hazardous waste - encyclopedia of life support systems chapters/c09/e1-08-00-00.pdf · hazardous...

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HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT - Hazardous Waste - Grasso, D., Kahn, D., Kaseva, M. E. and Mbuligwe, S. E.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

HAZARDOUS WASTE Grasso D. and Kahn D. Picker Engineering Program, Smith College, Northampton, MA 10163, USA Kaseva M. E. and Mbuligwe S. E. Department of Environmental Engineering, University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Keywords: Hazardous wastes, site remediation, bioremediation, ultraviolet radiation, human health protection, hazardous waste terminologies, waste characteristics, manifest system, hazardous substances storage, hazardous waste handling and disposal, industrial ecology, sustainable industry, hazardous wastes, decommissioning, isotope, nuclear, nuclear power, nuclear reactor, radioactive waste, radionuclides, risk perception, site selection, uranium mining/milling, London Dumping Convention, the Code of Practice of the International Transboundary Movement of Radioactive Wastes, the Cairo Guidelines, the Dakar Declaration, the Lome IV Convention, the Bamako Convention, the Barcelona Convention, the Waigani Convention, the Basel Convention, LDCs, exemption threshold, radioactive materials, high-level waste, low-level waste, intermediate-level waste, long-term disposal, hazard assessment, toxicology, ecotoxicology, risk assessment, uncertainty factors, safety factors, acute toxicity endpoints, sub-acute toxicity endpoints, chronic endpoints, carcinogens, NOEL (No Observed Effect Level), interspecies safety factors, background levels, dioxin, ionizing radiation, radioactivity, health effects, radioactive waste, waste transport, SimpleBox, SimpleTreat, species sensitivity distribution (SSD), environmental quality criteria (EQCs), PICT (pollution induced community tolerance), PAF (potentially affected fraction of species), IQ-Tox, microbial indicator, biological indicator for soil quality (BISQ), transboundary issues, waste generator, transboundary movement, disposal, developed countries, developing countries, informal sector. Contents 1. Definition of Hazardous Wastes 2. Sources of Hazardous Wastes 3. Classification of Hazardous Waste 4. Public Health and Environmental Effects of Hazardous Wastes 5. Hazardous Waste Management 6. Industrial Hazardous Waste Management 7. Final Disposal of Industrial Hazardous Wastes 8. Site Remediation and Groundwater Decontamination Activities. 9. Industrial Ecology 10. Toxicology and Risk Assessment 11. Environmental Risk Assessment 12. Nuclear Industry 13. Radiation Effects 14. Determining Risk Management Procedures and Acceptable Risk Levels 15. Stages of Waste Management Program Evolution 16. Global Status of Hazardous Waste Management

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17. International Issues in Hazardous Waste Management 18. Hazardous Wastes in Developing Countries 19. Conclusion Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketches Summary Hazardous waste definitions differ from one country to another. A generic definition might center on wastes or combinations of wastes that pose a substantial present or potential hazard to humans or the environment, in part because they are not readily degradable, persistent in the environment and are deleterious to human health or natural resources. Most hazardous wastes are produced in the manufacturing of products for domestic consumption or further industrial application. Nuclear wastes are a major and controversial hazardous waste that are created during a variety of human activities in numerous sectors, including academia, federal agencies, industry, mining, medical facilities and utilities. At the Nonproliferation Treaty Conference in May 2000, the five nuclear weapon states, China, France, the USA, Russia, and the United Kingdom, agreed to disarm their nuclear arsenals, but no timeline for achieving this goal was set. In addition, the current OSPAR Convention (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic) Strategy commits to achieving negligible radioactive discharges, emissions and losses to the maritime environment by the year 2020. In light of the nuclear incidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl, much was learned about the risks of using nuclear energy, as well as the uncertainties in public risk perception and behavior when people are faced with nuclear emergencies. Hazardous wastes can damage the environment and natural resources, and they can cause inter alia cancer, infections, irritations (mainly due to allergic response), or mutations. In addition to proper hazardous waste disposal or, if necessary, remediation of contaminated sites, it is important to minimize the production and impact of hazardous wastes and to recover and recycle resources where feasible. Industrial Ecology is a framework for minimizing energy and materials usage by designing and operating anthropogenic systems that are interdependent and sustainable with natural systems. In order to properly manage hazardous waste and allocate public resources, risk assessment and management has evolved as important decision-making framework. Ultimately, national hazardous waste management programs should strive for strong regulatory regimes coupled with efficacious market instruments to promote sound industrial hazardous waste management practices. Further, incentives should be created to use and innovate advanced hazardous waste and waste reduction technologies insuring global equity. International solutions to hazardous waste issues must also be pursued to help less developed countries (LDCs) with their hazardous waste management programs and to prevent illegal hazardous waste dumping and trading as increasingly stringent regulations in developed countries continue to make hazardous waste disposal more expensive.

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1. Definition of Hazardous Wastes One of the challenges facing proper hazardous waste management and disposal is that definitions of hazardous wastes vary from one country to another. The term hazardous waste is in itself ambiguous. Effective governmental programs must provide appropriate, scientifically defensible, and clear legal definitions for wastes being regulated. However, this can be difficult. In the U.S., for example, the Environmental Protection Agency took nearly four years after the passage of the first U.S. hazardous waste law in 1976 to promulgate regulations that defined hazardous waste. This definition, however, used broad terms, included many exceptions and has needed modification from time to time. Other nations have had similar experiences. Definitions often do not have a solid scientific foundation and may allow exemptions as a result of political influence. A general definition describes hazardous wastes as wastes or combinations of wastes that pose a substantial present or potential hazard to humans or other living organisms or natural resources because they are nondegradable or persistent in nature, can be biologically magnified, can be toxic, or may otherwise cause detrimental cumulative effects. Hazardous wastes contain organic or inorganic elements that, due to their toxicological, physical, chemical, carcinogenic or persistency properties, may cause:

• Explosion or fire; • Infection, including infection by parasites or their vectors; • Chemical instability, reactions or corrosion; • Acute or chronic toxic effects; • Cancer, mutations or birth defects; or • Damage to ecosystems or natural resources.

In addition to these properties, the location or utility of a substance may also determine whether it is a hazardous waste. A pesticide used to treat crops for instance, may be considered hazardous waste after if it has migrated to surface or groundwater. On the other hand, if an industry finds a use for a particular hazardous waste in its manufacturing process, the substance may become a valuable economic input. 2. Sources of Hazardous Waste The term hazardous waste often includes by-products of industrial, domestic, commercial, and health care activities. Rapid development and improvement of various industrial technologies, products and practices may increase hazardous waste generation. Most hazardous wastes are produced in the manufacturing of products for consumption or further industrial application. Hazardous waste sources include industry, institutional establishments, research laboratories, mining sites, mineral processing sites, agricultural facilities and the natural environment. All sources that discharge liquid, gaseous or solid wastes that fit the above definition can be regarded as sources of hazardous wastes. Some major sources are agricultural land and agroindusty, households, mines and mineral processing sites, health care facilities, commercial facilities, institutional

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facilities, industrial sites, solid waste disposal sites, contaminated sites and building materials. Major hazardous waste sources and their pollution routes in the environment are listed below. Agricultural land and agro-industry: Hazardous wastes from agricultural land and agro-industry can expose people to pesticides, fertilizers and hazardous veterinary product wastes. Farms are a major source of these wastes, and agrochemicals can leach into the environment while in storage or can cause damage after their application. Domestic: Households stock various hazardous substances such as batteries and dry cells, furniture polishes, wood preservatives, stain removers, paint thinners, rat poisons, herbicides and pesticides, mosquito repellents, paints, disinfectants, and fuels (i.e. kerosene) and other automotive products. These can present a variety of dangers during storage, use and disposal. Mines and mineral processing sites: Mining and mineral processing sites handle hazardous products that are present in the additives, the products and the wastes. Health care facilities: Health care facilities are sources of pathological waste, human blood and contaminated needles. Specific sources of these wastes include dentists, morticians, veterinary clinics, home health care, blood banks, hospitals, clinics and medical laboratories. Commercial wastes: Commercial waste sources include gasoline stations, dry cleaners and automobile repair shops (workshops). The types of hazardous wastes generated by these sources depend on the services provided. Institutional hazardous waste sources: Institutional hazardous waste sources are mainly research laboratories, research centers and military installations. Some military installations are used for the manufacture and storage of ammunition, and they are also used as testing grounds for military hardware. Military establishments also carry out activities that generate other types of hazardous wastes of household, commercial and industrial nature. Industrial hazardous waste sources: Hazardous wastes are created by many industrial activities. For example, the hazardous wastes from the petroleum fuel industry include the refinery products (fuels and tar), impurities like phenol and cyanides in the waste stream, and sludge flushed from the storage tanks. Solid waste disposal sites: These are mainly disposal sites for municipal solid waste, but hazardous wastes that have not been properly separated from other wastes are also at these sites. In developing countries, solid waste disposal sites are a major source of pollutant-laden leachate to surrounding areas, as well as recyclable materials for scavengers, who can collect and resell waste materials that have been exposed to or that contain hazardous substances. Contaminated sites: These are sites that are contaminated with hazardous wastes due to activities that use or produce hazardous substances or due to accidental spills. Former

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sites of industries that used or produced hazardous materials belong to this group. Building materials: Roofs and pipes made of materials incorporating asbestos, copper, or other materials may present a source of hazardous waste. 3. Classification of Hazardous Waste Waste characterization is a critical step in determining how a waste should be handled in bulk or in packaged form. Common hazardous wastes include waste oil and fuel; solvents and thinners; acids and bases/alkalines; toxic or flammable paint wastes; chlorinated solvents, heavy metals, perchlorates and peroxides; abandoned or used pesticides; and some wastewater treatment sludge. Special hazardous wastes in the U.S. include industrial wastes containing Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) priority pollutants; infectious medical wastes; explosive military wastes; and radioactive wastes or releases. By way of examples, the U.S. has identified two general waste categories as hazardous. Wastes may be specifically identified or listed in the Federal and/or the State regulations, or they may be defined by physical or chemical characteristics. Specifically, under the U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), a waste may be a designated hazardous waste or a characteristic hazardous waste. A designated waste (or listed hazardous waste) in the U.S. is one that is specifically listed by the USEPA as hazardous. A characteristic waste is one that exhibits any one of the characteristics of ignitability, corrosiveness, reactivity, or toxicity. The U.S. Federal government level defines an ignitable waste as any liquid with a flash point of less than 60 degrees C (140 degrees F), any non-liquid that can cause a fire under certain conditions, or any waste classified by the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) as a compressed ignitable gas or oxydizer. A corrosive waste is defined as any aqueous material that has a pH less than or equal to 2, a pH greater than or equal to 12.5, or any material that corrodes steel (SAE 1020) at a rate greater than 0.25 in/year (1 in. = 2.54 cm). A reactive waste is defined as one that is unstable, changes form violently, is explosive, reacts violently with water, forms an explosive mixture with water, or generates toxic gases in dangerous concentrations. A toxic waste is one whose extract contains concentrations of certain constituents in excess of those stipulated by the U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). The hazardous waste identification regulations that define the characteristics of toxicity, ignitability, corrosivity and reactivity, as well as the tests for these characteristics, can vary. 4. Public Health and Environmental Effects of Hazardous Wastes Hazardous wastes can damage the environment by contaminating air, water and soil. Once in the environment, hazardous wastes can affect all life forms. Whether through direct exposure or environmental damage, hazardous wastes present a risk to human health. In the 1950s and 1960s in the U.S., there was a dramatic decline in the populations of several predatory birds due to dioxin exposure. DDT exposure at low levels was found

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to interfere with calcium deposition in the eggshells of birds of prey, causing them to be thin and fragile and often to be crushed by the parents in the nest. One well-known species affected in this way was the Bald Eagle (Plate 1).

Plate 1. The Bald Eagle Toxic effluents such as those from improperly managed mining operations can have very serious effects on wildlife and pose serious threats to human health (Plate 2). Marine ecosystems and wildlife have also suffered major damage as a result of oilspills resulting from accidents to large ocean-going tankers (Plate 3). Safety related properties of hazardous wastes include their tendency to corrode, explode, burn or cause chemical reactions. Safety effects resulting from hazardous wastes include injury and even death from an explosion, fire outbreak, chemical reaction or other hazardous situation created by such wastes. Effects to property and the physical environment mainly pertain to property damage, which can also result from fires and explosions. These incidents, which result from improper hazardous waste management, may emit hazardous substances to the atmosphere as well, causing deleterious health effects, through inhalation for example.

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Plate 2. Acid mine drainage.

Plate 3. National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration (NOAA) Workers remove wildlife from contaminated area after Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound,

Alaska.

Health related properties of hazardous wastes include their tendency to cause cancer, infections, irritations (mainly due to allergic response), mutations or other toxic or radioactive effects. Health effects from hazardous waste exposure occur after hazardous components enter the body through inhalation, skin absorption, ingestion, or puncture wound. The health effects of the hazardous wastes are dependent on the amount (doses), and routes and duration of exposure. Temporary health effects of hazardous waste

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exposure can include dizziness, headaches and nausea, while prolonged exposure can also result in cancers, disabilities or death. Hazardous wastes from some household waste sources are prone to easily cause health hazards due to their proximity to potential receptors. Wastes from other sources are further from given receptors so their exposure routes are longer. This may result in masking or delayed manifestation of exposure effects. 5. Hazardous Waste Management Hazardous waste management is necessary to ensure proper handling and disposal of hazardous wastes. The necessary management processes depend largely on the quantity, composition, and phase of the waste, which are functions of the waste-generating source. Prior to disposal, it is especially important to minimize the production of hazardous wastes and to recover and recycle wastes where feasible. The various stages involved in hazardous waste management include waste avoidance, waste re-use and recycling, waste storage on the producer’s premises, collection of waste from those premises (if required), transport (if required), interim storage (if required), secondary transport (if required), treatment and final disposal. A simplified overview of the waste management stages is depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Components of Hazardous Waste Management Systems

The least expensive and easiest method for reducing the volume hazardous waste is source separation, which keeps hazardous wastes from contaminating non-hazardous wastes. A more effective approach to waste reduction is substitution of raw materials. A raw material that generates less hazardous waste or less toxic waste can be substituted to replace a raw material that generates a large amount of such waste.

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Plate 4. Hazardous waste is often packaged in drums and stored awaiting treatment and

disposal. Some hazardous waste is solidified, packaged in drums, and disposed in permitted commercial landfills. Office of Environmental Management.

Each hazardous waste management scheme is unique because it is designed to meet the specific needs of the manufacturing process that is used and the wastes that are generated. Despite the differences among management schemes, their development follows similar steps as outlined in the flowchart below. STEP 1--COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA about the manufacturing process and the waste generated. Explore the available management options. STEP 2--ASK "Can hazardous waste generation be prevented by changing the product line, substituting safer materials, or increasing the efficiency of the process?" STEP 3--ASK "Can hazardous waste be minimized by extending the product lifetime, modifying a process, or acquiring more efficient technology?" STEP 4--ASK "Can 'hazardous wastes' be recovered for reuse or recycling, either on-site or off-site? Can the materials be a resource of chemicals rather than become hazardous wastes?" STEP 5--ASK "Can the hazardous waste be detoxified or otherwise rendered non-hazardous through a chemical, physical, thermal, or microbial treatment process?" STEP 6--ASK "Is burial or deep-well injection necessary? Can hazardous waste be placed in retrievable storage to be used as a material for a new product or to be

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detoxified when the appropriate technology becomes available in the future? Can the wastes be placed in a monitored, long-term storage area?" Source: Hazardous Waste Management Pamphlet, ACS Department of Government Relations and Science Policy. September, 1992. Copyright 1992 American Chemical Society.

Box 1. Developing a Hazardous Waste Management Strategy

Environmental regulators have generally supported, and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has encouraged, regulated incineration of waste. The EPA also considers incineration to be the best demonstrated available technology (BDAT) for most wastes, and EPA's land ban regulations actually require the incineration of certain wastes. While the environmental community also initially supported waste-to-energy incineration facilities, skepticism has grown and it now generally opposes hazardous waste burning. Opponents perceive that the government-industry alliance is forcing incineration as a waste solution despite the unwillingness of the public to accept the risk and that some federal government regulations encourage the use of unsuitable facilities. Environmental justice concerns and regulatory laxity are also cited as major problems, and boilers and industrial furnaces (BIFs) are projected to cause waste contamination of new cement. It is understandable that most people want incinerators and BIFs to be carefully regulated. However, the facilities pose a very small health risk if forced to operate within strict permit limits, particularly when compared with the risks posed by other, more common, industrial processes. Pro-industry commentators actually often criticize EPA's risk assessment for being implausibly cautious. For example, EPA calculates cancer risks based on the maximum exposed individual (MEI), which finds the exact spot at which a person will suffer the most exposure to emissions from the thermal device and measures constant exposure for 70 years. Taking into account the extremely conservative assumptions made by EPA in setting BIF and incinerator standards, the health risks posed by a properly operated thermal destruction device appear relatively small. The risks of emitting small quantities of waste into the air look particularly attractive compared to the disposal option that thermal devices have replaced: putting huge quantities of waste into landfills, which could eventually leak and contaminate groundwater. Environmentalists point out that while there are numerous health studies of particular hazardous wastes, there has been virtually no research regarding synergistic, multichemical effects, in which toxins can interact and cause more harm than the sum of their dangers. They argue that incinerators, which burn halogenated wastes (fossil fuels containing few halogens), are likely to produce particularly toxic products of incomplete combustion (PICs), such as chlorinated dioxins, furans, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). However, because combustion has broken complex molecules into simpler forms, most PICs tend to be simple organic compounds. For the more dangerous PICs, such as dioxins, emission levels are very low. It must be considered, on the other hand, that because emissions monitoring is insufficient, it is difficult to tell whether or not standards are being met.

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An important attack on incinerators and BIFs stems from the perception that they discourage source reduction. However, source reduction will not completely remove the need to deal with hazardous wastes in the foreseeable future, so hazardous waste disposal technology choices must still be made. Compared to landfills, hazardous waste incineration provides the advantage that the total volume and toxicity of hazardous wastes are reduced. The debate over hazardous waste incineration is far from closed, though, and alternative technologies should also be considered. For a review of available hazardous waste treatment technologies, see Hazardous Waste Management: A United States Perspective (E1-08-01-00). Source: Kopel, David B. Burning Mad: The Controversy Over Treatment of Hazardous Waste in Incinerators, Boilers, and Industrial Furnaces. Environmental Law Reporter. April 1993, vol 23, pp 10216-27.

Box 2. Hazardous Waste Incineration: The Risk Debate in the US

Incinerators, boilers and industrial furnaces are difficult and time-consuming to inspect because their complexity makes the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations lengthy. Additionally, even exhaustive exterior inspections cannot tell with absolute certainty what is going on inside these devices, and standard monitoring devices also do not operate accurately. Because of this, regulators rely on air emission and other output information, which can be imprecise and costly, to detect what is happening inside incineration devices, but the results cannot be guaranteed with a degree of certainty that the public demands. Because products from burning hazardous wastes can be more dangerous than the original wastes, the inputs cannot be used to determine the hazard of the waste products. Upsets, or deviations from normal operating parameters, are also not at all uncommon, although without continuous monitoring it is difficult accurately to gauge their frequency. Some upsets may be just a minor deviation from numerical standards, but others are dangerous. Because incineration devices are never 100 percent efficient, some of the inputs are only partially burned, leaving over products of incomplete combustion (PICs), and because emissions monitoring is insufficient, many facilities may not know exactly what PICs they are emitting. Among the most dangerous PICs are dioxins, furans, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and other complex organochlorines, with dioxins and other halocarbons being the most dangerous. Dioxins and other chlorinated PICs are also often formed in cooler areas such as in the air emissions stack rather than during the actual burning. Hence, high temperatures in the burning process are not a complete protection against PICs. In fact, high temperatures and lots of oxygen, conditions associated with a high level of combustion efficiency, sometimes result in their own set of PICs. Source: Kopel, David B. Burning Mad: The Controversy Over Treatment of Hazardous Waste in Incinerators, Boilers, and Industrial Furnaces. Environmental Law Reporter. April 1993, vol 23, pp 10216-27.

Box 3. Technical Difficulties Concerning Hazardous Waste Incineration

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6. Industrial Hazardous Waste Management The major objective of industrial waste processing and treatment is to reduce the amount of wastes and to recover some useful materials for re-use through waste recycling. Waste recycling is not only an environmentally friendly and income generating activity, but it also can help to achieve more sustainable solid waste management. Treatment of hazardous wastes allows for the disposal of wastes in a way that is less harmful to the environment. Intermediate treatment of hazardous waste at industrial sites is therefore important, and it can reduce the volume of the wastes that is later taken for final disposal. In general, two activities can determine the generator classification of an industrial plant: the rate at which the plant generates and how much the plant stores (accumulates). There are generally different waste management strategies for each generator status. Government approved manifests can be used to document movement and disposition of hazardous waste. If a plant's waste is dumped or disposed of improperly, the plant manager and the owner can and should be held responsible. Therefore, it is important for a plant manager or owner to know where the plant's waste is going and whether or not it is being handled properly. 7. Final Disposal of Industrial Hazardous Wastes Landfills are often the ultimate fate of hazardous waste residues because other hazardous waste management technologies such as source reduction, recycling and waste minimization cannot totally eliminate the wastes. Even treatment methods, such as biological treatment or incineration, produce residues that must be disposed.

The following questions adress a few of the factors that must be considered in the siting decision-making process. Scientific and Technical Considerations

How effective is the specific technology in meeting its technical objective?

What wastes are to be handled? What are the properties and characteristics of the waste that affect its

treatment? What are the proven technologies that are practical for each waste type? Will a more concentrated waste be produced? Will the waste be easier to

dispose of or less toxic? Is the equipment overly complex, susceptible to breakdown, or difficult

to repair? How reliable is the technology to perform consistently over time? Are monitoring devices and discharge controls effective? What are the destruction and stabilization capabilities of the technology? Is pretreatment of the waste necessary? What pretreatment is necessary to make the residues suitable for land

disposal?

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Environmental Considerations If the technology is used, what type and extent of contamination may

occur? If the technology fails, how severe will the contamination be? What is the environmental fate of the waste by-products of the

technology should leakage occur? What are the hazards posed to the health of the workers and neighboring

communities and to the environment from the emissions/releases generated by the technology?

What is the capacity of the surrounding environment to minimize migration of contaminants into vulnerable parts of the environment? Regulatory Considerations

What environmental quality regulations must be met (local, county, state, and federal)?

Are the site and technology acceptable to the regulatory agency? What legal incentives or disincentives exist for each technology? Who will monitor the facility? How? Who is liable? What will be the long-term liability associated with each technology? What happens if the company goes bankrupt or is purchased by another

owner? What happens when the company is finished with the land? Will the

state monitor the site in perpetuity? Social and Economic Considerations

What are the costs to the generator, regulator, public? Does the facility require expensive long-term upkeep? Will the construction of a facility be an incentive for industrial

development? What forms of energy are required to run the facility? Are there opportunities for energy or material recovery for resale? How will the technology affect the local job market? Are the site and technology acceptable to the community? What action is necessary to address citizen concerns? Will operation of the facility affect property values, recreational

opportunities, quality of air, water, food of surrounding community? What is the obligation of the company to the community? Will bonds be

posted up-front for closure at any time? Source: Hazardous Waste Management Pamphlet, ACS Department of Government Relations and Science Policy. September, 1992. Copyright 1992 American Chemical Society. Original Source: National Survey of Hazardous Waste Generators and Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities Regulated under RCRA in 1981 (Prepared for the U.S. EPA by Westat, Inc., April 1984)

Box 4. SITING

When disposed of improperly, hazardous solid wastes can contaminate air, soil and/or groundwater, and may increase the risk of human illness and environmental

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contamination. Large quantities of any hazardous solid wastes should only be properly transported or disposed of by properly trained environmental professionals. Small quantities of hazardous wastes, however, can be handled by a plant manager. There is often no easy way to dispose of a very small quantity of hazardous household products, such as pesticides, batteries, outdated medicines, paint, paint removers, used motor oil, wool preservatives, acids, caustics, etc. This is because there are no places that accept such small quantities of wastes generated by a small industrial or commercial site. - - -

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Bibliography Cortinas de Nava, Cristina. Worldwide Overview of Hazardous Wastes. Hazardous Wastes and Public Approaches. Hazardous Waste Conference, 1993. [Discusses international and transboundary hazardous waste issues]

Grasso, D. (1993) Hazardous Waste Site Remediation: Source Control, CRC/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida. [Discusses major topics of environmental hazardous waste management focusing on source control and site remediation].

Kiely, G. (1997). Environmental Engineering. McGraw – Hill. New York. [Discusses major topics of environmental engineering, including hazardous waste management].

LaGrega, Michael D; Buckingham, Phillip L.; Evans, Jeffrey C. (1994). Hazardous Waste Management, 1146 PP. New York, USA: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Marwa, C. (2000). Management of Solid Waste from the Dry Cell Factory - Case Study Matsushita Electric Company (EA) Ltd. Unpublished report, Department of Environmental Engineering, UCLAS. [Inventory of solid waste management at a dry cell manufacturing facility with a focus on hazardous components].

Mbuligwe, S. E. (2002). The Health and Environmental Trail of Agrochemicals Use in Tanzania: Root Causes, Impacts and Mitigation Prospects. In Press: The Journal of Building and Land Development. [Review of background to and implications of agrochemicals use in Tanzania].

Mtalo, J. O. and Swai, CL (1996). Investigation of Health Care Solid Waste Management in City Health Facilities. Urban Health Project (Unpublished Report). [An inventory of health care waste management situation in Darres Salaam City].

O’Neil, Kate. Out of the backyard: the problems of hazardous waste management at a global level. Journal of Environment & Development. 7 (1998): 138 [A review of worldwide hazardous waste management problems and hazardous waste trading]. Probst, Katherine, N; Hazardous Waste Management. (developing countries). Environment, November 1999. Copyright 1999 Heldref Publications. [An overview of hazardous waste management issues in developing countries].

Biographical Sketches

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Domenico Grasso, Picker Engineering Program, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063 Professor Domenico Grasso is the Rosemary Bradford Hewlett Professor and Founding Chair of the Picker Engineering Program a Smith College and holds adjunct faculty appointments at the Universities of Connecticut and Massachusetts and Yale University. An environmental engineer who studies the ultimate fate of contaminants in the environment and develops new techniques to reduce the risks associated with these contaminants to human health or natural resources, he focuses on molecular scale processes that underlie nature and behavior of contaminants in environmental systems.

He holds a B.Sc. from Worcester Polytechnic Institute, an M.S. from Purdue University and a Ph.D. from The University of Michigan. He is a registered Professional Engineer in the states of Connecticut and Texas, and was Professor and Head of Department in Civil & Environmental Engineering at the University of Connecticut prior to joining Smith. He has been a Visiting Scholar at UC-Berkeley, a NATO Fellow, and an Invited Technical Expert to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization in Vienna Austria. He is currently Chair of the Environmental Engineering Committee of United States Environmental Protection Agency Science Advisory Board, President of the Association of Environmental Engineering & Science Professors, and Editor-in-Chief of Environmental Engineering Science. He has authored more than 100 technical papers & reports, including four chapters and two books. Federal, state and industrial organizations have supported his research work.

In 1998, Professor Grasso served on a World Bank funded international team of scholars that established the first environmental engineering program in Argentina. In 2000, The Water Environment Federation named him a Pioneer in Disinfection. He recently chaired a U.S. Congressional briefing entitled Genomes & Nanotechnology: The Future of Environmental Research.

Professor Grasso views engineering as a bridge between science and humanity and making it particularly well suited for incorporation into a liberal arts environment. His classes, although technically rigorous, also explore the societal and philosophical issues facing engineers and scientists. Danielle J. Kahn, Picker Engineering Program, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063

Danielle J. Kahn is currently an AmeriCorps service member working with the Center for Ecological Technology (CET), whose headquarters are in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, U.S.A.. There she is working with CETs Office Paper Recycling Services, the Recycled Products Purchasing Cooperative, and the Massachusetts Materials Exchange. Danielle also recently returned from Ecuador, where she was working for Fundacion Jatun Sacha at its Ilalo Urban Forestry Reserve. A recent graduate of Smith College, she received her degree in Environmental Policy, a self-written major combining economics and public policy to study environmental issues. During her time at Smith, Danielle served as a research assistant for Dr. Fletcher Blanchard and Dr. Domenico Grasso. Her current interests include industrial ecology and environmental chemistry and biology. She hopes to have a chance to pursue these interests in graduate school within an interdisciplinary framework that combines the study of both science and policy to address environmental issues. M. E. Kaseva, Department of Environmental Engineering, University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

M. E. Kaseva, MSc. is currently a senior lecturer at the University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS), Dar es Salaam Tanzania, in the Department of Environmental Engineering where he has been employed since 1988. He is a LEAD International (Leadership for Environment and Development) Fellow. He is also a registered engineer (T), a member of the Institution of Engineers Tanzania (IET), and the International Water Association (IWA). He has previously worked with the Ministry of local government as an assistant executive engineer. M. E. Kaseva has carried out various research works related to water and waste management in Tanzania, out of which a number of publications have been made. Currently he is engaged in a research work on the use of constructed wetlands for polishing the on-site anerobically pre-treated domestic wastewater. S.E. Mbuligwe, Department of Environmental Engineering, University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Mr. Stephen E. Mbuligwe lectures in the Department of Environmental Engineering at the University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS). He is also a practitioner in Public Health and

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Environmental Engineering. He has been involved in research and consultancy in the field of Environmental Engineering since 1992. He holds an Advanced Diploma in PHE, A postgraduate Diploma in Environmental Management and an MSC in Environmental Engineering. He is member of a number of Professional Associations including the International water association (IWA) and the Association of Public Health and Environmental Engineering of Tanzania (APHEET). He has published a number of Technical papers in his field.

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