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DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 078 315 CG 007 111
AUTHOR Harris, R. CarlTITLE The Effects of Type, Identifiability, and Variety of
Instructional Instances on Subject Matter ConceptAttainment.
PUB DATE Apr 72NOTE 17p.; Paper presented at 1.:e meeting of the American
Educational Research Association in Chicago, Illinoison April, 1972
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29DESCRIPTORS *College Students; Concept Formation; *Concept
Teaching; *Generalization; alizedInstruction; Instruction; *Instrut tonal Improvement;Instructional Staff; Research Projects; Students;*Teaching Methods; Teaching Techniques
ABSTRACTSubject matter concept attainment by adult SS was
studied by experimentally manipulating instructional instances whichwere either positive or negative, clear or obscure, or presented inlarge or small variety. Training and testing instances were composedof case studies communicated via prose descriptidn that had beenanalyzed for relevant and irrelevant attributes. Conceptualizationwas defined as generalization within and discrimination betweenclasses and was assessed by having 176 undergraduate volunteersclassify new positive and negative case studies after instructionfrom a definition and selected instances. Two, three-way analyses ofvariance followed by t-tests revealed that instance type,identifiability, and variety have differential effects ongeneralization and discrimination. References are included.(Author)
FILMED FROM BEST AVAILABLE COPY
CC 007 111'
THE EFFECTS OF TYPE, IDENTIFIABILITY, AND VARIETY
OF INSTRUCTIONAL INSTANCES ON
SUBJECT MATTFR CO\Cr--97:
R. CARL HARRIS
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
THE CHURCH COLLEGE OF HAWAII
LAIE, HAWAII 96762
U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATIONAL WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPF0DUCED E %ACT L Y AS RECEIVED FROM
THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATIONORIGIN
ATING IT POIN TS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS
STt TED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE
SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATION POSITION OR Poucv
A PAPER PRESENTED AT THE MEETING
OF THE
AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL, RESEARCH ASSOCIATION
CHICAGO, APRIL 1972
The Effects of Type, Identifiability, and Variety
of Instructional Instances on Subject
Matter Concept Attainment
by
R. Carl Harris
The Pennsylvania State Univelsity
Subject matter concept attainment by adult Ss was studied by
experimentally manipulating instructional instances which were
eitho;tr
positive or negative, clear or obscure, or presented in large or
small
variety.
Training and testing instances were composed of case studies
communicated via prose descriptions that had been analyzed for
relevant and irrelevant attributes.
Con optualization was defined as
generalization within and discrimination between classes and was
assessed by having 176 undergraduate volunteers classify new positive
and negative case studies after instruction from a definition and
0
selected instances.
Two, three-way AVM* followed by t-tests revealed
that instance type, identifiability, and variety have differential
effects on qeneralization and discrimination.
How at the Church College of Hawaii
The
Effe
cts
of T
ype,
Iden
tifta
bilit
y. a
nd V
arie
ty
of In
stru
ctio
nal I
nsta
nces
on
Sub
ject
Mat
ter
Con
cept
Atta
inm
ent
R, C
arl H
arris
Pen
nsyl
vani
a S
tate
Uni
vers
ity
Fro
m b
asic
res
earc
h on
con
cept
lear
ning
hav
e co
me
tlwee
maj
or v
aria
bles
(DeC
ecco
, 196
8)ro
n w
hich
inst
ruct
iona
l ins
tant
er, m
cy d
iffer
:(I
) In
,lanc
e
may
be
eith
er p
ositi
ve if
all
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es a
re p
rese
nt o
r ne
gatp
.e it
I)IIC
or m
ore
rele
vant
attr
ibut
e is
mis
sing
giv
en c
onju
nctiv
e co
ncep
ts (
ilmla
nd
(2)
Inst
ance
lden
tlfla
bilit
y m
ay r
ange
from
obs
cure
to c
lear
dep
endi
ng o
n ho
w
embe
dded
the
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es a
re a
mon
g th
e irr
elev
ant a
ttrib
utes
(A
rdie
r.
1966
), a
nd (
3) In
stan
ce v
arie
ty w
hich
may
ran
ge fr
om n
kw
to .1
1.tr
gt.
of d
iffer
ent i
nsta
nces
(P
odel
I, 19
58).
Stu
dies
whi
ch h
ave
inve
stig
ated
the
influ
ence
of i
nsta
nce
type
on
cont.cin
lear
ning
hav
e fo
und
sign
ifica
nt s
uppo
rt fo
r th
e su
perio
rity
of p
ositi
ve u
sei
Live
inst
ance
s w
hen
the
conc
epts
wer
e de
fined
as
a co
njun
ctiv
e co
mbi
natio
n of
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es a
nd w
hen
geom
etric
des
igns
wer
e us
ed a
s st
imul
us m
ater
ials
(Hov
land
& W
eiss
, 195
3; B
rune
r, e
t. al
., 19
56; B
ourn
e, l9
6n).
The
find
ings
have
bee
n ao
con
vinc
ing
the
Cla
rk (
1971
) ha
s be
en a
ble
to s
tate
that
of a
ll th
e
poss
ible
pre
sent
atio
n se
quen
ces,
sequ
ence
of a
ll po
sitiv
e in
stan
ces
is m
ost
Now
at t
he C
hurc
h C
olle
ge o
f Haw
aii,
Late
, Haw
aii
2
effe
ctiv
e fo
rton
junc
tive
conc
epts
whi
le a
seq
uenc
e of
neg
ativ
e in
stan
ces
is le
ast
effe
ctiv
e. T
he p
robl
em e
ncou
nter
ed w
hen
tryi
ng to
gen
eral
ize
the
resu
lts o
f
stud
ies
cond
ucte
d on
the
inst
ance
type
var
iabl
e as
with
the
inst
ance
iden
tifia
bilit
y
and
vari
ety
vari
able
s G
that
the
effe
cts
on g
ener
aliz
atio
n an
d di
scri
min
atio
n
have
not
bee
n st
udie
d se
para
tely
. Als
o, m
ost o
f th
e st
udie
s ha
ve u
sed
artif
icia
l
conc
epts
whi
ch a
re h
ighl
y di
ssim
ilar
to th
ose
taug
ht in
sub
ject
mat
ter
conc
ept
lear
ning
(G
lase
r, 1
968)
.
The
infl
uenc
e of
irre
leva
nt a
ttrib
utes
on
conc
ept l
earn
ing
has
also
bee
n
wid
ely
inve
stig
ated
(e.
g., A
rche
r, .
Bou
rne,
& B
raw
n, 1
955;
Bul
gare
lla &
Arc
her,
1962
) sh
owin
g th
at id
entif
iabi
lity
of in
stan
ces
vari
es d
irec
tly w
ith th
e pr
opor
tion
of ir
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es. I
n th
e tr
aditi
onal
exp
erim
enta
l par
adig
m, o
f w
hich
the
cite
d st
udie
s ar
e ex
ampl
es, t
he f
ocus
is o
n or
igin
al le
arni
ng in
con
tras
t to
subj
ect
mat
ter
acqu
isiti
on w
here
tran
sfer
of
lear
ning
is th
e m
ajor
var
iabl
e of
inte
rest
.
Ove
ring
& T
rave
rs (
1966
. 196
7) h
ave
dem
onst
rate
d th
at th
ough
ori
gina
l lea
rnin
g
may
be
som
ewha
t les
s ra
pid,
the
abili
ty to
tran
sfer
con
cept
s an
d ru
les
is s
igni
fi-
cant
ly b
ette
r if
the
inst
ruct
iona
l ins
tanc
es w
ere
typi
cal o
f re
ality
, i.e
., ha
d m
any
irre
leva
nt a
ttrib
utes
in p
ropo
rtio
n to
rel
evan
t attr
ibut
es.
It r
emai
ns o
pen
to q
ues-
tion
whe
ther
obs
cure
or
clea
r in
stru
ctio
nal i
nsta
nces
are
bes
t for
gen
eral
izat
ion
and
disc
rim
inat
ion.
The
re I
s ev
en le
ss a
gree
men
t con
cern
ing
the
effe
cts
of v
arie
ty o
f in
stru
ctio
nal
inst
ance
s on
con
cept
lear
ning
than
with
the
vari
able
of
inst
ance
iden
tifia
bilit
y. T
he
earl
y in
vest
igat
ions
of
Lub
orsk
y (1
945)
alo
ng w
ith m
ore
rece
nt s
tudi
es c
ondu
cted
3
by P
odel
l (19
58),
May
zner
(19
62)
and
Duk
es &
Bev
an (
1967
) le
nd s
uppo
rt to
the
thes
is th
at a
larg
e va
riet
y of
inst
ruct
iona
l ins
tanc
es p
rodu
ces
supe
rior
con
cept
lear
ning
. In
cont
rast
, sev
eral
oth
er in
vest
igat
ors
(Ada
ms,
195
4: S
hore
&
Sech
rest
, 196
1; A
mst
er &
Mar
ascu
ilo, 1
965,
) ge
nt r
ally
con
clud
e th
at s
uper
ior
conc
ept l
earn
ing
obta
ins
whe
n in
stru
ctio
nal i
nsta
nces
are
pre
scnt
td in
sm
all
vari
ety
with
hig
h fr
eque
ncy.
In
none
of
the
stud
ies
have
the
effe
cts
of v
arie
ty
of in
stru
ctio
nal i
nsta
nces
on
gene
raliz
atio
n an
d di
scri
min
atio
n be
en im
estig
ated
.
The
pre
sent
stu
dy w
as d
esig
ned
to in
vest
igat
e th
e ef
fect
s of
inst
ince
type
,
iden
tifia
bilit
y, a
nd v
arie
ty o
n ge
nera
lizat
ion
and
of d
iscr
imin
atio
n us
ing
conn
ect-
ed d
isco
urse
trai
ning
mat
eria
ls to
teac
h a
com
plex
con
junc
tive
subj
ect m
atte
r
conc
ept.
thes
es:
HIa
H:
lb
Hlc
H:
Ila
H:
lib
Mor
e pr
ecis
ely,
the
rese
arch
was
des
igne
d to
test
the
follo
win
ghv
po-
Lea
rner
s w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
by
posi
tive
inst
ance
s w
ill g
ener
aliz
esi
gnif
ican
tly b
ette
r th
an le
arne
rs w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
with
neg
ativ
ein
stan
ces.
Lea
rner
s w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
by
obsc
ure
inst
ance
s w
ill I
.:inc
r.,'
1/C
sign
ific
antly
bet
ter
than
lear
ners
who
are
inst
ruct
ed w
ith c
lear
inst
ance
s.
Lea
rner
s w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
by
a la
rge
vari
ety
of in
stal
iacs
nIll
gene
raliz
e si
gnif
ican
tly b
ette
r th
an le
arne
rs w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
with
a s
mal
l var
iety
of
inst
ance
s.
Lea
rner
s w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
by
nega
tive
inst
ance
s w
ill d
iscr
imi-
nate
sig
nifi
cant
ly b
ette
r th
an le
arne
rs w
ho a
re I
nstr
ucte
d w
ithpo
sitiv
e in
stan
ces.
Lea
rner
s w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
by
obsc
ure
inst
ance
s w
ill d
iscr
imi-
nate
sig
nifi
cant
ly b
ette
r th
an le
arne
rs w
ho a
re ip
stru
cted
with
clea
r in
stan
ces.
:L
earn
ers
who
are
inst
ruct
ed b
y a
larg
e va
riet
y of
inst
ance
s w
illtI
cdi
scri
min
ate
sign
ific
antly
bet
ter
than
lear
ners
who
are
inst
ruct
edw
ith a
sm
all v
arie
ty o
f in
stan
ces.
ME
TH
OD
Des
ign
and
Subj
ects
4
The
exp
erim
ent w
as c
ondu
cted
acc
ordi
ng to
the
ratio
nale
for
a 2
x 2
x 2
fixe
d fa
ctor
des
ign.
Fac
tor
A w
as tw
o le
vels
(po
sitiv
e an
d ne
gativ
e) o
f in
stan
ce
type
, fac
tor
B w
as tw
o le
vels
(cl
ear,
and
obs
cure
) of
inst
ance
iden
tifia
bilit
y,
and
fact
or C
was
two
leve
ls (
larg
e an
d sm
all)
of
inst
ance
var
iety
. The
inde
-
pend
ent v
aria
bles
wer
e th
e th
ree
fact
ors
liste
d ab
ove,
i.e.
, typ
e, id
entif
iabi
-
lity,
and
var
iety
of
inst
ruct
iona
l ins
tanc
es. T
he d
epen
dent
var
iabl
e w
as b
road
-
ly d
efin
ed a
s cl
assi
fyin
g be
havi
or b
ut m
ore
spec
ific
ally
was
com
pris
ed o
f ge
n-
eral
izat
ion
and
disc
rim
inat
ion
with
reg
ard
to th
e co
ncep
t Ind
ivid
ualiz
ed I
nstr
uc-
tion.
Gen
eral
izat
ion
was
test
ed f
or b
y ha
ving
Ss
clas
sify
cas
e st
udie
s th
at w
ere
judg
ed b
y S
to b
e ex
ampl
es o
f th
e co
ncep
t. D
iscr
imin
atio
n w
as te
sted
for
by
havi
ng S
s cl
assi
fy c
ase
stud
ies
that
wer
e ju
dged
by
E to
be
non-
exam
ples
of
the
conc
ept.
Mat
eria
ls
The
targ
et c
once
pt w
as I
ndiv
idtia
lized
Ins
truc
tion.
The
inst
ruct
iona
l and
test
ing
mat
eria
ls w
ere
brie
f, tw
o-pa
ge, c
ase
stud
ies
(Edl
ing,
197
0) o
f pr
ogra
ms
arou
nd th
e co
untr
y w
hich
per
port
ed to
be
indi
vidu
aliz
ed in
som
e m
anne
r. E
ach
case
stu
dy w
as c
lass
ifie
d as
eith
er a
pos
itive
or
nega
tive
inst
ance
of
the
conc
ept
Indi
vidu
aliz
ed I
nstr
uctio
n an
d w
as f
urth
er c
lass
ifie
d as
eith
er h
avin
g cl
ear
or
obsc
ure
iden
tifia
bilit
y.
The
bas
is f
or d
eter
min
ing
whe
ther
a g
iven
cas
e st
udy
was
a p
ositi
ve o
r
nega
tive
inst
ance
of
the
conc
ept I
ndiv
idua
lized
Ins
truc
tion
was
a 'I
t tin
ition
whi
ch s
peci
fied
fou
r re
leva
nt a
ttrib
utes
in c
onju
nctiv
e co
mbi
natio
n. F
or a
case
stu
dy to
be
clas
sifi
ed a
s a
posi
tive
inst
ance
all
foi.r
rel
evan
t attr
ibut
es
had
to b
e re
pres
ente
d in
one
or
mor
e of
the
case
stu
dy s
ente
nces
. A c
ase
stud
y w
as d
esig
nate
d as
a n
egat
ive
inst
ance
if o
ne o
r m
ore
of th
e re
leva
nt
attr
ibut
es w
as m
issi
ng. A
ll se
nten
ces
in e
ach
case
stu
dy w
ere
anal
yzed
for
expr
essi
ons
of r
elev
ant a
ttrib
utes
.
The
rel
ativ
e id
entif
iabi
lity
of c
ase
stud
ies
stem
med
fro
m f
urth
er c
lass
i-
fica
tion
base
d on
an
oper
atio
nal d
efin
ition
of
ulen
tilla
lulit
y.Fo
r po
sitii
e
stan
ces
it w
as a
ssum
ed th
at c
lari
ty o
f id
entif
icat
ion
incr
ease
d as
the
prop
or-
tion
of r
elev
ant t
o ir
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es in
crea
sed
whi
le f
or n
egat
ive
it w
as a
ssum
ed th
at c
lari
ty o
f id
entif
icat
ion
incr
ease
d as
the
prop
ortio
n of
rele
vant
to ir
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es d
ecre
ased
.
Thr
ough
task
ana
lysi
s ea
ch c
ase
stud
y w
as a
naly
zed
in te
m:,
of th
e ta
rget
conc
ept d
efin
ition
and
the
defi
nitio
n of
iden
tifia
bilit
y re
sulti
ng in
the
ItIt'l
ltaf
ica-
tion
of f
our
case
stu
dy g
roup
s. T
hese
fou
r gr
oups
, i.e
., t
lc..
'-
nega
tive,
obs
cure
-pos
itive
, and
obs
cure
-neg
ativ
e, o
f in
stru
Ltio
n.d
inst
.inie
s
mad
e up
the
four
stim
ulus
poo
ls f
rom
whi
ch in
stan
ces
wer
e ra
ndom
ly s
thu
ed
to c
onst
ruct
the
inst
ruct
iona
l and
test
ing
mat
eria
ls. T
hree
inst
all,
es f
rom
each
gro
up w
ere
rand
omly
sel
ecte
d to
com
pris
e a
larg
e va
riet
y w
here
as o
ne
inst
ance
fro
m e
ach
grou
p w
as s
elec
ted
to r
epre
sent
a s
mal
l var
iety
.
67
Proc
edur
e'
For
pret
estin
g, in
stru
ctio
n, a
nd p
ost-
test
ing,
176
vol
unte
ers
from
the
unde
rgra
duat
e ed
ucat
iona
l psy
chol
ogy
cour
se a
t the
Pen
nsyl
vani
a St
at.:
Uni
ver-
sity
rep
orte
d to
a s
elf-
inst
ruct
iona
l lea
rnin
g ce
nter
for
two
one-
hour
ses
sion
s.
The
fir
st s
essi
on in
clud
ed th
e pr
etes
t com
pose
d of
fou
r ca
se s
tudi
es a
nd tw
elve
mul
tiple
cho
ice
ques
tions
and
the
inst
ruct
ion
cons
istin
g of
a d
efin
ition
of
the
conc
ept a
nd il
lust
ratin
g in
stan
ces
as p
resc
ribe
d by
the
eigh
t tre
atm
ent c
ondi
-
tions
of
the
expe
rim
enta
l des
ign.
The
lece
nd s
essi
on in
clud
ed a
rev
iew
of
the
inst
ruct
iona
l mat
eria
ls a
nd a
dmin
istr
atio
n of
the
post
-tes
t com
pose
d of
eig
ht
case
stud
iesa
RE
SUL
TS
Res
ults
Rel
ated
to G
ener
aliz
atio
n
To
test
the
Mal
ik a
nd in
tera
ctiv
e ef
fect
s O
f th
ree
sour
ces
of v
aria
nce
on
gene
raliz
atio
n. a
2 X
2 X
2 a
naly
sis
of v
aria
nce
was
con
duct
ed o
n th
e nu
mbe
r
of c
orre
ct c
ase
stud
y cl
assi
fica
tions
. The
mea
ns a
nd v
aria
nces
for
eac
h ce
ll
in th
e 2
X 2
X 2
dat
a m
atri
x ar
e pr
esen
ted
in T
able
i.
Inse
rt T
able
1 a
bout
her
e
The
ana
lysi
s yi
elde
d a
sign
ific
ant m
ain
effe
ct o
n in
stan
ce ty
pe (
F10.
42,
1/16
8, p
(.00
1) a
nd a
sig
nifi
cant
thre
e-w
ay in
tera
ctio
n be
twee
n in
stan
ce M
e,
iden
tifia
bilit
y, a
nd v
arie
ty (
124.
76, 1
/168
, p4.
02),
Bec
ause
of
the
com
plic
at
Table 1
Cell means, standard deviations, and n's for correct category
responses on the generaliraticn test by tyos, a.:!tIntLflaLlAxty,
and variety of instructional instances
TYPE
IDENTIABILITY
Cle
arObscure
VARIETY
VARIETY
Large
Small
Large
Snell
Positive
a
Negative
a
2.32
2.05
.78
.95
22
22
2.09
.92
22
2.18
1.22
22
1.32
2.23
1.68
1.64
.65
.97
.72
.95
22
22
22
22
lag
effe
cts
of th
e se
cond
-ord
er, i
nter
actio
n, m
eani
ngfu
l tes
ts o
f hy
poth
esis
coul
d on
ly b
e ac
com
plis
hed
by te
stin
g fo
r si
mpl
e ef
fect
s on
the
eigh
t cel
l mea
ns.
Acc
ordi
ngly
, a s
erie
s of
fou
r i -
test
s w
ere
com
pute
d fo
r ea
ch o
f th
e th
ree
gee
-
eral
izat
ion
hypo
thes
es.
Hyp
othe
sis
I (a
).
To
test
the
hypo
thes
is th
at le
arne
rs w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
by
posi
tive
inst
ance
s
will
gen
eral
ize
sign
ific
antly
bet
ter
than
lear
ners
who
are
inst
ruct
ed w
ith n
ega
tive
inst
ance
s, a
naly
sis
of s
impl
e ef
fect
s w
as c
ondu
cted
. The
mea
n di
ffer
ence
betw
een
posi
tive
and
nega
tive
inst
ance
s fo
r cl
ear
iden
tifia
bilit
y an
d la
rge
vari
-
ety
was
exa
min
ed f
or s
tatis
tical
sig
nifi
canc
e us
ing
a t-
test
. As
hypo
thes
ized
,
the
test
rev
eale
d th
at p
ositi
ve in
stan
ces
(X =
2.3
2) p
rodu
ced
sign
ific
antly
bet
ter
(t =
3.6
4, d
f =
168,
p(,
.001
) ge
nera
lizat
ion
than
neg
ativ
e in
stan
ces
(Tr,
a 1
.32)
,
The
hyp
othe
sis
was
als
o su
ppor
ted
(t a
1.9
8. d
f =
168
, p<
.05)
by
a te
st f
or s
ig-
nifi
ciuw
e di
ffer
ence
bet
wee
n m
eans
for
pos
itive
(X
= 2
.18)
ver
sus
nega
tive
(TC
a 1
.69)
inst
ance
s on
obs
cure
iden
tifia
bilit
y an
d sm
all v
arie
ty. H
owev
er, t
he
pred
icte
d ou
tcom
e w
as n
ot o
btai
ned
(t a
.66.
df
168,
p).
05)
whe
n po
sitiv
e
(X a
2.0
5) w
as c
ompa
red
with
neg
ativ
e (X
a 2
.23)
on
clea
r id
entif
iabi
lity
and
smal
l var
iety
nor
was
pos
itive
(X
a 2
.09)
sig
nifi
cant
ly s
uper
ior
to n
egat
ive
(X a
1.6
8) w
hen
obsc
ure
iden
tifia
bilit
y an
d la
rge
vari
ety
was
the
case
(t =
1.4
9,
df a
168
, p<
.10)
. Tha
t pos
itive
inst
ance
s pr
oduc
e si
gnif
ican
tly b
ette
r ge
nera
l-
izat
ion
if th
ey a
re e
ither
cle
ar a
nd p
rese
nted
in la
rge
vari
ety
or o
bscu
re a
nd
pres
ente
d in
sm
all v
arie
ty c
an b
. see
n by
insp
ectin
g Fi
gure
1.
Inse
rt F
igur
e 1
abou
t her
e
2.75
2
2.32
2.25
2.10
2.09
2.00
2.05
4.
1.75
-
81.
50 -
1.25
-
2.23 Clear-small
1.68
Crs
cure
-Iar
vo1.
64 C
zscu
re-.
.^ a
ll
1.32 Clear-Large
Posi
tave
Type
Figure 1
Plot of generalisation category
response cell means
showing three-way, disordinal
treat:rent interactions
emphasising instance type factor
t,:eg
atl.v
e
5
4
10
The
tren
d in
fav
or o
f po
sitiv
e in
stan
ces
is a
lso
stro
ng u
nder
obs
cure
ider
i
llfia
bilit
y an
d la
rge
vari
ety
but n
ot s
igni
fica
ntly
so.
The
onl
y ra
dica
l dep
artu
re
from
exp
ecta
tion
obta
ined
whe
n in
stru
ctio
nal i
nsta
nces
wer
e pr
esen
ted
in s
mal
l
vari
ety
and
thei
r id
entif
iabi
lity
was
cle
ar. H
ere,
neg
ativ
e in
stan
ces
prod
uced
supe
rior
gen
eral
izat
ion
but w
ithou
t sta
tistic
al s
uppo
rt. R
easo
nabl
y fi
rm s
up-
port
was
fou
nd f
or th
e hy
poth
esis
that
pos
itive
inst
ance
s pr
oduc
e be
tter
gene
ral-
izat
ion
than
neg
ativ
e in
stan
ces
with
not
ed q
ualif
icat
ions
.
Hyp
othe
sis
I (b
).
To
test
the
hypo
thes
is th
at le
arne
rs w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
with
obs
cure
in-
stan
ces
will
gen
eral
ize
sign
ific
antly
bet
ter
than
lear
ners
who
are
Ins
truc
ted
with
cle
ar in
stan
ces,
an
anal
ysis
of
sim
ple
effe
cts
on c
ell m
eans
was
con
duct
ed.
The
mea
n di
ffer
ence
bet
wee
n cl
ear
and
obsc
ure
inst
ance
s ov
er ti
t.' f
our
inst
ance
type
and
var
iety
com
bina
tions
wer
e te
sted
by
runn
ing
four
t-te
sts.
The
onl
y
sign
ific
ant d
iffe
renc
e be
twee
n cl
ear
and
obsc
ure
iden
tifia
bilit
y (t
2.15
, df
= 1
68.
p405
) w
as in
fav
or o
f cl
ear
inst
ance
s, c
ontr
ary
to e
xpec
tatio
n (R
c *2
.23,
= 1
.64)
, und
er c
ondi
tions
of
a sm
all v
arie
ty o
f ne
gativ
e in
stan
ces.
Obs
cure
0in
stan
ces
did
prod
uce
supe
rior
gen
eral
izat
ion
(Y1o
= 1
.68.
XC
.1.3
2) w
hen
nega
tive
inst
ance
s w
ere
pres
ente
d in
larg
e va
riet
y bu
t non
sign
ific
antly
(t =
1.3
1,
df a
168
, p41
0). T
houg
h th
e tr
end
was
ver
y w
eak,
obs
cure
inst
ance
s w
ere
also
bet
ter
than
cle
ar in
stan
ces
unde
r th
e co
nditi
ons
of p
ositi
vity
and
sm
all v
ari-
ety
(7=
2.1
8. X
= 2
.05;
t = .4
7. d
f =
168.
p7.
05).
In
agre
emen
t with
the
0fi
rst t
est m
entio
ned,
cle
ar w
as s
uper
ior
over
obs
cure
(3i
c =
2.3
2, 3
to =
2.0
9)
in a
mod
erat
e bu
t stil
l nan
sici
fica
nt tr
end
(t =
.84,
df
= 1
68, p
7.05
) w
hen
the
II
inst
ruct
iona
l ins
tanc
es w
ere
posi
tive
and
pres
ente
d in
larg
e va
riet
y.
Lio
n of
Fig
ure
2 re
veal
s th
at th
e hy
poth
esis
reg
ardi
ng th
e sa
lient
,' 'iv
et o
bscu
re
inst
ance
s Is
sup
port
ed, h
owev
er, n
onsi
gnif
ican
tly, b
y tw
o of
11w
tren
ds b
ut n
ot
supp
orte
d by
two
othe
r tr
ends
one
of
whi
ch w
as s
tatis
tical
ly s
igni
tican
t
Inse
rt I
nsur
e 2
abou
t her
e
Such
res
ults
mak
e an
y po
wer
ful g
ener
aliz
atio
n im
pass
ible
con
cern
ing
the
effe
cts
of id
entif
iabi
lity
on g
ener
aliz
atln
n.It
is n
otab
le th
at id
entif
tabi
lity
seem
s to
hav
e lit
tle d
iffe
rent
ial e
ffec
ts w
hen
posi
tive
inst
ance
s ar
e pr
esen
ted
in e
ither
larg
e or
sm
all v
arie
ty (
see
Figu
re 2
) bu
t a g
ood
deal
of
tithe
ren
t ial
effe
ct w
hen
nega
tive
inst
ance
s ar
e pr
esen
ted
in la
rge
nr s
mal
l val
et%
esp
ecia
lly
unde
r th
e cl
ear
cond
ition
.
Hyp
othe
sis
I (c
).
To
test
the
hypo
thes
is th
at le
arne
rs w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
with
a la
rge
tat t
ut)
of in
stan
ces
will
gen
eral
ize
sign
ific
antly
bet
ter
than
lear
ners
who
are
intu
it d
with
a s
mal
l var
iety
of
inst
ance
s, a
n an
alys
is o
f si
mpl
e ef
fect
s on
the
eigh
tte
ll
mea
ns w
as c
ondu
cted
. The
mea
n di
tfer
enee
s be
twee
n la
rge
and
a: it
. 1,
of in
stan
ces
over
the
tour
inst
ance
type
and
iden
tifia
bilit
y in
min
s di
ens
wer
e
test
ed b
y ru
nnin
g fo
ur t
-tes
ts. C
ontr
ary
to e
xpec
tatio
n. s
mal
l %on
.=
2.2
1)
resu
lted
in s
uper
ior
gene
raliz
atio
n (t
a 3
.32,
df
a 16
8,p.
,!...
(00i
) i.h
en e
lr.,r
neg
a-
tive
inst
ance
s w
ere
pres
ente
d th
an la
rge
vari
ety
(R -
1.3
2) lo
t tbk
link
sta
tis-
tical
ly s
igni
fica
nt d
iffe
renc
e of
this
ser
ies
of te
sts.
The
onl
y In
stan
ct w
ir
larg
e va
riet
y di
d pr
oduc
e be
tter
gene
raliz
atio
n to
any
cle
ar d
egre
e th
an s
mal
l
12
.2.75
8 p 2.50
4 2.25
2.32
2.23
2.18 Positive-Small
E 2.00
2.09
Posi
tive-
Lar
ge0
1.75
1.68 Negative-..arge
1.64 Negative-Small
1.50
0
1.25
1.32
Clear
Obscure
Identifiability
Figure
2Plot of generalization category
response cell means
showing three-way disordinal treatment
interactions
emphasising instance identifiability
factor
I i
vari
ety
(Ra
2.32
,X
S2.
05)
was
whe
n cl
ear
posi
tive
inst
ance
s w
ere
pre-
sent
ed. T
his
diff
eren
ce, h
owev
er, w
as in
suff
icie
nt to
rea
ch s
igni
iican
ce
(t a
.98,
df
a 16
8, p
705)
. Har
dly
any
reco
gniz
able
dif
fere
nce
obta
ined
be-
twee
n la
rge
and
smal
l var
iety
whe
n in
stan
ces
are
posi
tive
and
obsc
ure
(XL
a 2
.09,
g2.
18; t
.33,
df
-168
, p7
05)
or w
hen
inst
ance
s ar
c im
p-
tive
and
obsc
ure
a a
1.68
, X1.
64; t
df16
8, p
,>.0
5).
It a
ppea
rs
that
und
er th
e co
nditi
ons
of th
is e
xper
imen
t lar
ge v
arie
ty d
oes
not n
eces
sari
ly
faci
litat
e gr
eate
r ge
nera
lizat
ion
than
sm
all v
arie
ty c
ontr
ary
to p
redi
ctio
n.
The
onl
y su
ppor
ted
conc
lusi
on th
at c
an b
e dr
awn
is th
at s
mal
l var
iety
is s
upe-
rior
giv
en th
e co
nditi
ons
of c
lear
, neg
ativ
e in
stru
ctio
nal i
nsta
nces
. (se
e I
igur
e
3).
Inse
rt F
igur
e 3
abou
t her
d
Res
ults
Rel
ated
to D
iscr
imin
atio
n
The
dat
a fr
om th
e di
scri
min
atio
n ta
sk c
onsi
sted
of
the
num
bei o
f co
rrec
t
clas
sifi
catio
ns o
f ne
gativ
e in
stan
ces
of th
e co
ncep
t ind
ivid
ualiz
ed la
st r
oc to
m
The
se d
ata
wer
e an
alyz
ed u
sing
the
sam
e ra
tiona
le a
nd p
roce
dure
As
thos
e lo
r
gene
raliz
atio
n.
The
mea
ns, s
tand
ard
devi
atio
ns, a
nd n
umbe
r of
Ss
for
each
c4.
11 in
ita.
2 x
2 x
2 da
ta m
atri
x ar
e pr
esen
ted
in T
able
2. E
xam
inat
ion
of th
e an
alys
ts
reve
aled
two
sign
ific
ant i
nter
actio
ns; o
ne b
etw
een
inst
ance
type
at 4
C1
inst
atax
vari
ety
(F *
6.1
5, 1
/168
, p<
.05)
and
ano
ther
bet
wee
n in
stan
ce td
enta
fiat
,iiity
Table 2
cell means, standard deviations, and n'S for correct category
responses on the discrimination test by type, identifiability,
and variety of instructional instances
TYPE
IDENTIFIABILITY
Clear
Obscure
VARIETY
VARIETY
Large
Small
Large
Small
Y.
2.46
3.00
2.73
2.59
Positive
s.96
.62
.es
1.01
a22
22
22
22
2.86
2:64
3.41
2.73
negative s
.99
.79
.73
.99
22
22
22
22
O 0
2.75-
2.50-
2.25 -
2.00
1.75 -
1.50
1.25
2.32
A, 2.23 Negative-Clear
2.09
,e-
2.18 Pcsitive-Chscste
2.05 Positive-Clear
1.68
1.32
1.64 Negative-Cbcure
Large
Small
vari.ty
Pigure3
Plot of generalization
category response cell
*tears
showing three-way theorelinal
treatment interatticLe
emphasizing instance
variety factor
16
and
inst
ance
var
iety
(F
= 4
.57,
1/1
68. p
<.0
5). T
he f
irst
inte
ract
ion
resu
lted
from
the
diff
eren
tial e
ffec
t of
inst
ance
var
iety
on
disc
rim
inat
ion
for
posi
tive
or n
egat
ive
inst
ruct
iona
l ins
tanc
es. T
he s
econ
d in
tera
ctio
n is
a r
esul
t of
the
diff
eren
tial e
ffec
t of
inst
ance
iden
tifia
bilit
y on
dis
crim
inat
ion
for
clea
r or
ob-
scur
e in
stru
ctio
nal i
nsta
nces
.
Hyp
othe
sis
n (a
)
To
test
the
hypo
thes
is th
at le
arne
rs w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
by
nega
tive
in
stan
ces
will
exh
ibit
sign
ific
antly
mor
e di
scri
min
atio
n th
an le
arne
rs w
ho a
re
Inst
ruct
ed w
ith p
ositi
ve in
stan
ces,
an
anal
ysis
of
sim
ple
effe
cts
was
con
duct
ed.
Col
umn
mea
ns w
ill b
e co
mpa
red
for
this
ana
lysi
s w
here
as c
ell m
eans
wer
e
com
pare
d to
test
Hyp
othe
sis
I (a
). 7
ne d
iffe
renc
e in
pro
cedu
re r
esul
ts f
rom
sign
ific
ant t
wo-
way
inte
ract
ions
in th
e pr
esen
t cas
e w
hile
a s
igni
fica
nt th
ree-
way
inte
ract
ion
had
to b
e ha
ndle
d in
the
form
er c
ase.
'''he
diff
eren
ce b
etw
een
posi
tive
(k-
a2.
59)
and
nega
tive
(R =
3.1
4) in
stan
ces
for
larg
e va
riet
y is
sig
-
nifi
cant
(t =
2.9
3, d
f a
168,
p<
.05)
and
sup
port
a th
e hy
poth
esis
with
neg
ativ
e
inst
ance
s pr
ovid
ing
for
supe
rior
dis
crim
inat
ion.
How
ever
, for
sm
all v
arie
ty,
posi
tive
(3(
= 2
.80)
was
bet
ter
than
neg
ativ
e ((
= 2
.68)
but
not
sig
nifi
cant
ly s
o
(t =
.64.
df
= 1
68. p
,.05)
. The
hyp
othe
sis
was
not
sup
port
ed in
this
latte
r
case
thou
gh th
ere
is a
str
ong
sugg
estio
n fr
om th
e fi
rst s
igni
fica
nt t-
test
and
Flu
whi
ch c
an b
e gr
aphi
cally
obs
erve
d in
Fig
ure
4 th
at n
egat
ive
inst
ance
s ar
e m
ore
faci
litat
ing
at le
ast f
or th
e la
rge
vari
ety.
Inse
rt F
igur
e 4
abou
t het
e
a a a 6 8 O
2.25
3.50
3.25
3.00
2.75
2.50
2.80
2.59
3.14 Large Variety
1.68 Small Variety
Positive
Negative
,Instance Type
Figure
yPlot of discrimination category response colt:-.m reenr
showing
two-way, disordinal treatment interaction
emphasising instance type factor
400
17
18
Hyp
othe
si;1
1 (b
)
To
test
the
hypo
thes
is th
at le
arne
rs w
ho a
rein
stru
cted
with
obs
cure
In-
stan
ces
will
exh
ibit
sign
ifica
ntly
mor
edi
scrim
inat
ion
than
lear
ners
who
are
inst
ruct
ed w
ith c
lear
inst
ance
s, s
impl
e ef
fect
s w
ere
unal
yzet
.. B
ecau
se o
f the
thre
e-w
ay in
tera
ctio
n, H
ypot
hesi
s I(
b) w
as te
sted
by
com
parin
g ce
ll m
eans
.
In th
e pr
esen
t cas
e on
ly tw
o-w
ayin
tera
ctio
ns a
re s
igni
fican
t so
colu
mn
mea
ns
will
be
com
pare
d. T
he h
ypot
hesi
s w
assu
ppor
ted
whe
n th
e di
ffere
nce
betw
een
uma.
,,se(
1 =
3.0
6) a
nd c
lear
a 2
.66)
was
test
ed o
ver
larg
e va
riety
(t v
2.13
,
df v
164
. p<
.05)
but
was
not
whe
n th
edi
ffere
nce
betw
een
obsc
ure
a =
2.6
6)
and
clea
r (1
a 2
.62)
was
test
ed o
n sm
all v
arie
ty(t
11
.75,
df =
168
,
Con
trar
y to
exp
ecta
tion,
wah
t tre
nd d
id a
ppea
rin
this
sec
ond
com
paris
on w
as
in fa
vor
of c
lear
inst
ance
s. in
acc
orda
nce
,with
the
hypo
thes
is th
at le
arne
rs
expo
sed
to o
bscu
re in
stan
ces
will
dis
crim
inat
ebe
tter
than
thos
e ex
pose
d to
clea
r in
stan
ces
and
as c
an b
e se
en in
Fig
ure
5, th
is r
esul
t did
obt
ain
whe
n a
larg
e va
riety
of i
nsta
nces
was
pre
sent
ed.
No
stat
istic
ally
sig
nific
ant d
iffer
-
ence
s w
ere
tkle
eled
whe
n n
smal
l var
iety
of i
nsim
icea
was
pre
sent
ed,
Inse
rt F
igur
e 5
abou
t her
o
!1nr
i..t1
1111
To
test
the
hypo
thes
is th
at le
arne
rs w
ho a
rein
stru
cted
by
a la
rge
varie
ty
of in
stan
ces
disc
rimin
ate
sign
ifica
ntly
bette
r th
an le
arne
rs w
ho a
re in
stru
cted
with
a s
mal
l var
iety
of i
nsta
nces
add
ition
alsi
mpl
e ef
fect
s w
ere
anal
yzed
with
mea
ts. A
gain
, the
col
umn
mea
ns w
ere
com
pare
d in
con
tras
t to
com
paris
on
8 :I)2.
253.50
3.25
3.00
2.7S
2.50
Piq
ue 5
2.42
2.66
3.07 Large Varlety
2.66 Small Variety
Char
Inst
ance
Iden
tifxa
bilit
yO
bscu
re
Plo
t of d
iscr
imin
atio
nca
teep
try
ren;
twin
eI .
show
ing
a tw
o-w
.y, c
ilt04
41;..
.1(1..A1161, itot.t.4
emph
asis
ing
inst
ance
idun
tifia
bilit
y fa
ct
of c
ell m
ein
as w
as d
one
for
Hyp
othe
sis
I (c
). T
he s
econ
d or
der
inte
ract
ion
in th
e ge
nera
lizat
ion
hypo
thes
es n
eces
sita
ted
the
appl
icat
ion
of t
-tes
ta to
cel
l
mea
ns w
here
as th
e fi
rst -
orde
r in
tera
ctio
n ir
. the
pre
sent
dis
crim
inat
ion
ana-
lysi
s re
quir
es c
olla
psin
g ov
er c
olum
ns f
or m
eani
ngfu
l com
pari
sons
. Whe
n
the
mea
ns f
or la
rge
vari
ety
vers
us s
mal
l var
iety
for
obs
cure
iden
tifia
bilit
y
wer
e co
mpa
red
via
a t -
test
, lar
ge v
arie
ty (
31 =
3.0
7) w
as, a
ccor
ding
to e
x-
pect
atio
n, s
igni
fica
ntly
gre
ater
(t =
2.1
8, d
f =
168
, p(1
5) th
an s
mal
l var
iety
(X =
2.6
6). T
he t-
test
com
pari
ng la
rge
(31
= 2
.66)
and
sm
all (
R =
2.8
2) v
ari-
ety
for
clea
r id
entif
iabi
lity
did
not,
how
ever
, rev
eal a
sig
nifi
cant
dif
fere
nce
(t =
.85,
df
= 1
68, p
7.05
). T
his
part
icul
ar tr
end,
thou
gh, n
onsi
gnif
ican
t,
was
con
trar
y to
exp
ecta
tion.
Add
ition
al p
ost h
oc c
ompa
riso
ns o
f si
mpl
e ef
-
fect
s w
ere
com
pute
d w
hich
com
pare
d la
rge
and
smal
l var
iety
on
the
inst
ance
type
fac
tor.
For
neg
ativ
e in
stan
ces
the
adva
ntag
e of
larg
e va
riet
y a
= 3
.14)
over
sm
all v
arie
ty (
5( =
2.6
8) w
as s
uppo
rted
(t =
2.4
5, d
f =
168
, p4.
05)
as
hypo
thes
ized
. For
pos
itive
inst
ance
type
the
tren
d w
as in
the
oppo
site
dir
ec-
tion
(XL
= 2
.59,
51
= 2
.80)
but
the
diff
eren
ce w
as t
It s
igni
fica
nt (
t = 1
.12,
df =
168
, p)
05).
Con
trar
y to
wha
t was
fou
nd f
or g
ener
aliz
atio
n, it
app
ears
from
the
pres
ent d
ata
and
anal
ysis
that
larg
e va
riet
y do
es p
rodu
ce s
uper
ior
disc
rim
inat
ion
whe
n id
entif
iaoi
lity
is o
bscu
re (
see
Figu
re 6
) or
whe
n in
stan
ces
are
nega
tive
(see
Fig
ure
7).
It is
of
inte
rest
to n
ote
that
thou
gh n
eith
er o
f
Inse
rt F
igur
es 6
& 7
abo
ut h
ere
them
rea
ched
sig
nifi
canc
e, tw
o of
the
four
com
pari
sons
did
sho
w a
tren
d fo
r
qu
3.50
K3.25
ca o
3.00
'3.
07
U o2.75
2.66
2.50
92.
25 -
I
Lar
ge
2.82 Clear
2.66 Coscure
Variety
S all
Figu
re6
Plot of discrimination category response colurn rears
showing a two-way, disordinal treatment intervztion
emphasising instance variety factor
21
3.50
3.25
3.00
a2.
75
82.
50
02.
25
Fig
ure
3.14
2.59 La
rge
Var
iety
7 Plot of discrimination
category response columnmeans
show
ing
a two-way, disordinal
treatment interaction
emphasising instancevariety factorsm
all
2.80
Pos
itive
2.68
Neg
ativ
e
22
4sm
all v
arie
ty o
f ins
tanc
es to
be
supe
rior;
that
is, w
hen
inst
ance
s w
ere
clea
r
or p
ositi
ve s
mal
l var
iety
see
med
to b
e be
st. T
he c
omm
on it
ribut
cs o
f cla
ri-
ty a
nd p
ositi
vity
see
m to
com
bine
with
sm
all v
arie
ty to
pro
duce
bet
ter
disc
ri-
min
atio
n th
an la
rge
varie
ty. H
owev
er, w
ith g
ener
aliz
atio
n th
e at
trib
utes
of
clar
ity a
nd n
egat
ivity
see
n to
com
bine
with
sm
all v
arie
ty to
be
mor
e ia
cili-
tativ
e th
an la
rge
varie
ty. I
n th
e la
m:.
case
sta
tistic
al s
uppo
rt w
as fo
und
whe
reas
In th
e fo
rmer
cas
e on
ly s
tron
g tr
ends
wer
e ob
serv
ed.
DIS
CU
SS
ION
inst
ance
Typ
e
The
find
ings
of t
his
stud
y su
bsta
ntia
te M
arkl
e an
d T
ietn
ann'
s (1
9b9,
197
0)
supp
ositi
on th
at th
e ap
prop
riate
kin
d of
inst
ruct
iona
l ins
tanc
es to
pro
mot
e
gene
raliz
atio
n ar
e po
sitiv
e in
stan
ces
and
to p
rom
ote
disc
rimin
atio
n ar
e m
o-
tive
inst
ance
s. U
nfor
tuna
tely
, the
se a
utho
rs a
void
any
psc
holo
gi, a
l ecp
lana
-
bon
as to
why
thes
e pr
edic
ted
func
tiona
l rel
atio
nshi
ps m
ight
exi
st.
IltrA
c %
Lt.,
it do
es a
ppea
r th
at a
n ex
plan
atio
n w
hich
wou
ld c
oinc
ide
with
thei
r le
ason
ing
coul
d st
em fr
om a
dis
cuss
ion
of th
e ab
stra
ctio
n pr
oces
s. B
riefly
, it g
cner
al-
izat
ion
is b
ased
t the
lear
ner's
abs
trac
tion
of w
hat t
he c
once
pt is
and
is n
ot
and
thes
e ab
stra
ctio
ns a
re fo
rmed
from
the
lear
ner
anal
yzin
g th
e at
trilm
ics
In s
earc
h of
thos
e w
hich
are
rel
evan
t and
irre
leva
nt, i
t wou
ld to
laiu
tiein
-
stan
ces
that
car
ry th
e in
form
atio
n m
ost d
irect
ly w
ould
be
supe
rior
for
loth
proc
esse
s. A
s de
mon
stra
ted
in th
is in
vest
igat
ion,
pos
itive
inst
ance
s di
d ap
-
pear
to c
arry
the
criti
cal i
nfor
mat
ion
best
for
gene
raliz
atio
n w
hile
neg
ativ
e
24
inst
ance
s ca
rrie
d it
best
for
dis
crim
inat
ion.
Tho
ugh
Bri
nier
, et.
al. (
1956
) m
ade
no d
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n ge
nera
lizat
ion
and
disc
rim
inat
ion
in c
once
pt le
arni
ng, t
he a
bove
rat
iona
le s
eem
s to
sub
stan
-
tially
agr
ee w
ith th
eir
theo
rizi
ng a
bout
pat
tern
s of
dec
isio
n m
akin
g. T
hese
inve
stig
ator
s ob
serv
ed, a
fter
stu
dyin
g Ss
' con
cept
lear
ning
str
ateg
ies,
that
they
muc
h pr
efer
red
mak
ing
"dir
ect"
teat
s of
thei
r hy
poth
eses
c.,
cern
ing
wha
t the
con
cept
was
. Pos
itive
inst
ance
s fo
r ge
nera
lizat
ion
and
nega
tive
in-
stan
ces
for
disc
rim
inat
ion
wou
ld a
ppea
r to
mak
e di
rect
test
ing
poss
ible
.
Inst
ance
Ide
ntif
iabi
lity
In th
e pr
esen
t stu
dy, p
ositi
ve in
stan
ces
whi
ch h
ad m
any
irre
leva
nt a
ttri-
bute
s as
com
pare
d to
rel
evan
t attr
ibut
es o
r ne
gativ
e in
stan
ces
that
had
man
y
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es a
s co
mpa
red
to ir
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es w
ere
thou
ght t
o be
anal
ogou
s to
the
"rea
listic
" or
mor
e co
mpl
ex tr
aini
ng s
ituat
ion
in th
e O
veri
ng
and
Tra
vers
(19
66, 1
967)
stu
dies
. The
se h
ard-
to-i
dent
ify
or o
bscu
re in
stan
ces
wer
e ex
pect
ed to
fac
ilita
te b
oth
supe
rior
gen
eral
izat
ion
and
disc
rim
inat
ion
sinc
e th
ey w
ould
for
ce th
e le
arne
r to
mak
e fi
ne g
ener
aliz
atio
ns a
nd d
iscr
imi-
natio
ns in
the
boun
dary
are
a of
his
con
cept
. The
fin
ding
s of
this
inve
stig
atio
n
did
not c
ompl
etel
y su
ppor
t thi
s lin
e of
rea
soni
ng. W
hen
disc
rim
inat
ion
was
bein
g te
sted
for
, obs
cure
inst
ance
s di
d in
deed
pro
duce
sup
erio
r re
sults
ove
r
clea
r in
stan
ces
if th
ey w
ere
pres
ente
d in
larg
e va
riet
y. B
ut w
hen
gene
raliz
a-
tion
was
bei
ng te
sted
for
, cle
ar in
stan
ces
prov
ed to
fur
nish
mor
e as
sist
ance
than
obs
cure
inst
ance
s if
the
inst
ance
s w
ere
nega
tive
and
pres
ente
d in
sm
all
vari
ety,
i
The
res
ult f
or d
iscr
imin
atio
n is
in h
arm
ony
with
Mar
kle
and
Tie
man
n's
(197
0) p
resc
ript
ion
that
eac
h no
nexa
mpl
e sh
ould
lack
onl
y on
e of
the
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es, 1
,e.,
nega
tive
inst
ance
s sh
ould
be
diff
icul
t to
tell
from
pos
itive
inst
ance
s if
fin
e di
scri
min
atio
ns w
ere
to b
e le
arne
d.It
app
ears
that
bot
h
the
resu
lts f
or d
iscr
imin
atio
n an
d ge
nera
lizat
ion
obse
rved
in th
is in
vest
iga-
tion
may
be
expl
icat
ed in
term
s of
per
form
ance
set
(R
eese
, 196
4), B
ecau
se
gene
raliz
atio
n is
bas
ed p
rim
arily
on
an a
bstr
actio
n of
wha
t the
con
cept
is,
and
sinc
e th
is a
bstr
actio
n ca
n be
com
e qu
ite s
tabl
e as
the
defi
nitio
n sp
celli
es
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es th
at r
emai
n co
nsta
nt o
ver
all p
ositi
ve I
nsta
nt i
s, a
per
tor-
man
ce s
et f
or m
atch
ing
abst
ract
ion
with
test
inst
ance
wou
ld s
eem
mos
t efl
ect-
ive.
On
the
othe
r ha
nd, d
iscr
imin
atio
n is
a p
roce
ss b
ased
pri
mar
ily o
n an
abst
ract
ion
of w
hat t
he c
once
pt is
not
. Bec
ause
the
irre
leva
nt a
ttrib
utes
nia
y
and
do v
ary
over
inst
ance
s, th
e ab
stra
ctio
n of
wha
t the
con
cept
is n
ot c
an n
ever
beco
me
as s
tabl
e an
d w
ell d
efin
ed a
s th
e ab
stra
ctio
n of
wha
t the
con
cept
is.
Acc
ordi
ngly
, agr
eat d
eal m
ore
sear
chin
g an
d an
alyz
ing
wou
ld s
eem
to b
ane
to a
ccom
pany
the
disc
rim
inat
ion
proc
ess.
The
refo
re, i
t app
ears
that
.1 p
er-
form
ance
set
for
ana
lyst
s w
ould
be
mos
t eff
ectiv
e in
the
i ase
of
disc
i 'ul
ulat
ion.
Obs
cure
trai
ning
inst
ance
s w
ith th
eir
adde
d co
mpl
exity
exity
wou
ld 6
rid
to p
ro b
ier
an a
naly
sts
perf
orm
ance
set
whe
reas
cle
ar in
stan
ce's
wou
ld ti
nil
io p
rf,(
1,«
a
mat
chin
g pe
rfor
man
ce s
et. A
s th
e re
sults
of
this
stu
dy r
evea
led
clea
r in
-
stan
ces
duri
ng in
stru
ctio
n sh
ould
fac
ilita
te s
uper
ior
gene
raliz
atio
n bc
i aus
e of
the
perf
orm
ance
set
for
mat
chin
g th
ey w
ould
fos
ter
whi
le o
bscu
re in
stan
ces
duri
ng in
stru
ctio
n sh
ould
fac
ilita
te s
uper
ior
disc
rim
inat
ion
beca
use
of th
e pe
r-
26
iorm
ance
set
for
ana
lyzi
ng th
ey w
ould
stim
ulat
e.
Inst
ance
Var
iety
The
aut
hor
alon
g w
ith o
ther
s (B
rune
r, e
t. at
, 195
6; C
arro
ll, 1
964;
DeC
ecco
, 196
8; G
agne
, 197
0) r
easo
ned
that
a v
arie
ty o
f in
stru
ctio
nal i
nst-
sces
was
nee
ded
for
adeq
uate
con
cept
for
mat
ion
to ta
ke p
lace
.
Som
ewha
t sur
pris
ingl
y, th
e re
sults
of
this
stu
dy r
evea
led
that
a la
rge
vari
-
ety
of in
stru
ctio
nal i
nsta
nces
was
not
nec
essa
rily
the
best
for
bot
h of
thes
e
lear
ning
out
com
es. W
hen
gene
raliz
atio
n w
as th
e in
tend
ed o
utco
me,
a s
mal
l
vari
ety
of in
stan
ces
prod
uced
mor
e co
rrec
t cla
ssif
icat
ions
if th
e in
stan
ces
wer
e al
so c
lear
ly n
egat
ive.
In
cont
rast
, whe
n di
scri
min
atio
n w
as th
e in
tend
ed
outc
ome,
a la
rge
vari
ety
of in
stru
ctio
nal i
nsta
nces
res
ulte
d ui
a g
reat
er r
m."
-
ber
of c
orre
ct c
ateg
oriz
atio
ns b
oth
whe
n in
stan
ces
wer
e ob
scur
e an
d w
hen
they
wer
e ne
gativ
e.
In c
ontr
ast t
o th
e bu
lk o
f re
late
d st
udie
s, A
mst
er a
nd M
aras
cuilo
(19
65)
foun
d ev
iden
ce w
hich
cor
robo
rate
s th
e pr
esen
t fin
ding
s w
ith r
egar
d to
the
supe
-
rior
ity o
f sm
all v
arie
ty f
or g
ener
aliz
atio
n. T
hese
aut
hors
fou
nd n
o si
gnif
ican
t
diff
eren
ces
in m
ean
num
ber
of c
orre
ct r
espo
nses
to in
ters
ectio
n an
d un
ion
pro-
blem
s du
ring
trai
ning
bet
wee
n th
e la
rge
and
smal
l var
iety
con
ditio
ns. H
owev
er,
whe
n fo
urth
-gra
de c
hild
ren
wer
e as
ked
to g
ener
aliz
e th
eir
lear
ning
to n
ew in
-
ters
ectio
n an
d un
ion
prob
lem
s, th
e m
ean
num
ber
of c
orre
ct r
espo
nses
for
the
larg
e an
d sm
all v
arie
ty c
ondi
tions
was
sig
nifi
cant
ly d
iffe
rent
in f
avor
of
smal
l
vari
ety.
No
expl
anat
ion
was
pro
pose
d by
Am
ster
and
Mar
ascu
ilo f
or th
ese
un-
expe
cted
res
ults
exc
ept t
o in
fer
that
som
e so
rt o
f in
terf
eren
ce m
ight
hav
e be
en
Z7
oper
atin
g in
the
larg
e vp
ety
cond
ition
and
to p
oint
out
that
Pod
ell (
1963
a. b
)
also
fou
nd s
ome
evid
ence
for
the
adva
ntag
e of
a s
mal
l var
iety
mer
a la
rge
vari
ety.
IMPL
ICA
TIO
NS
FOR
IN
STR
UC
TIO
N
Bas
ed o
n th
e co
nclu
sion
s ar
rive
d at
in th
is s
tudy
the
reco
mm
enda
tion
is
mad
e th
at, w
hen
the
educ
atio
nal g
oal s
peci
fies
an
inte
ntio
n fo
r tin
stu
di.n
ts
to a
cqui
re s
ubje
ct m
atte
r co
ncep
ts, t
each
ers
and
inst
ruct
iona
l des
igne
rs
shou
ld s
peci
fy th
eir
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ectiv
es in
term
s of
gen
eral
izat
ion
and
disc
rim
inat
ion.
Obj
ectiv
es d
ealin
g w
ith g
ener
aliz
atio
n sh
ould
com
mun
iL m
e
to th
e st
uden
t the
nee
d fo
r re
cogn
izin
g ne
w e
xam
ples
of
the
conc
ept u
hen
the%
are
pres
ente
d. I
n th
e ca
se o
f ob
ject
ives
that
dea
l with
dis
crim
inat
ion,
stu
-
dent
s sh
ould
und
erst
and
from
them
that
they
will
be
expe
cted
to1L
eogn
i/e
new
non
exam
ples
of
the
conc
ept.
Aci
ditio
nal.y
, whe
n te
st it
ems
are
Lon
stru
Lt-
ed f
or a
sses
sing
the
degr
ee o
f co
ncep
t acq
uisi
tion
they
mus
t be
cfm
pris
eti
,.1
exam
ples
and
non
exam
ples
of
the
conc
epts
bei
ng te
sted
for
to w
hixi
i the
stu
-
dent
s ca
n m
ake
gene
raliz
atio
n an
d di
scri
min
atio
n re
spon
ses.
11 h
oih
apes
of
item
s ar
e no
t inc
lude
d th
e co
mpl
ete
test
of
conc
ept l
earn
ing
will
not
haN
c;w
en
atta
ined
.
A s
econ
d re
com
men
datio
n is
that
whe
n th
e te
ache
ror
inst
ruct
iona
l tit
sign
-
er c
onst
ruct
s th
e in
stru
ctio
nal m
ater
ials
, dif
fere
nt c
onsi
dtra
tions
he
gin
for
faci
litat
ing
gene
raliz
atio
n th
an th
ose
give
n fo
r fa
cilit
atin
g di
scri
min
atio
n.It
is r
ecom
men
ded,
as
a ge
nera
l rul
e, th
at in
stru
ctio
nal
inst
ance
s th
at c
onta
in
28
all o
f th
e te
leva
nt a
ttrib
utes
as
spec
ifie
d by
the
defi
nitio
n be
giv
en to
enh
ance
the
likel
ihoo
d of
acq
uiri
ng th
e ca
paci
ty to
gen
eral
ize.
As
a ge
nera
l rul
e, it
is a
lso
reco
mm
ende
d th
at in
stru
ctio
nal i
nsta
nces
whi
ch la
ck o
ne o
r m
ore
of
the
rele
vant
attr
ibut
es b
e gi
ven
to f
acili
tate
dis
crim
inat
ion.
With
som
ewha
t
less
con
fide
nce,
it is
sug
gest
ed th
at e
asy-
to-i
dent
ify
inst
ruct
iona
l ins
tanc
es
Will
be
bette
r fo
r ge
nera
lizat
ion
whi
le h
ard-
to-i
dent
ify
inst
ance
s v
.1 in
flu-
ence
sup
erio
r di
scri
min
atio
n. A
lso
with
cau
tion,
it is
adv
ised
than
a s
mal
l
num
ber
of in
stan
ces
be p
rese
nted
for
gen
eral
izat
ion
and
a la
rge
num
ber
of
diff
eren
t ins
tanc
es b
e gi
ven
to p
rom
ote
disc
rim
inat
ion.
Prob
ably
the
area
of
mos
t dir
ect a
pplic
abili
ty o
f th
ese
conc
lusi
ons
is th
at
of r
emed
iatio
n w
hen
ther
e is
insu
ffic
ient
sub
ject
mat
ter
conc
ept l
earn
ing.
If
the
teac
her
or in
stru
ctio
nal d
esig
ner
know
that
a s
tude
nt is
fai
ling
to a
cqui
re
a co
ncep
t, th
ey a
re u
rged
to a
ttem
pt to
dis
cove
r w
heth
er h
is p
robl
em s
tem
s
from
a f
ailu
re to
gen
eral
ize
or d
iscr
imin
ate.
The
lear
ner's
fai
lure
to c
orre
ct-
ly c
lass
ify
exam
ples
of
a co
ncep
t wou
ld in
dica
te a
lack
of
gene
raliz
atio
n w
hile
failu
re to
cor
rect
ly c
lass
ify
none
xam
ples
of
a co
ncep
t wou
ld in
dica
te a
lack
of
disc
rim
inat
ion.
The
app
ropr
iate
rem
edia
tion
wou
ld f
ollo
w th
e ge
nera
l con
clu-
sion
s of
this
stu
dy; t
hat i
s, if
the
stud
ent's
wea
knes
s w
as g
ener
aliz
atio
n, th
en
posi
tive
Inst
ance
s sh
ould
be
pres
ente
d, a
nd if
the
stud
ent's
wea
knes
s is
dis
cri-
min
atio
n, th
en n
egat
ive
inst
ance
s sh
ould
be
pres
ente
d. I
t may
be
that
ther
e
are
part
icul
ar k
inds
of
over
gene
raliz
atio
n (i
nsuf
fici
ent d
iscr
imin
atio
n) o
r un
der-
gene
raliz
atio
n (
insu
ffic
ient
gen
eral
izat
ion)
whi
ch c
onsi
dera
tion
of id
entil
iabi
lity
and
num
ber
of in
stru
ctio
nal i
nsta
nces
dur
ing
rem
edia
tion
can
help
. How
ever
,
addi
tiona
l res
earc
h is
nee
ded
to d
eter
min
e ex
actly
wha
t the
se r
ecom
men
da-
tions
wou
ld b
e.
An
addi
tiona
l im
plic
atio
n fo
r ef
fect
ive
inst
ruct
iona
l man
agem
ent c
once
rns
the
anal
ysis
of
inst
ruct
iona
l mat
eria
ls to
be
used
in e
ffec
ting
conc
ept l
earn
ing.
With
out r
egar
d to
the
find
ings
of
this
stu
dy a
nd o
ther
s, a
teac
her
or in
$tru
c-
tiona
l des
igne
r m
ay h
ave
his
own,
wel
l-fo
unde
d re
ason
s fu
r be
lievi
ng th
at
inst
ruct
iona
l ins
tanc
es w
hich
are
cle
ar o
r ob
scur
e or
bot
h, in
a p
artic
ular
sequ
ence
, are
bes
t for
teac
hing
a g
iven
con
cept
.Ii
this
is th
e st
ate
of a
ltair
s
then
the
inst
ruct
or n
eeds
som
e cr
iteri
a fo
r de
cidi
ng w
hich
inst
ance
s ar
e si
m-
ple
and
whi
ch a
re c
ompl
ex. O
ne c
rite
ria
that
cou
ld b
e us
ed, a
s el
emoi
,st r
ated
In th
is s
tudy
, is
that
of
rela
tive
prop
ortio
ns o
f re
leva
nt a
nd ir
rele
vant
attl
!-
bate
s. T
o us
e th
ese
crite
ria
wou
ld r
equi
re th
at th
e in
stru
ctio
nal d
esig
ner
know
wha
t the
rel
evan
t and
irre
leva
nt a
ttrib
utes
are
and
then
to m
ake
som
e
sort
of
freq
uenc
y co
unt o
f ho
w m
any
are
pres
ent i
n th
e va
riou
s in
stan
ces,
Onc
e
this
was
don
e, th
e in
stan
ces
coul
d be
ran
k or
dere
d, a
s w
.is d
one
iol t
ins
stud
y,
and
then
seq
uenc
ed o
r pr
esen
ted
as th
e te
ache
r de
emed
mos
t app
ropr
iate
. Tha
i,
sam
e pr
oces
s is
als
o re
corn
raen
ded
for
dist
ingu
ishi
ng b
etw
een
posi
tive
and
ne-
gativ
e in
stan
ces
whe
n th
e co
ncep
t is
conj
unct
ive
and
the
inst
ruct
iona
l ins
tanc
es
are
very
com
plex
.
31 r
LIO
GR
APH
Y
Ada
ms,
J. A
. Mul
tiple
ver
sus
sing
le p
robl
em tr
aini
ng in
hum
an p
robl
emso
lvin
g. J
ourn
al o
f E
xper
imen
tal P
sych
olog
y, 1
954,
48,
15-
19.
Am
ster
, H. &
Mar
ascu
ilo, L
. Eff
ect o
f ty
pe p
retr
aini
ng a
nd v
arie
ty o
fin
stan
ces
on c
hild
ren'
s co
ncep
t lea
rnin
g. J
ourn
al o
f E
xper
imen
tal
Chi
ld P
sych
olog
y, 1
965,
2, 1
92-2
04.
Arc
her,
E. J
. The
psy
chol
ogic
al n
atur
e of
con
cept
s. I
n H
. J. K
laus
mel
er&
C. W
. Har
ris
(eds
.), A
naly
ses
of c
once
pt le
arni
ng. N
ew Y
ork:
Aca
dem
ic P
ress
, 196
6.
Arc
her,
E. J
., B
ourn
e, L
. E.,
& B
row
n, F
. G. C
once
pt id
entif
icat
ion
asa
func
tion
of ir
rele
vant
info
rmat
ion
and
inst
ruct
ions
.ou
rnal
of
Exp
erim
enta
l Psy
chol
ogy,
195
5. 4
9, 1
53-1
64.
Bou
rne.
L. E
. Lea
rnin
g an
d ut
iliza
tion
of c
once
ptua
l rul
es. I
n T
. R.
Dix
on &
D. L
. Hor
ton
(Eds
.), V
erba
l beh
avio
r an
d ge
nera
l beh
avio
rth
eory
. Eng
lew
ood
Clif
fs, N
. J.:
Pren
tice
Hal
l, 19
68, 2
30-2
44.
Bru
ner,
J.,
Goo
dnow
, 3.,
& A
ustin
, G. A
stu
dy o
f th
inki
ng. N
ew Y
ork:
Wile
y, 1
956.
Bul
gare
lla, R
. G. &
Arc
her,
E. J
. Con
cept
iden
tific
atio
n of
aud
itory
stim
uli a
s a
func
tion
of a
mou
nt o
f re
leva
nt a
nd ir
rele
vant
info
rmat
ion.
Jour
nal o
f E
xper
imen
tal P
sych
olog
y, 1
962.
63,
254
-257
.
Car
roll,
J. B
. Wor
ds, m
eani
ngs,
and
con
cept
s. H
arva
rd E
duca
tiona
lR
evie
w, 1
964,
34,
178
-202
.
DeC
ecco
. J. P
. The
psy
chol
ogy
of le
arni
ng a
nd in
stru
ctio
n: E
duca
tiona
lPs
ycho
logy
. Eng
lew
ood
Clif
fs. N
. J.:
Pren
tice
Hal
l, 19
68.
Duk
es, W
. F. &
Bev
an, W
. Stim
ulus
var
iatio
n an
d re
petit
ion
in th
eac
quis
ition
of
nam
ing
resp
onse
s. J
ourn
al o
f E
xper
imen
tal P
sych
olog
y.19
67, 7
4, 1
78-1
81.
Edl
ing,
J. V
. Ind
ivid
ualiz
ed in
stru
ctio
n: A
man
ual f
or a
dmin
stra
tors
.C
orva
llis,
Ore
gon:
DC
E P
ublic
atio
ns, 1
970.
Gag
ne, R
. M. T
he c
ondi
tions
of
lear
ning
. (Se
cond
Edi
tion)
New
Yor
k:H
olt,
Rin
ehar
t, &
Win
ston
; 197
0.
Gla
ser,
R. C
once
pt le
arni
ng a
nd c
once
pt te
achi
ng.
In R
. M G
egne
W. J
. Gep
hart
(E
ds.)
, Lea
rnin
g re
sear
ch a
nd s
choo
l sub
ject
s.It
asca
, Ill.
:F.
E. P
eaco
ck P
ublis
her,
196
8. p
p. 1
-38.
Hov
land
, C. I
. A "
com
mun
icat
ion
anal
ysis
" of
con
cept
lear
ning
. Psy
cho-
logi
cal R
evie
w, 1
952,
59,
461
-472
.
Hov
land
, C. I
. & W
eiss
, W. T
rans
mis
sion
of
info
rmat
ion
conc
erni
ngco
ncep
ts th
roug
h po
sitiv
e an
d ne
gativ
e in
stan
ces.
ourn
al o
fE
xper
imen
tal P
sych
olog
y, 1
953,
45,
165
-182
.
Lub
orsk
y, L
. F. A
ircr
aft r
ecog
nitio
n: 1
. The
rel
ativ
e ef
fici
ency
of
teac
hing
pro
cedu
res.
Jou
rnal
of
App
lied
Psyc
holo
gy, 1
945,
29,
385-
398.
Mar
kle,
S. M
. & T
iem
ann.
P. W
. Rea
lly u
nder
stan
ding
con
cept
s.C
ham
paig
n, I
ll.: S
tipes
, 196
9.
M-
kle,
S. M
. & T
iem
ann,
P. W
. "B
ehal
aora
l" a
naly
sts
of "
cogn
itive
"co
nten
t. E
duca
tiona
l Tec
hnol
ogy.
Jan
uary
, 197
0, p
p. 4
1-45
.
May
zner
, M. S
. & T
ress
elt,
M. E
. Ver
bal c
once
pt a
ttain
men
t: A
func
tion
of th
e nu
mbe
r an
d st
reng
th o
f po
sitiv
e in
stan
ces
pres
ente
d.T
he J
ourn
al o
f Ps
ycho
logy
. 196
2, 5
3, 4
69-4
74.
Ove
ring
, R. L
. R. &
Tra
vers
, R. W
. M. E
ffec
t upo
n tr
ansf
er o
fva
riat
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