Natalie Wong

Professor Lynda Haas

Writing 39C

19 July 2015

The Domestication of Dog: A Review of Canine Cognition and Emotion

        Since the tradition of canine domestication, owners have witnessed the wide range of

emotions expressed by a dog. Although having a dog comes with a lot of responsibilities, owners

are able to experience and grow accustom to their dogs barking with excitement, seeing their

tails wag, dropping their tails and drooping their ears when being scolded or punished, or

sometimes barking out of jealousy when it is not receiving enough attention. It may be surprising

for some to hear that scientists have only barely began studying canine cognition and cognitive

ethology because the discovery of archaeological remains suggest that dogs have been

domesticated as early as 14,000 years BP (Serpell 10). Prior to any scientific studies of canine

cognition or cognitive ethology officially began, “researchers were almost all skeptics who spent

their time wondering if […] animals felt anything” (Bekoff xvii). However, this topic of study

has changed dramatically over the past thirty years, because animals are no longer thought to

have “no brains, [but] only soul” as claimed by Julian Huxley back in 1923 (Mitchell,

Thompson, and Miles 26). It all began with Donald Griffin’s proposal of cognitive ethology by

recognizing that “mental experiences also include feelings, desires, fears, and ‘sensations’ such

as pain, rage, and affection” (Mitchell, Thompson, and Miles 26). Dr. Marc Bekoff, a researcher

of animal behavior and cognitive ethology comments on and extends this sentiment  in his book

The Emotional Lives of Animals: A Leading Scientist Explores Animal Joy, Sorrow, and

Empathy and Why They Matter: emotions have evolved as adaptations […] and they serve as a

Wong 1

social glue to bond animals with one another (xviii). By following this statement by Bekoff, this

paper will focus on scientific studies concerning the process of the domestication of dogs and

how domestication affects canine’s cognitive abilities and their emotional capacity. First, I will

begin by introducing a 1960 unethical experiment that studied animal cognition. I will then with

a brief explanation of the brain structures found inside animals that permit them to experience

emotions, which will provide a basis for Dr. Marc Bekoff’s claim of natural selection as the

reason for anthropomorphism and Alexander Horowitz and Julie Hecht’s thoughts of

anthropomorphism involvement with cognitive research. After that, I will address the idea of

canine “umwelt” by Horowitz and Hecht in order to review the history behind the domestication

of dogs and the study of canine cognition. This review seeks to build a bridge to question the

ethics behind the inhumane business of puppy mills by providing some scientific studies.

        One of the earliest experiment on animal cognition dates back to 1967, where Martin

Seligman and Steven Maier demonstrated that experience of emotions was indeed possible for

domesticated canines. In this highly unethical study, the canines were conditioned by being

shocked and having no escape routes; eventually the dogs accepted the fact that they could not

do anything about their state and experienced the emotion of depression (Peterson, Maier, and

Seligman). This experiment played a role in diverting the focus of animal cognition and animal

ethology by allowing scientists to not only question why emotions are felt but how, which helps

to demonstrate that “[humans] are not the only animals [that] experience pain and suffering”

(Bekoff xiii). At the same time, these emotions allowed the animals to survive over time and

eventually evolved through the process of natural selection. Other than this finding, researchers

discovered that our primary emotions of “fear, anger, surprise, sadness, disgust, and joy” (Bekoff

10) are made possible by the limbic system and the amygdala. Since both these structure are

Wong 2

found in all mammals, researchers have taken advantage by incorporating animals into their

experiments when attempting to study humans, similar to the study of depression of humans

performed by Seligman, Maier, and Geer. According to Bekoff, the community of scientific

researchers has come to the conclusion that primary emotions are universal because “humans and

animals share similar chemical and neurobiological systems” (10).

        When archaeological evidence were first being discovered, scientists were unaware of the

process of anthropomorphizing dogs and the role it played in forming a relationship between

humans and domesticated dogs. One finding provided by James Serpell, a professor of veterinary

medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, indicated that humans were still hunting, gathering,

and foraging when animals were first domesticated, which dated back to the end of the last Ice

Age (Serpell 10). Anthropomorphism is giving human characteristic to animals, canines in this

case, and it allowed secondary emotions to assist in the establishment of a relationship between

humans and canines for the future (Bekoff xviii). This took place after the scientific community

figured out the universal experience of primary emotions, and turned its interests towards

animal’s consciousness and thought processing in the cerebral cortex during more complex

feelings known as secondary emotions. Two researchers of animal and canine cognition followed

this curiosity in their research of “Looking at Dogs: Moving from Anthropocentrism to Canid

Umwelt.” Alexandra Horowitz and Julie Hecht states that dog’s secondary emotions are falsely

reported as a result of being anthropomorphized (204).  However, Bekoff disagrees by claiming

that anthropomorphism “is an evolved perceptual strategy [because] we’ve been shaped by

natural selection to view animals in this way” (10). Although the history behind the process of

domesticating dogs is uncertain, it is no doubt that anthropomorphism played a role in allowing

Wong 3

the humans to begin developing a bond with domesticated canines as early as 10,000 years BP

(Serpell 10).

        Following Serpell’s thoughts about the relationship between canines and humans, Leslie

Irvine, a professor of sociology and researcher of animal-human interactions demonstrates her

agreement in her book If You Tame Me: Understanding Our Connection with Animals. In order

to explain human’s first encounter and interaction with canines, she states “that animals were

like humans in many ways, but also different enough to be able to explain and accomplish things

that humans could not” (Irvine 35). Besides seeing animals as equals, our ancestor’s transition

into hunter-gatherers was made possible with the aid of the early canines. Furthermore, Irvine

proposes three different theories as to why dogs were domesticated in the chapter of “How and

Why.”  The first two theories suggested by Irvine involve canine’s hunting and scavenging

abilities, which is beneficial to humans by offering a symbiotic relationship as well as

commensalism. Humans are not the only ones who profit, because the emotional aspect formed

between canines and humans stimulate the primary emotion of happiness for dogs (Irvine 14).

Unlike the many independent animals we see, bears and tigers to name a couple, canines are

more receptive to humans and socializing as a result of the bond formed between canines and

humans. Lastly, Irvine emphasizes this by supporting the idea of human beings being drawn to

specific physical and social traits by stating: “several biological and behavioral factors

predisposed dogs to fit easily within human groups” (14-15). Although studies by researchers

such as Seligman and Maier have supported natural selection as the reason why for the

establishment of a canine-human relationship, the canine umwelt introduced by Horowitz and

Hecht has also been reinforced by the study of Irvine. Through Irvine’s study, we can see that the

Wong 4

emotional aspect allowed the strong bond between humans and dogs to form including the

launching of domestication of canines.

        Just like Leslie Irvine, research scientists Brian Hare and Vanessa Woods of evolutionary

anthropology and animal cognition from the University of Duke have reasoned the evolvement

of human like social skills in domesticated dogs as a by-product of domestication. Similar results

were found in a study conducted by Monique A.R. Udell, Nicole R. Dorey, and Clive D.L

Wynne in the article of Can Your Dog Read Your Mind? Understanding the Causes of Canine

Perspective Taking, in which it demonstrated that “dogs’ ability to follow human actions stems

from a willingness to accept humans as social companions, acquired early in ontogeny,

combined with conditioning to follow the limbs and actions of humans to acquire reinforcement”

(300). In this study, humans tested numerous dogs to see if they required the interaction or hand

gestures in order to come to a conclusion of whether or not they will be given food (see Figure

1). The results of the experiment reflected the domesticated dogs making discriminative choices

because they were “were based on past reinforcement histories, in which certain human actions

or orientations served as predictors of reinforcement upon approach” (Udell et. al 295). As

mentioned earlier in this review of Irvine’s theories, Udell et. al supports them by concluding

that the canine-human relationship has been well accepted by pets for beneficial reasons of

survival, food and emotional coping-petting for stress relief.  At the same time, Udell et. al study

endorses Irvine’s third theory by exemplifying that domesticated canines are more receptive to

interaction with humans and enjoy socializing. The socializing behaviors found in canines, allow

them to follow tasks given by humans thru various interactions of gestures or commands.

Undoubtedly, the canine-human relationship established as a result of natural selection after

Wong 5

humans started domesticating dogs because it benefited both parties; humans got to pick and

breed certain traits while dogs were able to survive.

Fig 1. The Pointing Task’s Layout and Procedure. Domesticated dogs have learned to depend and trust human’s

gestures in order to receive food and other pleasure; from Can Your Dog Read Your Mind? Understanding the

Causes of Canine Perspective Taking, 16 July 2015.

http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13420-011-0034-6/fulltext.html

        At the end, canines have successfully survived as an entire species, all thanks to the early

evolvement and development of the human-canine relationship at the end of the Pleistocene

Epoch. According to Brian Hare and Vanessa Woods, “the first dog breed was not created by

human selection or breeding but by natural selection” (2013). However, this is certainly not the

case today, because we have selectively bred dogs based on desirable traits, resulting in over 400

unique dog breeds (Rine 192). The different physical and behavioral traits that appeal to

everyone is not the only why the human-canine relationships still remains, but also for canine’s

willingness to interact and coexist with humans.

Wong 6

        Although the rate of domesticating dogs and selective breeding purebred dogs is thriving

and increasing, a lot of diseases and genetic problems are introduced at the same time. Since

humans and canines have such a long history together, why are the unethical practices behind the

business of dog breeding and puppy mills ignored and disregarded? Even after the studies of

canine cognition and canine ethology, making profit is of more importance than the thoughtless

breeding and brutal treatment of canine emotions, which is senseless. Although it is a

presumptuous way of thinking, some see humans as the sole reasons of canine’s survival up to

today. On the contrary, I believe dogs should be taken cared of and be ethically bred solely for

human characteristic of morality. It has been proven that dogs are extremely similar to humans

when it comes to experiencing both primary and secondary emotions and developing bonds,

hence the unethical practices of puppy mills should be terminated ultimately.

Wong 7

Works Cited

Bekoff, Marc. The Emotional Lives of Animals: A Leading Scientist Explores Animal Joy,

Sorrow, and Empathy--and Why They Matter. Novato, CA: New World Library,

2007. Print.

Hare, Brian, and Vanessa Woods. “Are We Having a Conversation?” The Genius of Dogs: How

Dogs Are Smarter than You Think. New York: Dutton, 2013. 125-44. Print.

Horowitz, Alexandra, and Julie Hecht. "Looking at Dogs: Moving from Anthropocentrism to

Canid Umwelt." Domestic Dog Cognition and Behavior: The Scientific Study of

Canis Familiaris. 201-15. Springer. Web. 12 July. 2015.

<http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-53994-7_9/fulltext.html>.

Irvine, Leslie. If You Tame Me Understanding Our Connection with Animals. Philadelphia:

Temple UP, 20044. Print.

Mitchell, Robert W., Nicholas S. Thompson, and H. Lyn Miles. Anthropomorphism, Anecdotes,

        and Animals. Albany: State U of New York, 1997. Print.

Peterson, Christopher, Steven F. Maier, and Martin Seligman. Learned Helplessness: A Theory

for the Age of Personal Control. Oxford University Press, 1995. Web. 14 July 2015.

Rine, Jasper. Tracking Footprints of Artificial Selection in the Dog Genome. California:

University of California, Berkeley, 2009. Web. 17 July 2015.

< http://www.pnas.org/content/107/3/1160.full.pdf >

Seligman, Martin E., Steven F. Maier, and James H. Geer. "Alleviation of Learned Helplessness

In The Dog." Journal of Abnormal Psychology 73.3, Pt.1 (1968): 256-62. APA

PsycNET. Web. 7 May 2015.

Serpell, James. “Origins of the Dog: Domestication and Early History.” The Domestic Dog: Its

Wong 8

Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995.

8-19. Print.

Udell, Monique A.R., Nicole R. Dorey, and Clive D.L. Wynne. “Can Your Dog Read Your

Mind? Understanding the Causes of Canine Perspective Taking.” Learning and Behavior.

289-302. Springer. Web. 16 July 2015.

<http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13420-011-0034-6/fulltext.html>

Wong 9