Running Head: PRIOR LEARNING ASSESSMENT

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PRIOR LEARNING ASSESSMENT

Prior Learning Assessment: Policies, Practices, and Penn State

Hannah Brukardt

The Pennsylvania State University

Prior Learning Assessment: Policies and Practices and Penn State

The typical higher education journey graduating high school and going immediately to a four-year college or university isnt quite as typical anymore. Increasingly, students take nontraditional pathways that ultimately lead back to the classroom after other personal, educational, and/or professional experiences. Only 68% of 2014 high school graduates immediately enrolled in college after high school (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). Of that percentage, only two-thirds were enrolled in a four-year institution (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). A trend of college going that had been rising since the 1990s, appears to be reversing, as this is the lowest immediate enrollment rates have been in a decade (Norris, 2014).

During this nontraditional journey from high school to higher education, these students gain valuable learning experiences. Increasingly, institutions of higher education are accepting these out-of-classroom experiences as relevant and transferrable learning that can be submitted for academic credit. This practice is widely known as Prior Learning Assessment (PLA). While higher education institutions have practiced PLA for decades, a surge of interest and implementation of these practices has been seen recently.

This paper seeks to identify appropriate and effective uses of PLA to fully support the nontraditional learner community through a case study analysis of Penn States PLA policies and practices. Nontraditional learners, for the purpose of this paper, include students over the age of 24 and/or students taking on at least one adult role like military service, full-time employment, marriage, parenthood, or financial independence. How does Penn State evaluate, award, and use PLA credit? Do their policies and practices align with current research and trends in higher education? And how can Penn States policies and practices better serve their adult learners?

Literature Review

The definition of PLA is generally the same among scholars and institutions, but the Council of Adult and Experiential Learnings (CAEL) Rebecca Klein-Collins (2010) has the most thorough definition:

PLA is the process by which many colleges evaluate for academic credit the

college-level knowledge and skills an individual has gained outside of the classroom (or from non-college instructional programs), including employment, military training/service, travel, hobbies, civic activities and volunteer service (p. 6).

PLA has been utilized in higher education since the 1940s when the American Council on Education (ACE) began evaluating military experience for college credit (Ryu, 2013). The expansion of the G.I. Bill and the surge of World War II veterans in higher education urged institutions to recognize the experiential learning that soldiers acquired during their service (Bamford-Rees, 2008; Ryu, 2013). For example, a veteran could fulfill a physical education or health requirement through his or her military basis training. An engineer in the military could earn credit ranging from basic math and physics to engineering depending on the experience and skills acquired. ACE evaluated the experiences and learning of veterans to determine recommended credit to institutions. Later, this access began to spread to adult learners in general. In 1974, ACE began evaluating corporate and professional experiences for credit (Ryu, 2013). At the same time, CAEL established their Ten Standards for Assessing Portfolios to assist colleges in implementing and improving their own PLA practices (Travers, 2012; Bamford-Rees, 2008). Today, ACE is recognized by over 2,000 colleges and universities and now offers more than 30,000 credit recommendations for military service, work experience, etc. (Ryu, 2013). With the assistance of ACE, students are able to use a streamlined PLA process to save time and money when earning their college degree (Ryu, 2013).

ACE credit recommendations were initially created as a means to assist veterans in adjusting back to civilian life. The General Education Diploma (GED) and College Level Examination Program (CLEP) were also established for this purpose (Lakin, M., Nellum, C., Seymour, D., & Crandall, J., 2015). By and large, the most popular forms of PLA are those offered at the national level. There is very little research available on the history of institutional-level PLA practices.

Types of PLA Evaluation

PLAs evaluate the learning outcomes students gain from various experiences. The focus is on what students learn, not how they learn (Fiddler, Marienau, & Whitaker, 2006; Klein-Collins & Wertheim, 2013). Prior learning can be evaluated in four ways: standardized national exams like College Level Examination Program (CLEP) or Advanced Placement (AP); in-house, departmental, or challenge exams; previous program evaluations like those provided by the American Council on Education (ACE); or individual portfolio assessments (Klein-Collins, 2010; Bamford-Rees, 2008). While some types of PLA like the CLEP and AP are widely accepted among higher education institutions, portfolio assessment and training evaluations are still regarded with skepticism by some academic institutions and departments.

The most common form of PLA is credit by national exam like the CLEP or AP (Klein-Collin, 2010; Ryu, 2013; Bamford-Rees, 2008). Eighty-three percent of institutions accept credits from national standardized exams (Ryu, 2013). This type of PLA credit acceptance is most successful and useful because unlike their counterparts, CLEP and AP credits can be applied to major education requirements, whereas the other less popular types of PLA are mostly used for general elective credits (Ryu, 2013). The wide acceptance and usage of these credits can be attributed to the campus-wide policies (Ryu, 2013), which may be housed in the campus registrar or admissions office. Other types of PLA, specifically in-house or challenge exams and portfolio policies, are created, implemented, and executed by the academic departments (Ryu, 2013). Even if an institution supports PLA credit transfers, ultimately, academic departments have the final say of whether or not to accept any transfer or PLA credits (Klein-Collins, 2010; Ryu, 2013; Junor & Usher, 2008).

In-house or challenge exams are very similar to national exams. They both used examinations to test the knowledge and learning of the student. National exams are standardized across the country and the world, whereas in-house exams are created and implemented in individual academic departments. Traditional-aged students commonly use national exams to earn college credits while still enrolled in high school. The in-house or challenge exams operate a similar assessment, except each exam is created and administered by the individual academic department instead of by a national testing agency. AP, CLEP, etc. paved the way for the acceptance of other types of PLA credits (Travers, 2012).

Although credit by portfolio is the second most popular form of PLA (Klein-Collins, 2010), it is far less likely to be truly useful in a students degree plan. It is unlikely institutions will use portfolio credits for pre-requisite courses, let alone major course requirements. PLA credits can be used to satisfy various requirements based on the students undergraduate degree program and academic unit. Mostly, PLA credits are used to fulfill general elective requirements (94%), general education requirements (88%), and major requirements (79%) (Klein-Collins, 2010).

Relevance of Prior Learning Assessment

The decrease in immediate college enrollment of traditional students can be linked to the rising cost of college. According to Hahn & Price (2008), the high cost of college discourages students from enrolling in college immediately after high school. It is not only the financial cost of college, but also the opportunity cost of working or caring for family that is lost when a student enrolls in college (Hahn, R. D. & Price, D., 2008). The cost and risk of enrolling in college has continued to grow since 2008.

Some students seek to save money by enrolling in a community college for two years before transferring to a four-year college or university. Twenty-eight percent of baccalaureate degree holders started their education at a community college and 47% of all baccalaureate degree holders have taken at least one community college course (Mullin, 2011).Financial concerns and a weak economy also pushed many high school graduates to pursue military careers as opposed to enrolling in college (Military Recruitment 2010, 2010). Not only does the military offer financial stability, but also educational benefits (Military Recruitment 2010, 2010). While these pathways delay college enrollment, they also provide an opportunity for students to save money before enrolling in college.

In addition to these younger nontraditional learners, the older population of nontraditional learners is growing as well. The value of a high school diploma is decreasing, with many entry-level positions requiring a college degree (The Rising Cost of Not Going to College, 2014; Rampell, 2013). With a growing emphasis on the college degree as a credential, many older students are returning to college as well. Using the U.S. Department of Educations National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Education Longitudinal Study from 2002 Jim Hull from the Center for Public Education (2014) found that the number of non-college enrollees decreased by almost half by age 26. While students may be delaying a college education, they are not passing it by all together. Institutions of higher education need to be prepared to meet the academic needs of not only this new generation of delayed college goers, but all those who have a nontraditional path to higher education.

Although PLA assessment has been in practice for decades, there has been a surge of interest from the government, institutions, and students in recent years. Increasing numbers of nontraditional learners and transfer students in higher education has pushed legislation to make higher education more accessible to this population of students and urges institutions to adopt more open PLA policies. Nontraditional learners have surpassed the traditional-aged students as the majority demographic in higher education (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). Between 2000 and 2010, enrollment of students over 25 rose by 42% and is projected to increase another 20% by 2020 (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). According to Katopes (2009) and Kenner and Weinerman (2011), military students comprise the leading population in the growth of nontraditional learners in higher education. Most adult learners exhibit multiple nontraditional characteristics which inevitably complicates their higher education goals. PLA provides an avenue for adult students to receive academic credit for their prior learning.

According to Ryu (2013), validating and credentialing college-level knowledge and skills acquired outside of the classroom is increasingly seen as a vehicle for supporting increased education attainment, especially among adult nontraditional students (p. 1). PLA is more prominent than ever because of the emergence of adult learners (Travers, 2012), MOOCs (Klein-Collins & Wertheim, 2013), online education (Klein-Collins & Wertheim, 2013), and student mobility (Simone, 2014). These new pathways to a college diploma have developed to bring more access and affordability to higher education. Unfortunately, nontraditional students still experiences barriers to earning a college degree.

In an effort to alleviate these barriers, pressure to provide greater access to higher education to nontraditional learners can be felt from all directions. Like other underrepresented groups, there is a social justice agenda to provide equal access to higher education to all. The government is pushing to increase graduation rates (Klein-Collins & Wertheim, 2013; U.S. Department of Education, 2015) and increase access and affordability of higher education to all (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). PLA is a means by which higher education can be more accessible and affordable for all students. Awarding credit for military or professional experiences outside the classroom to recognizing the value of courses taken a a community college or other institution creates new ways for nontraditional learners to access, afford, and complete a college education.

There is also a social justice push from institutions to add diversity to classrooms (Travers, 2012). Enrolling nontraditional students has a reciprocal benefit. First, nontraditional students bring a unique and diverse perspective to undergraduate classrooms (Travers, 2012). Nontraditional students benefit from earning credits for their experiences, but other students also gain from learning about these experiences through classroom discussion and interaction with nontraditional learners. Much like other points of diversity, the nontraditional learner brings a new lens to the classroom through which all students can experience new ideas and viewpoints. Without PLA, classrooms could not benefit from the experiences of these nontraditional students.

Second, nontraditional student enrollment not only helps institutions fulfill their own missions of supporting adult learners (Klein-Collins, 2010), but also the governments mission to raise the education level of the average American (Klein-Collins & Wertheim, 2013; Ryu, 2013; U.S. Department of Education, 2015). By serving this growing population of college students, institutions are helping to make a college education a reality for many. Without PLA opportunities, many of these nontraditional students would not be able access, afford, or complete a college degree.

PLA and Student Success

The acceptance of PLA credits has numerous benefits that ultimately lead adult students to a point of success. Based on Klein-Collins (2010) survey of 48 varying types of institutions in the United States (46) and Canada (2), these benefits include decreased time to graduation, higher graduation rates, more accumulation of credits, and increased persistence.

On average, students with PLA credits who are pursuing a bachelors degree graduated 2.5-10.1 months earlier than their non-PLA peers (Klein-Collins, 2010). The vast financial savings associated with decreased time to degree is twofold: the student saves money on tuition and the government saves money on financial aid (Klein-Collins, 2010). The sooner students graduate, the sooner they can capitalize on their higher education credential in the workforce through promotions, increased salaries, and better opportunities. There is also the economic benefit of having more educated workers in the workforce.

The graduation rates of students with PLA credits are more than double those of students with no PLA credits. For both bachelors and associates degrees, PLA students graduated at a rate of 56 percent while non-PLA students graduated at a rate of 21 percent. The number of PLA credits has proven to be a strong predictor of graduation; as the number of students PLA credits increased, their graduation rate aligned more closely to the national graduation rate (Klein-Collins, 2010). The increase in graduation rates may be related to the decreased time to complete a degree or to students self-esteem boost through their PLA experience.

Student retention and persistence are two of the strongest predictors of student success. After Klein-Collins (2010) six-year survey ended, higher percentages of PLA students continued to earn credits two, three, four, five, and six years later over their non-PLA peers. Students with PLA credits are also more likely to enroll in consecutive years as opposed to stopping out and then re-enrolling (Klein-Collins, 2010).

Even if students had not graduated by the end of Klein-Collins 2010 survey, those with PLA credits had accumulated more credit overall than their non-PLA peers. More than half of PLA students had attained 80 percent of their credits toward a bachelors degree, while more than half of non-PLA students acquired less than 40 percent (Klein-Collins, 2010). This accumulation plays a great role in student persistence.

While it is obvious that PLA credits generally benefit students, Klein-Collins (2010) also points out that students who have earned PLA credit may be successful because they are more likely to be high-achieving students. That is to say, students who are motivated to seek out PLA credit opportunities are also more likely to apply themselves academically.

Regardless of student motivation or achievement, much of PLA student success hinges on the applicability of PLA credits. PLA students are increasingly more successful when their PLA credits can be flexibly applied to their degree plan. Most PLA credits are used for general elective or general education requirements (Klein-Collins, 2010; Ryu, 2013). It is less likely that PLA credits, with the exception of national exams, can be used for prerequisite courses, major courses, or upper division courses (Klein-Collins, 2010; Ryu, 2013). Although general acceptability of PLA credits is determined by the university registrar (Ryu, 2013) or admissions office, the designation of credits is decided by individual academic departments (Klein-Collins, 2010; Ryu, 2013). While the institution at large may recognize PLA credits, the department can ultimately decide not to use credits. This mentality mainly applies to national exam credits or program evaluations. Most credit by examination and credit by portfolio policies are under the control of academic departments (Ryu, 2013).

The applicability of PLA credits also depends on the type of institution. In Ryus (2013) study of 414 institutions of higher education and their PLA policies, he found two-year public institutions were most likely to accept ACE evaluations and credit by portfolio. Public two-year institutions were also least likely to accept no PLA credit (Ryu, 2013). Private, for-profit institutions were also likely to accept ACE evaluations, especially for corporate training (Ryu, 2013). These two types of institutions historically have strong missions to support adult learners, which is most likely why they accept so many PLA credits. Public two-year and private, for-profit institutions are also more likely to use PLA credits for major requirements (Ryu, 2013). Public and private four-year institutions also have their strengths in awarding PLA credits. Public, four-year institutions are most likely to accept national exam credits (Ryu, 2013). This is not surprising since these types of institutions serve a large population of traditional-aged students who are likely to take AP courses in high school. Surprisingly, private, non-profit institutions are tied with public, two-year institutions for the highest amount of credit by portfolio credits (Ryu, 2013).

Overall, PLA policies and practices have grown across institutions. Klein-Collins (2010) found that each type of PLA experienced an increase in the number of institutional offerings from 2006 to 2009. The average increase was 12.8 percent, with the largest increases related to credit by portfolio and credit by institutionally-evaluated programs (Klein-Collins, 2010). This exhibits a great start for PLA, but many institutions and their students can benefit from expanded PLA policies.

The Pennsylvania State University Prior Learning Assessment Policies and Practices

The Pennsylvania State University (Penn State) was chosen as the focus for this paper for several reasons. First, the author was formerly employed by the institution, so data at the time of writing was less restricted. Second, the university has a strong mission to support adult learners, with one campus primarily serving this population. Third, the university recently hired Dr. Michele Rice for the newly created Director of Prior Learning Assessment position to oversee the universitys policies and practices. Altogether, it is a time of growth for PLA at Penn State.

Penn State is a large, land-grant institution serving 76,137 undergraduate students across all twenty of its residential, undergraduate campuses. An additional 6,245 students are enrolled in the universitys online campus, World Campus (Undergraduate Enrollment By Class Standing, 2014). In recent years, Penn State has made the push to become an adult-friendly campus. This includes the expansion of the World Campus, as well as designation of being a military friendly school. Nearly 18,000 of the undergraduate students at Penn State are adult learners. Eighteen percent of undergraduates are active military or veterans (Commission for Adult Learners: Fact Sheet, 2015).

Penn State Senate Policies

Mirroring the research, Penn State has several university-wide policies related to PLA. Although these policies support the awarding of PLA credits, much of the control lies within the academic departments. The University Faculty Senate outlines all the methods for credit acquisition under Faculty Senate Policy 42-00 Acquisition of Credit. The following sections of policy 42-00 directly apply to PLA:

42-50 Credit by Examination (CRX)

42-81 Credit by Validation

42-92 Advanced Placement Program by the College Board

42-94 College-Level Examination Program by the College Board

42-97 Credit by Portfolio

42-98 Credit by Experience in the Armed Forces

42-99 Credit by Training in Non-Collegiate Organizations

Each policy is linked to the procedures for obtaining said credit.

Policy 42-50 Credit by Examination (CRX). Students may request credit by examination from their academic department to receive credit for a specific Penn State course. Students cannot earn credit by exam for courses that already appear on their transcript, regardless of previous grade. A student must get the permission of the academic dean and department head in order to sit the exam. A nonrefundable $30 fee per credit will be assessed to take the exam. There is no limit to the number of credits by examination a student may earn. To earn credit, students must earn at least a C. Penn State offers credit by exam in the following areas: Chemistry, English, Computer-Aided Drafting, Work Force Education, Early Childhood Education, Mechanical Engineering Technologies, and Calculus (M. Rice, personal communication, April 22, 2015).

Policy 42-81 Credit by Validation. Credits earned at other institutions that were not initially transferred to Penn State can be reviewed via credit by validation. Commonly, this type of review focuses on work from non-regionally accredited institutions. Students may request credit by validation through the Undergraduate Admissions Office. The Undergraduate Admissions Office will make a preliminary review of the course syllabus (provided by the student) to evaluate the academic quality of the course. If the course meets the academic standards of Penn State, the Undergraduate Admissions Office then forwards the transcript and other materials to the academic department for review. The academic department then decides on the transferability of the course and reports back to the Undergraduate Admissions Office. The Undergraduate Admissions Office does not have the authority to complete credit by validation evaluations. The final decision rests with the academic department in which the course in question is housed. For example, the Department of English reviews all credit by validation requests for English courses. There is no fee to process credits by validation nor any limitation on the number of credits earned by validation.

42-92 Advanced Placement Program by the College Board. Students can earn credit for certain AP exams. The academic department determines the proper score and subsequent usability of these credits. There is no fee to process AP credits nor is there a limitation on the amount of AP credits that can be transferred, if acceptable.

42-94 College-Level Examination Program by the College Board. Students may earn credit for CLEP exams if they have earned a score at the fiftieth or higher percentile. Higher scores may be required for specific exams. The department determines the scores and subsequent usability of CLEP credits. There is no fee to process CLEP credits. A maximum of 60 credits can be earned via CLEP.

42-97 Credit by Portfolio. Credit by portfolio is available to students at the discretion of the academic department. Credit by portfolio is another way students can earn credit for work completed at non-regionally accredited institutions. Access to information regarding this policy should be made available by the Undergraduate Admissions Office, Division of Undergraduate Studies, Center for Adult Learner Services, Distance Education, and academic advisors. If a students request for credit by portfolio is approved, the student then gathers evidence of prior learning to present to the academic department in accordance with their guidelines. Credit by portfolio can either defend unique prior learning or learning that has been previously evaluated by the department. The faculty then assesses the portfolio and determines if credit should be awarded. No grades are earned, just credit. A maximum of 6 credits can be earned per portfolio. Baccalaureate candidates can earn a maximum of 30 credits by portfolios. Associate degree candidates can earn a maximum of 15 credits by portfolio. A $390 fee is charged before the portfolio is reviewed for independent learning. A $10 fee is charged for previously evaluated training.

42-98 Credit by Experience in the Armed Forces. Students may earn general credit from military training based on ACE evaluations. Not all ACE evaluated credits transfer per the discretion of the Undergraduate Admissions Office. The academic department determines the usability of the general credits. For example, it is common for a military student to earn at least some kinesiology credit (General Health and Activity degree requirement) for basic military training. Students may earn additional general credits based upon their individual military experience. While students can earn elective credit for things like leadership or military science, they are not able to earn credit for combat-based training like gunsmithing or tactical training.

42-99 Credit by Training in Non-Collegiate Organizations. Students may earn general credit from professional training based on ACE evaluations. Not all ACE evaluated credits transfer per the discretion of the Undergraduate Admissions Office. The academic department determines the usability of the general credits.

Penn State PLA Data

Despite the expansive policies surrounding PLA at Penn State, students can experience barriers to earning PLA credit. Unfortunately, outside anecdotal evidence, there is a lack of data regarding PLA at Penn State. However, with the creation of the Director of Prior Learning Assessment position, there is hope that more in-depth data collection and analyses will occur in the near future. Notwithstanding this lack of data, Dr. Michele Rice, Director of Prior Learning Assessment was able to provide basic descriptive data regarding PLA at Penn State (personal communication, April 22, 2015).

Approximately 90 percent of all PLA credits are awarded through AP credits. In the 2013-14 academic school year, first-year students earned 65,000 AP credits. Credit by portfolio is the second-most common method, accounting for about two percent of all PLA credits. In total, a little over 1,100 students earned credit by portfolio in 2013. Military and professional training credits account for less than one percent each (M. Rice, personal communication, April 22, 2015).

In the 2013-2014 academic year, 17,783 adult students were enrolled across the Penn State system (Commission for Adult Learners: Fact Sheet, 2015). Of those students, 19 earned AP credit, 165 earned CLEP credit, 74 earned credit by examination, 797 earned credit by portfolio, 99 earned military credit, and 4,326 earned transfer credit (Undergraduates with Prior Learning Assessment Credits (BAY 13/14), 2015). All of these PLA categories show decreases from previous years. This may have to do with how PLA credits are currently tracked. PLA credit is recorded by the semester it is added to the students transcript. Starting November 2015, PLA credits will also be tracked according to the students starting semester, which may show more continuity.

These PLA reports are parsed out by adult and traditional students and by major and campus. Moving forward, it will be helpful to determine areas of strength for Penn State PLA and areas which need improvement. Although PLA may have started to benefit nontraditional learners, many traditional students are taking advantage of these policies as well. Currently, traditional students earn more PLA credit than nontraditional learners in all categories except credit by portfolio, credit for military service, and CLEP credit (Undergraduates with Prior Learning Assessment Credits (BAY 13/14), 2015).

One of the most interesting findings in Rices (2015) data, is the information pertaining to the success of student using AP credits. Rice looked at the six most popular AP credit tests (Biology, Chemistry, Economics, Physics, Calculus, and Psychology) then analyzed how students performed in the next sequence Penn State course. Students who used AP credits to fulfill the first course in the sequence were extremely likely to pass the next course in the sequence. In all but three second courses, students who used AP credits to fulfill the first course had a pass percentage more than 10% higher than the overall pass rate across all course options (i.e. Penn State course, Penn State multiple tries, transfer, etc.) (Prior Learning Course Pairs Analysis, 2015). In the three courses that did not have greater than 10% greater than the average, still had passing rates of over 90% (Prior Learning Course Pairs Analysis, 2015).

This data shows the importance, reliability, and use of PLA credits. The students who tested out of courses based on their AP credit were likely to be academically successful in future Penn State courses. While this data only pertains to AP credits, the most popular type of PLA, future research could focus on other types of PLA. Data like this can assist institutions in expanding their PLA offerings without worrying about sacrificing academic quality.

Penn State PLA Benchmarking

Penn States primarily benchmarks within the Big Ten Conference. These schools are similar in size, structure, and mission. Rice (personal communication, April 22, 2015) found some interesting themes across the Big Ten. Many of the universities that offer credit by portfolio do not offer this assessment at their flagship campus; these policies are only applied at the branch campuses. Although Penn State University Park (Penn States flagship campus) has the smallest population of adult learners when compared with the World Campus and the collection of the commonwealth campuses, credit by portfolio is still available.

In her research, Rice (2015) also found that several universities require students to take a PLA portfolio course, for credit, before being able to submit a portfolio for review. These courses teach students how to prove and present their prior learning, while assembling their first portfolio for review.

Some students at Penn State are able to plan their prior learning experience in advance. Rice (personal communication, April 22, 2015) cited students in the College of Engineering who take multiple internships can use portfolio assessments to earn credits for these experiences beyond the single internship that is allowed. For students like this, Rice (2015) found that the University of Nebraska requires students to get pre-approval for the learning experience before a portfolio can be assessed. This may be of use for students interested in service and professional experiences.

Finally, Rice (personal communication, April 22, 2015) commended The Ohio State University for their comprehensive catalog of available credit by examination opportunities. The catalog, available through the universitys registrar, outlines not only the exams that are available, but also the procedure, limitations, restrictions, and fees (Credit by Examination 2015 2016, 2015). Compared to Penn State, this catalog is much more accessible and visible.

Although much can be learned from these peer institutions, benchmarking with community colleges and other types of institutions may also prove beneficial. Community colleges serve large populations of adult learners and have successful practices in place to award PLA credits that may inspire some new Penn State practices.

Penn State PLA Goals

The creation of a position purely concerned with PLA policies generates vast potential for improvement and change in Penn States policies and practices. Rice (personal communication, April 22, 2015) outlined goals she has for PLA at Penn State.

The collection of more specific data is needed. What students are using PLA credits? For which courses are PLA credits being used? Which majors allow for the most PLA credits? This data will ultimately inform better policies and practices.

Establishing relationships with academic colleges and advisors is mandatory to make PLA a success. Currently, some colleges are more receptive to PLA credits than others. For example, the College of the Liberal Arts has a robust PLA website that is easy to access and understand, whereas the College of Engineerings PLA information is more difficult to find (M. Rice, personal communication, April 22, 2015). The various levels of interest in PLA can cause confusion for students. While academic units cannot be forced to accept PLA credits, relationships can be established to ease the process for students. It is vital to know who is open to PLA and who is not (M. Rice, personal communication, April 22, 2015)

Related to relationships with academic departments, Rice (personal communication, April 22, 2015) also wants to establish relationships with advisors as part of an on-boarding process. It is important that advisors are well versed in PLA procedures so as to properly advise students. At present, it is unknown what advisors are telling students, if they are telling them anything. Getting advisors behind the process can help bring visibility to PLA opportunities to students.

More concrete goals include developing an online catalog of all PLA credit opportunities at Penn State. Information on everything from CLEP to credit by exams to credit by portfolio would be centrally accessible to students via this catalog. Rice (personal communication, April 22, 2015) also aims to implement a portfolio course for students interested in credit by portfolio. There is currently a pilot course being offered through the College of the Liberal Arts. If the course is deemed a success, plans to implement the course at some of the smaller Penn State campuses will go into effect.

Implications of PLA

With the increasing popularity of PLA, there are some implications of this type of credit that must be explored by scholars and institutions alike. Theoretically and practically, the emergence of PLA fundamentally changes the established status quo of higher education.

At its core, credit transfer, and by extension PLA, revolves around one main tenet: the credit hour. The Department of Education defines the credit hour as:

an amount of work represented in intended learning outcomes and verified by evidence of student achievement that is an institutionally established equivalency that is not less than one hour of classroom or direct faculty instruction and a minimum of two hours of out of class work for each week for approximately fifteen weeks for one semester or the equivalent amount of work over a different amount of time.

In their 2015 study of MOOCs, Siemens, Dragan, & Dawson explore the changing meaning of credentials in higher education. In the last two decades, the credit hour has come under fire as an appropriate measure of learning assessment because of shifting ideals in higher education. One of the major shifts focused on the economic value of the credit hour and how it relates to the meaning of a degree (Siemens, Dragan, & Dawson, 2015).

Bahram Bekhradnia (2004) defines the credit as a type of knowledge currency. This currency is accumulated then used to purchase a degree (Junor, Usher, & Educational, 2008). Using this definition, Junor and Usher (2008) explain the exchange rates of credits. Just as monetary currency has variable exchange rates among different countries, knowledge currency has variable exchange rates among different types of institutions and learning.

The true conflict over awarding credits for material not learned at the current institution addresses an issue much more complex than the recognition of the credit hour. The major argument is whether the universality of credit is more important then the uniqueness of individual institutions and their programs. Most institutions, especially more prestigious ones, have strict scaffolding in place to structure curricula and degree attainment. Universally accepting credit from other sources jeopardizes this scaffolding because the institution is no longer in control of how or what exactly the student is learning (i.e. pre-requisite courses). The credit transfer process needs to take into consideration not only the credential itself, but also how it will fit into the institutions academic scaffolding. Laitinen (2012) further argues that the credit hour is a poor form of knowledge currency because of the variable exchange rates. This is because there are varying levels of trust among institutions of higher education (Siemens et al., 2015). In her study, Laitinen (2012) argues that if a credit hour truly measured student learning then it would have equal value across institutions and experiences. As she argues, a dollar is a dollar and an hour is an hour no matter where you are in the United States.

By extension, institutions need to consider the implication of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). While many institutions do not directly give credit for MOOCs, theoretically a student could complete another form of PLA to earn those credits. ACE has started evaluating MOOCs for credit as well (Masterson, 2013). On a meta-analytical level, MOOCs essentially open the door to self-learning. There is nothing to stop students from enrolling in MOOCs or researching a specific subject and then demonstrating that learning via an assessment. Institutions need to decide if how something is learned is more important that what is actually learned. If they choose to value the latter, then their PLA policies need to reflect that.

Recommendations

Upon review of the current context of higher education, general PLA policies, Penn State practices, and theoretical implications, the following recommendations are made.

Visibility

Available PLA policies should be highly visible for incoming students. PLA policies should not be hidden on websites, or referred to by word of mouth. For PLA to be successful, it needs to be visible. Ideally, a centralized forum or catalog for all an institutions PLA opportunities should be available to students. This resource should be available to prospective as well as accepted students. The availability and data about the success of PLA can be the reason a student chooses to attend or not.

Many institution websites, including Penn States website, include information about credits available for AP and CLEP exams. However, it can be difficult to understand exactly how these credits relate to a degree plan. Providing information about which courses are pre-requisites versus electives is vital to avoid students taking useless exams.

Support

Support of PLA has two parts. Firstly, it is not enough to have university-wide policies related to PLA. Support for the use of PLA needs to come from the departments as well as the administration. It is deceiving to present PLA opportunities at a university level that are not accepted at the department or college level. All stakeholders should have the same understanding about the availability and usability of PLA credits. This is not to say every department needs to accept all PLA credits, but they should at least be upfront about the possibility, or lack thereof, of earning and using PLA credits.

Garnering academic department support may be a challenge. Administration should not mandate that academic departments accept every PLA credit, but they should encourage departments to be open and understanding to the value of PLA credit.

The second part of support is that of the administration to the department. PLA practices take additional time and resources. A plan needs to be in place to support those departments and faculty that participate in the review of PLA. Providing additional resources may also serve as an incentive for departments to be more open to PLA.

Transparency

When dealing with transfer and PLA credits, students are confused about institutional decisions related to their credits (Ryu, 2013). For example, different institutions can award different credits for the same student experience. Explaining the process by which PLA credits are evaluated and awarded can help students not only understand their credits, but it may also prepare them to succeed in future PLAs. Why and how credits are awarded should not be a secret.

This transparency should be applied before, during, and after a PLA experience. Students should be aware of policies related to PLA (as per the visibility recommendation) as well as exactly how these policies are implemented. PLA evaluations should be available to each student who participates in PLA. The evaluations should explain what was assessed, how it was assessed, and why certain credits were or were not awarded.

Flexibility

This will be the most difficult change for institutions to make because it calls into question their pride and their value of the credit hour. Institutions should seriously consider the ways in which they allow PLA credits to be used. Ideally, these credits should be used for all manner of requirements. If the learning can be clearly demonstrated, there is no reason to disallow the direct usage of credits for prerequisites or major courses. As the research from Klein-Collins (2010) shows, the more flexibility a student has with her PLA credits, the more successful she will be.

Conclusion

PLA has the capability to change the face of higher education. It provides increased access to higher education by providing an avenue to earn credits for learning experiences outside of a classroom. Many nontraditional students have professional or personal experiences that are not only a benefit to themselves, but also to their peer students. The addition of nontraditional students to the classroom offers diversity of thought and experience.

PLA a viable means for nontraditional learners, and even traditional-aged students, to earn a degree more efficiently and effectively. Earning PLA credits through national exams, in-house exams, evaluations, or assessments increases credit accumulation and graduation rates. Students who earn PLA credits graduate in less time, accrue less debt, and require less financial aid. Research shows that numerous and flexible PLA policies bolster student success by allowing students to use credits efficiently and reducing instances of students having to retake courses. As Fiddler, Marienau, and Whitaker (2006) say, And [PLA] is a justifiable basis for reducing redundancy and the inefficiency of requiring students to participate in a one-size-fits-all curricula when they are otherwise qualified by their knowledge or skills gained from experience (p. 12).

The increasing population of nontraditional learners shows no signs of slowing down. Institutions need to adapt to this growing demographic if they want to survive. Offering well-constructed PLA opportunities is a way to accomplish this.

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