortTrust • Cochin Port Trust • Kandla Port Trust • ParadipPort Trust • Swaminarayan Sanstha • L&T ECC • L&THochtief • Patel Engineering • Delhi Metro Corporation •China Coal Construction Group Corporation • ACC Ltd •HCC Ltd • Tata Power Company • Hindustan Lever Ltd •NCL • Essar Projects • Gammon India Ltd • AFCONS •MSRDC etc.

3. KUSUMGAR CORPORATES PVT LTD

Name of Company KUSUMGAR CORPORATES PVT. LTD.

Head-Office Address 101/102, MANJUSHREE, V.M. ROAD, CORNER OFN.S.ROAD NO.5, JVPD SCHEME, VILE PARLE (WEST),MUMBAI 400 056.

Email Id [email protected]

Website www.kusumgar.com

Contact Number 022-6112 5100

Branches Offices NIL

Year of Establishment 1970

165

Manufacturing Location Kusumgar corporates Pvt. Ltd., 2834, GIDC. Area, phaseiii, umbergaon 396 171, dist. Valsad, gujara.t

Kusumgar corporates pvt. Ltd., Vasundhara canningcompound, near pardi rly. Station, killa pardi, dist.Valsad 396 125, Gujarat.

Kusumgar corporates Pvt. Ltd. Plot 1809, u.u. Road,GIDC Vapi 396 195 , Gujarat.

Products types WOVEN GEOTEXTILES

Capacity 10.0 lakh sq m per annum of woven geotextiles

Accreditations ISO 9001:2008

In-house testing facilities Tensile strength upto 10 ton , CBR Puncture, Indexpuncture, Tear, permeability, AOS.

Major customers All leading contractors

4. MACCAFERRI ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD

Name of Company Maccaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt. Ltd.Head-Office Address 402, 4th Floor, Salcon Aurum, Plot No. 04- , Jasola

District Center, New Delhi- 110044Email Id [email protected] , info@maccaferri-

india.com,Website www.maccaferri-india.com

Contact Number Corporate Office -011 43798400Pune - 020 41001932

Branches Offices Navi Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Chennai, PuneYear of Establishment 1998Manufactiring Location Factory & Regstd. Office

D 40, MIDC, Ranjangaon, Taluka Shirur, Pune 441220Tel No. - 02138 393003

Products types 1. Geotextile( Woven & Non Woven)2. Paraweb Polymeric Strips3. Paragrid & Paralink4. Gabions, Mattresses & Sack Gabions5. Terramesh & Green Terramesh6. Snow Fencing7. Geomembrane & GCL's8. Geocomposites9. Glass Grids10. Geocells12. Fabric Form mats13. Prefabricated Vertical Drains14. Geo Coir & Geo Jute Products15. Geobags& Geotubes16. Rockfall Netting, Steel Grid, HEA Panels & RockfallBarrier.

166

Accreditions ISO 9001In-house testing facilities Yes

Export Yes

5. SHRI AMBICA POLYMERS PVT LTD ( SAPPL)

Name of Company SHRI AMBICA POLYMER PVT LTD.Head-Office Address Safal Profitaire

A/3 First FloorNr. Auda Garden, PrahladnagarAhmedabad – 380 051. Gujarat. India

Email Id [email protected] /[email protected]

Website www.ambicapolymer.comContact Number 91-79-65453665 / 9560556651Year of Establishment 2005Manufacturing Location PLOT NO 503, OPP BHARAT GAS PLANT, HARIYALA,

KHEDA, GUJARATProducts types WOVEN GEOTEXTILES, GROUND COVERS, SILT FENCE,

MULCHING, NEEDLE PUNCHED NON-WOVENCapacity 4800 MT per annumAccreditations Govt. Regocnized export House, ISO 9001:2008, 100%

Export Oriented UnitIn-house testing facilities All tests pertaining to Geo-textile.Export USA , Europe,UK,Major customers Bridge & roof, HDC, GR Infra and international stockists

& distributors

6. SKAPS INDUSTRIES

Name of Company Skaps Industries LtdHead-Office Address 1 Darshan Society, Stadium road, Navrangpura,

Ahmedabad 380-009Email Id [email protected] www.skaps.comContact Number 09974042256Branches Offices VadodaraYear of Establishment 2003 ( India Operations)Manufacturing Location Ahmedabad and mudraProducts types Woven Geotextiles ( Indian Manufacturing)

Non-Woven Geotextiles and GeocompositesCapacity 75 million m2, 10,000 MTAccreditations ISO, 9000 ISO-140000 ISO-18000, B&Q Cananda,In-house testing facilities Yes ( Available at Factory location)Export USMajor costumers Export Oriented Unit.

167

7. STRATA GEOSYSTEMS (INDIA) PVT LTD

Name of Company Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt LtdHead-Office Address 317, Tantia Jogani Industrial Premises, J. R. Boricha

Marg, Lower Parel (East), Mumbai 400 011

Email Id [email protected] www.strataindia.comContact Number +91 22 4063 5100Branches Offices HyderabadYear of Establishment 2004Manufacturing Location DamanProduct types StrataGrid (Geogrid), StrataWeb (Geocell)Capacity 6 million square metres per annumAccreditations ISO 9001: 2008In-house testing facilities For raw materialsExport EgyptMajor customers NHAI, IRB, Soma, IL&FS etc

8. TERRAM GEOSYNTHETICS PVT. LTD.

Name of Company Terram Geosynthetics Pvt. Ltd.

Head-Office Address A-704 Safal Pegasus, Anandnagar Road, Satellite,Ahmedabad - 380 015

Email Id [email protected]

Website www.terramgeosynthetics.com

Contact Number (O) 079-40064529 (FAX) 079-400645 (Mobile No.)9724302188

Branches Offices Survey No. 141, MITAP, MPSEZ, Village Mundra, Dist.Kutchh, Gujarat - 370 421.

Year of Establishment April-2008

Manufacturing Location Mundra - Kutchh (MPSEZ)

Products types Non-Woven Geosynthetics

Capacity 6000 M.T.

In-house testing facilities R & D Lab is establised for inhouse testing of propertiesand quality of the end products

168

9. TECHFAB INDIA INDUSTRIES LTD

Name ofCompany

TechFab India Industries Ltd

Head-OfficeAddress

711-712 Embassy Centre,Nariman Point, MUMBAI , 400 021.

Email Id [email protected] , [email protected] ,[email protected]

Website www.techfabindia.com

Contact Number 022-22876224 / 25 , 022-22839733, Fax -022-22876218

Branches Offices Delhi, Ahmedabad, Bengaluru , Kolkata, Chennai

Year ofEstablishment

2003

ManufacturingLocation

Khadoli , Silvassa, Daman

Products types (1) Multifilament polypropylene woven geotextiles(2)Woven Polypropylene Geotextile made of Slit Film(3) woven multifilament polyester geotextile(4) Copper & Polymer Gabions and Mattresses(5) knitted and PVC coated polyester geogrids (a)uniaxial knittedpolyester geogrids with a protective polymeric coating (b) HighPerformance Biaxial Geogrid(6) Glass Geogrid(7) Geocomposites(8) Non Woven Geotextile(9) Prefabricated vertical drain(10) Steel Gabion, Rock fall netting

Capacity Woven: 2400 TNonwoven : 8040 TGeogrid: 15 million sq. mtrs.Gabions : 7200 T

Accreditations 1) IRC2) PWD - Maharashtra,Tamil Nadu,Karnataka,Rajasthan3) Airport Authorities of India4) MES5) PMGSY6) BBA7 ) CIDCO

In-house testingfacilities

Our labs are equipped with all modern testing equipments to test mostof the parameters

Export Techfab (India) Industries Ltd has an Export House Certificate issued byGovernment of India

Major customers Most of the leading contractors in India

169

23. Appendices

171

I. Indian Govt. supports covering COEs

1. About BTRA (Bombay Textile Research Association)

COE: Centre of excellence for Geotech

Bombay Textile Research Association is recognised as a Centre of Excellence for Geotech

by the Ministry of Textiles, Government of India. Applications of geosynthetics have

proved their value in civil engineering projects. This new class of material has added

entirely a new dimension to the world of geotechnical engineering. Geosynthetic

materials like Geotextiles, Geogrids, Geonets, Geocell, and Geomembranes are used in

various civil engineering activities. The aim of setting up of Centre of Excellence for

Geotech at BTRA is to create awareness for the use of geosynthetic in all the aspects.

Under the COE scheme, a new geosynthetics test laboratory was inaugurated in May

2009 with funding by the Government of India for testing equipment. This laboratory

have testing facilities for geosynthetic products like Geotextiles, Geomembranes,

Geocomposites, Gabions, Geosynthetic Clay Liner, Geogrids, Prefabricated Vertical Drain

etc. Geotech Laboratory is now accredited by Geosynthetics Institute (GSI), Folsom,

Pensylvania, USA under the GAI – LAP Accreditation Programme .It is pertinent to

mention that BTRA is the first institute in India and probably only the third institute

outside USA to get this coveted accreditation.

For any further details or information regarding the Geotextiles please contact:

DIRECTOR DR. ASHOK N. DESAI

Address: The Bombay Textile Research Association,Lal Bahadur Shastri Marg, Ghatkopar(W), Mumbai - 400 086 INDIA

Telephone: 2500 3651/2652/2117/1119/1135/7891/7892/2458

Fax: 91 - 22 - 2500 0459

E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected]

WorkingHours:

9.30 a.m. to 5.15 p.m.[lunch break 1.00 p.m. - 1.30 p.m.]

Holidays: 2nd & 4th Saturdays, Sundays, National Holidays

LOCATIONLANDMARK:

Bus no. 387 from Ghatkopar (West) Railway Station [Next bus stopafter Damodar Park stop]

172

II. Associations for Geotextiles

Associations & Trade Groups

Australian Canvas and Synthetic Products Association Incorporated (ACASPA)http://www.acaspa.com.au/

EPS Molders Association http://www.epsmolders.org/ Geosynthetic Materials Association (GMA) http://gmanow.com/ Geosynthetica.net - on-line technical information http://www.geosynthetica.net/ Landfill Systems & Technologies Research Association of Japan (LSA, NPO)

http://www.npo-lsa.jp/

Research Institutions

Geofoam Research Center http://www.geofoam.syr.edu/ Geosynthetic Institute (GSI) - includes GRI and GAI http://www.geosynthetic-

institute.org/ Manhattan College School of Engineering Center for Geotechnology (CGT) -

Geofoam http://www.engineering.manhattan.edu/civil/CGT.html Plastic Pipe Institute (PPI) http://www.plasticpipe.org/ PVC Geosynthetic Institute (PGI) http://www.pvcgeomembrane.com/

Societies

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) http://www.asce.org International Geosynthetics Society (IGS) http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/ Chapter listing of the IGS http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/chapters.htm International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE)

http://www.issmge.org/ Society of Plastics Engineering (SPE) http://www.4spe.org/

173

III. List of Nodal Agencies

S.No Company Address Contact Details1 Bombay Textile

Research Association(BTRA)

CENTRE OFEXCELLENCE FORGEOTECH

L.B.S. Marg,Ghatkopar (W),Mumbai- 400086

Tel: 022-2500 3651/ 2652

Fax: 022-2500 0459

Mob: +91-99690 11046

Email:[email protected],[email protected]

Web: www.btraindia.com2 Ministry of textiles,

Government of IndiaOffice of the TextileCommissioner, NewCGO building, 1st floor,Mumbai-20

Tel: 022-2230 1508022-2200 1050Fax: 022-2200 4693Mob: +91-98199 94110Tel: 022-2885 2112(Res)Email: [email protected]

3 NHAI G-5 & 6, Sector-10,Dwarka, New Delhi-110075

Tel: 2509 3523, 2507 4100Extn: 1607

Fax: 2507 4100

Email:[email protected]

4 Central Road ResearchInstitute (CRRI)

Delhi-Mathura Road,New Delhi 110020,India

Res: A-423/19, Noida

Tel: 011-2684 2612

0120-2537726 (R)

Fax: 011-2683 0480


5 Central Water & PowerResearch Station,Government of India,Ministry of WaterResources

Khadakwasla, Pune-411024, India

Res: Flat No. B-303,Panchawati, ChavanNagar, Dhankawadi,Pune-43

Tel: 020-2430 9585, 24103421, 2410 3200

Fax: 020-2438 1004

Mob: +91-98909 89925


[email protected]

6 MMRDA Bandra-KurlaComplex, Bandra(E),Mumbai-400051

Tel: 022-2659 0080(O)

022-2659 0001/4000

Fax: 022-2659 4144/1264


http://www.mmrdamumbai.org

174

7 Research Designs &Standards OrganizationMinistry of Railways

Manak Nagar,Lucknow- 226011(U.P.), India

Tel: 0522-2450 395,

032-42340

Fax: 0522-2465722


[email protected] FICCI FICCI

Federation HouseTansen MargNew Delhi 110001

Phone: 011-23738760-70Fax: 011-23320714,23721504 Email:[email protected]

9 SASMIRA The Synthetic and ArtSilk Mills' ResearchAssociationSasmira, SasmiraMarg, Worli, Mumbai -400 030.

Phone : +91 - 022 -24935351-52 Fax : +91 -:022 - 24930225

E-mail : [email protected]

10 IIT Delhi Indian Institute ofTechnology DelhiHauz Khas,

New Delhi-110 016,INDIA

Tele: (91) 011-2659 1999,(91) 011-2659 7135Fax: (91) 011-2658 2037,(91) 011-2658 2277E-mail:webmaster[at]admin.iitd.ac.in

11 IIT MUMBAI ( POWAI) Indian Institute ofTechnology BombayPowai, MumbaiPostcode 400076Maharashtra, INDIA

. Contact NumbersT: +91-22-2572-2545F: +91-22-2572-3480

12 IIT ROORKEE Indian Institute ofTechnology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia - 247667

Contact No. +91-1332-285311Email Id: [email protected]

13 M. S. University ofBaroda

Textile EngineeringDepartment, Facultyof Tech. & Engg.Kalabhavan, P.B. No-51, Baroda

Tel: 0265-2434188 (O) Ext.209

0265-5582552 (R)

Mob: +91-94284 24645


14 Shri Vaishnav Instituteof Technology &Science

Gram Baroli, Indore-Sanwar Road, Post-Alwasa, via-Hatod,PO- Palia, Dist Indore-453 331 (M.P.)

Tel: 07321-224375 (O)

Fax: 07321-224371

Mob: +91-94259 00013


175

15 DKTE Society’s TextileEngineering Institute

Res: 19/160, KamalaNehru Colony, Nr.Modern High School,Ichalkaranji 416115,Dist Kolhapur, 0230-2423 365

Fax: 0230-2432 329Mob: +91-94220 45539Email:[email protected],[email protected]

16 Man-Made TextilesResearch Association(MANTRA)

Nr. Market Tele.Exchange, Ring Road,Surat- 395002

Tel: 0261-2323211,2337062Telefax: 0261-2322500Email:[email protected]: www.mantrasurat.org

17 ICRA ManagementConsulting ServicesLimited

4th floor, ElectricMansion, AppasahebMarathe Marg,Prabhadevi, Mumbai-400025

Tel: 022-3047 0047Direct: 022-3047 8659Fax: 022-3047 0081Mob: +91-98331 39212Email:[email protected]: www.imacs.in

18 Ahmedabad TextileIndustry’s ResearchAssociation (ATIRA)

Dr. Vikram SarabhaiRoad, P.O. AmbawadiVistar, Ahmedabad-380015, India

Tel: 079-2630 7921/22/23Mob: +91-98253 26966Fax: 079-2630 4667Email: [email protected]: www.atira-rnd-tex.org

19 Veermata JijabaiTechnological Institute(VJTI)

H.R. Mahajani Marg,Matunga, Mumbai-400019

Tel: 022-2419 8255Mob: +91-98672 06926Web: www.vjti.ac.in

20 TEXMACH, India 204, Sarita SagarApartment, B/hBhulka Bhavan School,

Anand Mahal Road,Adajan, Surat 395009

Tel: 0261-2747 753Mob: +91-98983 74017Email: [email protected]

21 Pune MunicipalCorporation

Bunglow No- 1,Parvati Jalkendra,Sinhagad Road, Pune-411030

Tel: 020-2433 5857 (R)020-2550 1383 (O)fax: 020-2550 1104

22 Industrial ExtensionBureau (A Govt. ofGujarat Organization)

Block No 18/2, UdyogBhavan, GH-4, Sector-11, Gandhinagar- 382010, Gujarat, India

Tel: 079-2325 0492/93079-2322 8514 (R)Fax: 2325 0490Mob: +91-99784 07604Email:[email protected]: www.indextb.comwww.vibrant Gujarat.com

176

IV. List of NHAI consultants*

S.No Name of Company Address of the Company

1 M/s ICT Pvt. Ltd. A-11, Green Park,New Delhi-110016

2 Gherzi Eastern Ltd

Raheja Points I, Wing 'A',Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Vakola,Santacruz (E), Mumbai 400 055 IndiaFax: +91-22-26673193

3 STUP Consultants Ltd

Vishal Tower,Distt. Center Janakpuri.New Delhi 110018Site Address :-K-Block,Kidwai Nagar,Kanpur -208023

4 MEINHARDIT (Singapore) Pvt Ltd93,Havelock Road,Singapore 160093Fax : 065-2740788

5 M/S SMEC International Pvt LtdA-20,Kailash Colony,New Delhi - 48Fax : 011-6421515

6 Louis Berger International Inc1819,H Street,NW Washington, D.C 20006Fax :001-202-2930237

7 Sheladia Associates & Consultants 4,Kuldip Society,Near IshwarBhuwan,Navrangpura,Ahmedabad PIN380009Fax No :- 079 -646 5909

8 SMEC-SPAN Consltants (P) Ltd

Australian-IndianE-3-5, Second Floor,Local Shopping Complex,J-Block Sacket,New Delhi-17Fax:6866768

9 M/s DHV ConsultantDHV International BV,LAAN 1994,nr-35,380 Bj AmersfoodNetherland

10 M/s Sheladia - Rites202,HIG - Sector 4,MVP Colony,Vishakhapatanam

177

11 Dorsch ConsultantLocal Address :-Oshiwara indl. center,Opp Goregaon bus depot,Goregaon,Mumbai

12 M/s Zaidun LeengB-51,Greenwood CitySector -45gurgaonPIN :-122003

13 Arvee Associates

8-2-5 to 20, Ravula Residency,Punjagutta,Srinagar Colony,Hyderabad-500073 Fax: 040-3736277

14 Louis Berger International

INC M-122,First Floor,Greater KailashPart-I,New Delhi - 110 048Fax : 6232945

15 KM InternationalOpp.Priyadarshini Degree CollegeBuja BujaNellorePin -524004Fax:0861-300033

16 Scott Wilson Krikpatrick

SKLS BuildingSembulivaram VillageCholavaramChennai 600 067 Fax : 044-633 0807/0808

17 M/s Dorsch ConsultantLocal Address:-Oshiwara indl. center,Opp Goregaon bus depot,Goregaon,Mumbai

18 M/s SNC Lavalin Inc. - SheladiaAssociates &Consultants

19 M/S Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick & CoLtd

D-1019,New Friends ColonyNew Delhi - 110 065Tel : 011-6317255/56Fax : 6820837

178

20 M/S STUP Consultants

Plot No .22 A,Sector19-C,Palm Beach Marg,VashiNavi MumbaiPin 400 7057896241-45Fax : 7896240

21 M/s CES-Halcrow Association

Plot No. 1601-1602,Karnavati Estate Ist Floor,Vatwa GIDC Phase IIIAhmedabad 382445Gujarat.Telfax: 079-5878135

22 Consulting Engineering ServicesIndia Ltd.

57, Nehru Place (5th Floor),New Delhi-110019Fax: 6460409, 6281898

23 RITES

Indian Arunachal,6th Floor19, Barakhamba RoadNew Delhi-110001Fax : 3350989

25 M/S Louis Berger International7,Factory Road,Near Safdarjung HospitalNew Delhi - 29Fax : 6180181

26 SPAN Consulatants Pvt Ltd

E-3-5,Second Floor,Local Shopping ComplexJ-Block SacketNew Delhi -17Fax:6866766

27 Gherzi Eastern Ltd

Raheja Points I, Wing 'A',

Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Vakola,

Santacruz (E), Mumbai 400 055 India

Fax: +91-22-26673193

Source NHAI Website

179

V. LIST OF NHAI CONTRACTORS*

S.No Name of Company Address of the Company

1 M/S Oriental Structural Engg. Ltd.

21 . Commercial ComplexMalcha Marg . Diplomatic EnclaveNew Delhi - 21 . IndiaFax: 91-11-26114421

2 M/S China Coal Const Group Corp

M/S Delhi Delta Resources & ServicesPvt. Ltd.F-10, NDSE II Tel:6261110,Fax:-6259289

3 M/s Bhageeratha Engg.Ltd

M/S Bhagheertha Engineering Ltd.,b-3/58,Safdarjung Enclave,New Delhi - 29Fax : 011-6193501 Contact Person :

4 ACC

P.O. Box No. 4282,132, Panamtilli AvenueCochin-682036Fax : 0484-312046

5 M/S Somdutt

M/S Somdutt Builders, 58,CommunityCentre, East of Kailash,New Delhi-110065, Fax:-6469445/6236373

6 Centrodorstroy, Russia

Delhi Address:-25, Community Centre, 2nd Floor,Basant Lok, Vasant Vihar Tel:-6143647/8 Fax:-6837770

7 M/s IRCON International Ltd.,

Palika Bhavan,Sector-13, R.K. PuramNew Delhi,Fax: 6885165

8 M/s Centrodorstroy, Russia

Delhi Address:-25, Community Centre, 2nd Floor,Basant Lok, Vasant Vihar Fax:-6837770

9 M/s LG Engg. & Construction (Korean)

537, Namdaemun-Ro 5-Ga, Joong-Gu,Seoul, KoreaTel: 008227282384Fax : 08227282385

10 M/S Somdutt

M/S Somdutt Builders, 58, CommunityCentre East of Kailash,New delhi -65. Fax:6469445/6236373

180

11 HCCM/s HCC Ltd.,102,Tolstoy House,TolstoyMarg,New Delhi-110001. Fax:-3358837

12 Progressive Const Ltd & SunwayConst. Ltd

(Indian-Malaysian)PCL704,Nilgiri,9,Barakhamba Road,New Delhi - 110001

13 Gamuda Berhad (Malaysian)

Delhi Office : S-5/3,DLF City,Phase III ,Gurgaon-122 002Email

14 M/s HCC Indian

Hicom House,Lal Bahadur Shastri MargVikroli West,Mumbai-400083Fax : 022-5777568

15 M/s Bhageeratha Engg.Ltd. Indian

P.O. Box No. 4282,132, Panamtilli AvenueCochin-682036Fax : 0484-312046

16 B.Seenaiah Company Ltd

H.O : 6-2-913/914,Progressive Towers5th KhairatabadHyderabad-500 004ph : 040-3307704/3303663/3307831Fax : 040-3307385Delhi Office : C-13,Old DLf ColonyNear Sector -14,Guragaon-122 001

17 L & T

Mount Poonamalli RoadP.O. Box No. 979Manapakam,Chennai-60089,Fax : 044-2342317Delhi Office : 302,Bhikaji Cama BhawanRK PuramNew Delhi - 110 066Fax : 011-6194463

18 Gammon India Ltd

Gammon HouseVeer Savarkar MargPrabhadeviMumbai - 400 025Fax : 022-4300221

181

19 KMC Constructions LtdMCH No. 555, Arora Colony, Road No.3,Banzara Hills, Hyderabad

20 Skanska Cememtation India Ltd

1st Floor, Sanrakshan Bhawan, 10,Bhikaji Cama Place110 066 NewDelhi, ,Fax:- +9111 3910 474

21 Bumi-Hiway-DDBL

Bumi-Hiway-DDBL ,E-2/20,DLF QutabEnclave,Phase -I,Gurgaon. Tele Fax:0674-521050

22 IVRCL

M 22/3RT,Vijaynagar Colony,Hyderabad-500057,Fax:-040-3345004.

23 You One-Maharia

You one Building Maharia Resufacing &Constructions Pvt Ltd ,A-1,Panchvati,Azadpur,New Delhi-25,Fax:011-7446205

24 Unitech

JMD Regent Square,Gurgaon - MehrauliRoad,DLFPhase II,Gurgaon -122002.Fax:-02146355293

25 Navayuga Engineering Co. Ltd 48-9-17,Dwarka Nagar,VishakhaPattanam

26 SEW

6-3-871,Snehlata Green landsRoad,Begumpet,Hyderabad500016,Fax:-040 341 3687

27 GMR Consortium

GMR Group Corporate Office ,SkipHouse, 25/1, Museum Road, Bangalore560 025 , Fax:- 91 80-2998118

28 Punj Lloyd Ltd17- 18, Nehru Place,New Delhi.,110019 Fax: 6200111

29 Limak -Soma

Delhi OfficeLimak-SomaB-4/45,Safdarjung Enclave, GroundFloor,New Delhi , Fax: 6165143

30 IJM-Gayatri

B-1 TSR Towers,6-1-3-1090,Rajbhawan Road,Somajiguda,Hyderabad-500082,Fax: 040-33010330 040-3398435

182

31 CIDB Malaysia

M/S Swarna Tollway Pvt Ltdplot No. 646-A,Road No .36 ,High Tech City RoadJubliee Hills Hyderabad-500 033

32 ECSB- JSRC

Malaysian -Indian 3415,SecondCross,Second Stage,IndiraNagar,Bangalore - 560 038 ,Fax : 080-5214099

33 B Seenaiah & Co . Ltd

C-13, Old DLF Colony, Near Sector-14,Gurgaon-122001Fax: 6333320

34 Madhucon-Binapuri

Malaysian -IndianD-27 East of Kailash New Delhi110065. Fax:- 011-6476713

35 Sadhav-Prakash

7th Floor, Ship Building,Near MunicipalMarket, Navarangpura Ahmedabad

36 KMC Constt. Ltd

MCH No.555,Arora ColonyRoad No.3,Banjara HillsHyderabad -34Fax : 040-3543538

37 Ideal Road Builders Ltd

501,DattashramHindu ColonyLane No 1DadarMumbai - 400 014Fax : 022-4144454

38 P.T. Sumber Mitra Jaya

IndonesianA-11 Goyal Terrace,Near Judges Colony,Vastrapur,Ahmedabad.Fax: 079-6767249

39 L.G .Engineering & NCC Ltd

Korean-IndianFirst Floor, A-9A,Green Park New Delhi- 110016

183

40 SKEC

Opp.Vasudhara Dairy,Near Gandevi Chikhili Road,Vill ThalaNavsariFax :02634-35206

41 Dodsal Pvt Ltd

Plot No. 1,Udyog Nagar Estate,S.V. Road,Goregaon (W)Mumbai-400062Fax: 022-8758012/13

42 M/S Patel Engineering

Building No.II ,Plot No : C7/68/13 Hotel FortuneGalaxy CompoundGIDCVapi - 396 195GujaratFax : 0260-410 367

43 Patel Estate

Jogeswari (West)Mumbai - 400 102Fax : 0226781505

44 L.G. Consturctions

First Floor,A-9A,green ParkMainNew Delhi 110 016Fax : 011-650 0960Fax: 6959045

45 Ashoka Buildcon Ltd,

Plot No.,417,418,419 Market Yard GultikadiPune-411037

46 Satav Constt. Ltd & Dena Rehsaz

M/S Satav Constt. Ltd & Dena Rehsaz,C-3,Shree C S HousingSociety,PatrakarNagar Off. Senapati Bapat Road,Pune -411 016

47 M/S ShaktiKumar M. Sancheti Ltd.

267,Ganesh Phandnavisbhawan,Triangular Park,DharmapethNagpur-440010, Fax:-712-544039

48 MSRDC

Maharashtra State Road DevelopmentCorporation Ltd.,Nepean Sea Road,Priyadarshini Park, Mumbai 400 036,India , Fax: 91 22 3684943

184

49 Sunway Construction India PrivateLimited

Mrurdeshwar Bhavan, 604/B,Gokul Road, Hubli 580030 Karnataka

50 ESSARESSAR House, 15th Floor,No. 11, K.KRoad, MahaLaxmi,Mumbai.

51 A.L. Sudershan Co. Ltd.

7-3-739Rashtrapati Road, Secundrabad-03 Fax:040-7704354

52 Shaktikumar M. Sancheti Ltd

207,Ganesh Phadnavis Bhawan,Near Trikoni Park,Dharampeth,Nagpur - 440 010Faxs : 0712-544039

53 Bholasingh Jaiprakash Const. Ltd

Murli Bhawan10-A,Ashok Marg,Lucknow - 226 001 Site Office : HouseNo :302 ,Tamil Nadu Housing Board,By pass Road,First PhaseKrishnagiri

54 Afcons Infrastructure Ltd

Afcons House,16,Shah Industrial Estate ,Veera Desai Road,Azad Nagar,P.Box No.11978,Andheri (W),Mumbai - 400 053.Tele Fax: 022-6369052

Source NHAI Website

185

24. REFERENCE

1. Geosynthetics Manufacturing Association www.gmanow.com

2. Geosynthetics Magazine www.geosyntheticmagazine.com

3. National highway Authority of India ( NHAI) www.nhai.org

4. Central Road Research Institute http://www.crridom.gov.in/

5. Ministry Of Textiles www.ministryoftextiles.gov.in

6. Textbook “ Designing with Geosynthetics” by Robert M. Koerner

7. Textbook “Geosynthetics in civil engineering” Edited by R. W. Sarsby

8. Bombay Textile Research Association www.btraindia.com

9. Reliance Industries Ltd www.ril.com

10.Case Studies: Techfab( India ) Industries Ltd www.techfabindia.com

11.Case Studies: Shri Ambica polymers Ltd www.ambicapolymer.com

12.Case Studies: Garware wall Ropes Ltd www.garwareropes.com

13.Case Studies: Kusumgar Corporates www.kusumgar.com

14.Case Studies: Strata Geosystems( India) Pvt Ltd www.strataindia.com

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