Happiness under pressure: How dual-earner parents experience time in Australia

Authors

• Peter Brown PhD, Centre for Work, Leisure and Community Research, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia

• Ester Cerin PhD, The Institute of Human Performance, the University of Hong Kong

• Penny Warner-Smith PhD, Research Centre for Gender and Health, University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia

Paper presented to 3rd International Conference on Gross National Happiness, Bangkok, 26-28 November, 2007

Presentation outline1) Context• Work/life tensions in Australia• Work/life tensions: Conceptual framework

2) The Work/life tensions study• Study design• Sample characteristics• Key findings: Perceived time pressure,

activity patterns and experiences of time among dual-earner parents

3)Conclusions and implications

Australian working hours are currently among the longest in the industrialised world. (22% workers) There is a strong tendency for workers to work on weeknights and weekends. (30% workers) A large proportion of the working population are employed on a casual basis. (27% workers) Research suggests that those people who work long and unsocial hours spend less quality time with their families & friends and most Australian families are suffering time pressure and stress Such working patterns are associated with a general decline in individual and family wellbeing (Relationships Forum Australia, March 2007)

Work/life tensions: The problem

Time pressure & work/life balance

Trends associated with dramatic increases in women’s labour force participation, population ageing, declining fertility rates, increased diversity in the structure and composition of families, and the on going restructuring of the labour market are both causes and consequences of time pressure.

The problem of work/life balance relates to growing tensions between the demands of employment and the demands of home, family and community life.

DemographicCharacteristics

• Gender• Age• Life-stage• SES• Household type• Location

Individual moderators• Vary work patterns• Outsource domestic work & childcare• Negotiate time• Find ‘me’ time• Organise work around lifestyle etc.

Organisational moderators• Reduced workloads• Flexible work arrangements• Supportive management• Etiquette around use of IT etc. Organisational

outcomes

Familyoutcomes

Individualoutcomes

Societaloutcomes

Work/life Tensions

• Work overload• Work/family interference• Family/work interference• Caregiver strain• No ‘me’ time

Time use mix

• Contracted

• Necessary

• Free

• Committed

The ‘Work-life tensions’ projectAIM To examine the hypothesis that wellbeing is

positively related to reduced time pressure, more leisure, and greater control over time schedules

QUESTIONS How is time experienced by parents who

combine paid work with caring responsibilities?

What associations are there between between time use, life course stage, and mood state?

What strategies are used by dual-earner parents to ‘manage’ work-life tensions?

What are the costs of work/life imbalance for workplaces, individuals, families and society?

‘Work-life tensions’ project: Study design

10 FOCUS GROUPS

with working parents

Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health

100 women & their partners

PDA & screening survey

Phone

interview

• 3 years

• ARC funding

• Griffith University, University of Newcastle, University of Melbourne

Data from 14000 young women, 14000 mid-age women

The Work/life tensions study: SampleThe sample Young cohort included 95 working parents aged 25 to 30.

51 were women, 44 were men & sample included 40 couples

Mid cohort included 87 working parents aged 52-57. 48 were women, 39 were men & sample included 39 couples

‘Work’ and family characteristics 71% of parents do paid work more than 25 hours a week,

with half of these working more than 41 hours a week. All ‘young’ and 56% of ‘mid’ aged parents had children

living at home.ESM reports 79 ‘Young’ parents provided 3267 reports (av.41.4pp) 87 ‘Mid’-aged parents provided 3507 reports (av.40.3pp)

Proportion of respondents affected by time-crunch (% within

age cohorts)Level of stress Young

Total(%)

N=95

Mid Total(%)

N=87Severely time crunched (yes

to 7 or more items)32.6 12.6

Moderately time crunched (yes to 4 to 6 items)

41.1 43.7

Minimally time crunched (yes to 3 or less items)

26.3 43.7

Categories of time use (ABS) Type of time use Activity categories

Necessary time 1. Personal care

Contracted time 2. Employment3. Education

Committed time 4. Domestic5. Child care6. Purchasing7. Voluntary work and care

Free time 8. Social/community interaction9. Recreation and leisure

Proportion undertaking activity (%) by time use report

Activity Young (N=3094)

Mids(N=3340)

Personal care 17.1% 19.3%Employment 22.0% 29.1%

Domestic 18.1% 21.4%Childcare 15.5% 1.1%

Recreation/leisure & socialising

20.0% 24.8%

Mean scores on Positive Affect items, by age cohort (5 point scale)

ITEM YOUNG3267 cases

MID3507 cases

Interested 2.88 3.25 (p<.001)

In control 3.62 3.84 (p<.05)

Enthusiastic 2.71 3.22 (p<.001)

Excited 2.14 2.34Happy 3.41 3.49Calm 3.20 3.31

Mean scores on Negative affect items, by age cohort (5 point scale)

ITEM YOUNG MIDWorried 1.47 1.39

Sad 1.21 1.20Irritated 1.60 1.34 (p<.001)

Frustrated 1.65 1.47 (p<.05)

Bored 1.42 1.23 (p.<.01)

Angry 1.26 1.16 (p<.05)

Guilty 1.26 1.19Stressed 1.83 1.61 (p<.05)

Tired 2.92 2.10 (p<.001)

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Issues for future investigation To what extent are factors such as motivation,

task demands, social support and perceived control associated with individual’s experience of time in different activity settings?

How might the findings be used to design and evaluate interventions for use in counselling sessions with families as well as workplace programs designed to promote work/life balance among employees?

What are the economic costs of work/life tensions to work organisations, individual & family wellbeing as well as national healthcare systems?

What are the implications of the study for measures of Gross National Happiness?

Work/life balance: The challenge?‘The issues associated with

balancing (paid) work and family are of paramount importance to individuals, the organisations that employ them, the families that care for them, the unions that represent them and governments concerned with global competitiveness, citizen well-being and national health’. (Higgins and Duxbury, 2002)

Work/life balance? Korp khun krub!