he timelessness of brick

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UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

Date:___________________

I, _________________________________________________________,

hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of:

in:

It is entitled:

This work and its defense approved by:

Chair: _______________________________

_______________________________

November 1, 2005

Stephanie A. Kroger

Master of Architecture

Architecture Built to Last: The Timelessness of Brick

Robert Burnham

Barry Stedman


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Architecture Built to Last:

The Timelessness of Brick

A thesis submitted to the

Division of Research and Advanced Studiesof the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of therequirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE

in the Department of Architectureof the College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning

2005

by

Stephanie A. Kroger

B.S. Arch., University of Cincinnati, 2003


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Abstract

Brick is one of the most culturally significant

contemporary building materials, with a rich history of

use throughout human history. Its social meaning has

changed over the past decades and centuries, but brick

has always been valued not only for its durability,

quality, and tradition, but also for its human properties

the direct human effort required to construct a brick wall

is apparent in every unit and joint. The versatility that is

possible through bricks simplicity of geometry allows

for the creation of an endless variety of forms and

textures in architecture.

Our technologically centered society tends to

emphasize the separation between buildings and the

human element of construction and craft. Computer-

generated forms are becoming more prevalent in

contemporary architecture. There are, of course, endless

benefits of technology, foremost its importance in

achieving efficiency and economy; but there are

consequences as well. Technology has changed the way

buildings are designed and constructed, directly

benefiting issues of economy and sustainability, but often

compromising human scale.

In todays design and construction practices, brick

is often reduced to simply a cladding material, wasting

much of its potential. Through the design of a non-

denominational chapel, a building will be created that

exploits the inherent human scale, craft, durability and

tradition of brick, while meeting the contemporary

demands of the 21st century.


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Table of Contents

i List of Illustrations

1 Introduction2 Brick Masonry Enclosure2.1 The Nature of Brick

2.1.1 Material Properties and Characteristics2.1.2 Types of Clay Masonry2.1.3 Mortar

2.2 Brick throughout History2.2.1 Origins of Brick Masonry2.2.2 Brick Development2.2.3 Exemplary Applications

3 Enclosure Design3.1 The Evolution of Modern Enclosure3.2 Design Basics

3.2.1 Climate Investigation3.2.2 Materials3.2.3 Proper Detailing and Assembly

3.3 The Brick Wall3.3.1 Types of Brick Walls3.3.2 Movement: Moisture and Thermal Forces3.3.3 Construction3.3.4 Structural Brick

4 The Role of Brick in Contemporary Architecture4.1 Modern-Day Brick

4.1.1 Style & Technology4.1.2 Sustainability4.1.3 Efficiency and Durability

4.2 Contemporary Brick Architecture4.2.1 Introduction4.2.2 Examples

5 Design Project5.1 Intent5.2

Program5.2.1 Precedents

5.2.2 Activities5.2.3 Diagrams

5.3 Site5.3.1 Description5.3.2 Analysis


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List of Illustrations

2-1 www.glengerybrick.com/about/manufacturing

2-2 John Gallagher, friend of author2-3 www.glengerybrick.com/

about/manufacturing2-4 www.glengerybrick.com/

about/manufacturing

2-5 www.glengerybrick.com/about/manufacturing

2-6 Campbell, 3052-7 Campbell, 322-8 Campbell, 352-9 Campbell, 352-10 www.columbia.edu2-11 James Popple(cs.anu.edu.au/~James.Popple)2-12 Popple2-13 Campbell, 642-14 Campbell, 742-15 Campbell, 1032-16 Campbell, 822-17

Campbell, 902-18 Campbell, 129

2-19 Campbell, 1392-20 Campbell, 1472-21 Campbell, 1512-22 Campbell, 752-23 Campbell, 76-772-24 Campbell, 237

2-25 Campbell, 2392-26 Bauwelt, 13 Mar. 1992, 5492-27 Anderson, 132-1332-28 www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp

/BT/EEI/MASONRY2-29 Bauwelt, 13 Mar. 1992, 5302-30 Bauwelt, 13 Mar. 1992, 5602-31 Bauwelt, 13 Mar. 1992, 5583-1 Lechner, 743-2 Beall, 289-2903-3 Beall, 2873-4 BIA Tech Notes, Issue 21C3-5 www.bia.org3-6 BIA, Tech. Notes 243-7 Campbell, 250-2513-8 Beall, 3223-9 Anderson, 674-1 www.kpf.com4-2 http://www.bluffton.edu4-3

http://www.horizons.uc.edu4-4 Campbell, 243

4-5 www.greatbuildings.com4-6 Architecture and Urbanism, Nov.

1983 Extra Edition, 1054-7 Architecture and Urbanism, Nov.

1983 Extra Edition, 102

4-8 Architecture and Urbanism, Nov.1983 Extra Edition, 109

4-9 RIBA Journal, Sept. 1995, 44.5-1 libraries.mit.edu5-2 www.figure-ground.com5-3 www.figure-ground.com5-4 libraries.mit.edu5-5 Campbell, 2735-6 Campbell, 2745-7 Sigurd Lewerentz 1885-1975, 815-8 Anderson, 425-9 Anderson, 515-10 Anderson, 495-11 Anderson, 485-12 Photo by author5-13 Photo by author5-14 Map by author5-15 Photo by author5-16 Photo by author5-17 Photo by author


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1 Introduction

Brick is one of the few building materials that has

survived from ancient times, never losing esteem over the

years. Its popularity as a building material remains strong

even into the 21st century. This is a result of the many

redeeming qualities that brick possesses, foremost its

versatility. Bricks are individual units, sized to relate to the

human hand and to the strength of the human arm; their

proportions are determined by efficient geometry. These

characteristics are inherent to brick: if bricks unitized and

standardized nature is taken away, the material becomes

something entirely different.

Throughout the course of history, brick has been one of

the most versatile and widely used materials for building.

Thousands of years before fired brick technology was

developed in ancient Rome, the Egyptians and Mesopotamians

were using mud brick to build shelter and, later, fired brick in

temples and mausoleums. This technology spread to the

Roman Empire and throughout Europe, to India, Sri Lanka

and Burma, into China, and eventually throughout the rest of

the world.1 This was possible because brick is made from the

most abundant material available to us: the earth itself. As aresult, brick took on the spirit of the region in which it was

made, and different cultures have used the material in unique

and beautiful ways.

Historically, a brick wall often served as the structure,

weather barrier, vapor retarder, insulator, and sometimes theinterior finish of a building. This was the case with buildings of

almost any material until the 20th century, when the

development of new materials, high performance expectations,

and economic trends resulted in a dramatic change in building

enclosure systems. In all industrialized nations, monolithic,

load-bearing enclosures have generally been replaced by

systems that separate the structure from the skin of the

building. The skins, known as cladding systems, are

composites separated into discrete elements or layers that

address the various functional requirements of enclosure. A

typical cladding system has an outer material to shed water, a

cavity to drain moisture, a membrane to stop moisture entry, a

1 James W. P. Campbell,Brick: A World History, (London: Thames &

Hudson, 2003)


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for buildings with contemporary forms. The Brick Industry

Association reports that the last 10 years have been the best

years for the brick industry since the early 70s.6 These bricks,

however, are not typically being used in the creation of

significant architectural icons; they are mainly used in

residential construction and in educational and civic

institutions.7

Why is brick so popular for these types of buildings?

Daniel Willis, a writer for Harvard Design Magazine, speculates

that people want to escape the constant change that technology

has introduced into the modern lifestyle.8 The comfort of

tradition comes with brick architecture, and these civic

institutions are the buildings that people interact with on a

daily basis. So again we ask, can brick be used to create an

image of the future, or should it be restricted only to cultural

icons that evoke tradition?

This document traces the evolution of brick and the

advances in enclosure systems throughout history. The socio-

6 The Brick Industry Association, www.bia.org7 Daniel Willis, Social-Climbing Brick,Harvard Design Magazine

Summer 2000: 708

Willis, 73-74.

cultural implications of brick and the idea of style as it relates to

architecture will also be discussed. The technical aspects of

brick and brick enclosure will be included to demonstrate the

materials properties and the traditional methods of brick wall

construction. The basics of designing a successful enclosure

system (in general) are summarized, including climatic

response, material detailing, and principles of assembly. Thisresearch will lead to the creation of an enclosure that uses brick

to its fullest potential. This enclosure will combine the

principles used for brick construction with the basic principles

of enclosure to create a style that is appropriate for a modern

building and an exceptional use of the material brick. The

building, a chapel, will incorporate bricks beauty, durability,

and versatility. Its design will respond to the technological and

sustainable demands of our contemporary world in both style

and assembly, while integrating the historical context and

characteristics that brick inherently carries with it.


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2 Brick Masonry

What is brick, and why has it been so prevalent in building throughout the history

of the modern world? This chapter explains what brick physically is, how it is made, and

why its proportions and geometry have made it an important material for building

throughout history. The second part of this chapter demonstrates how versatile the

material is by studying bricks use over time throughout the world. Finally, examples of

buildings and architects that use brick to its fullest artistic and/or structural potential are

discussed.

2.1 The Nature Of Brick Masonry

2.1.1 Material Properties and Characteristics

Brick is made by firing raw material clay. Clay is a mineral composition in which

particles are less than 0.002 mm in size. Due to their small size, the particles inherently

have a great amount of surface area to which water can cling, making the clay hydrous.

This property gives the clay a plastic composition when wetted, allowing it to be easily

molded. Clay contains many different types of particles, including silica, alumina,

metallic oxides, and lime. Aluminum silicates are the basic compounds in clay, and they

are responsible for vitrification under high temperatures, which causes the material to

fuse together. The clay also contains metallic oxides of varying kinds that determine at

Figure 2-1 Gathering Raw Materials

Figure 2-3 Machine-pressed brick molds

Figure 2-2 Extrusion of Clay


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what temperature the material will vitrify and the colors that will be produced. The

metallic oxides also positively affect the structural properties of the fired brick. The lime

that is found in most clays must be ground into tiny pieces, because once the lime is

burned in the kiln, it can slack (combine with water), which causes it to expand over time,

resulting in cracking of the brick if too much lime is present.1

Before the clay is fired, it is washed to remove materials such as stones and soil,

and then it is crushed and ground into a fine powder. This is necessary to ensure that theclay mixes evenly with the water. There are four steps in the brick manufacturing

process, beginning with the forming of the clay into bricks. There are two common

forming methods: die pressed and molded. The die-pressed method can only be used

when the clay is stiff-mud, meaning that it contains between 12 and 15% moisture by

weight. This method produces a continuous extrusion of clay that is sliced into pieces.

The other method is to press soft-mud clay (containing 20 to 30% water) into molds,

either by hand or by machine. The next step in the manufacturing process is drying,

which is done carefully to ensure that the bricks dry slowly and evenly; drying

temperatures should not exceed 400F. Once the bricks are dried, which typically takes

24 to 48 hours, they may be glazed, if desired. Then the clay is burned, or fired, in a kiln

where temperatures reach between 1600 and 2400F in order for vitrification, or fusing of

the particles, to occur. The last step in the manufacturing process is the drawing and

1 Christine Beall,Masonry Design and Detailing(New York: McGraw-Hill Inc, 1993)

Figure 2-5 Tunnel kiln

Figure 2-4 Hand-molded bricks


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storage of the bricks, during which they are removed from the kiln, cooled, and stored or

shipped.2

This manufacturing process is highly controlled, producing an excellent quality

building material. As a result of the high-temperatures achieved during production,

brick masonry is an extremely durable material that matures well and resists moisture

and thermal damage (including fire). Like all masonry materials, bricks strength lies in

compression. On average, a building brick has a compressive strength of 3,000 psi,though a bricks strength is able to reach 22,000 psi if necessary. Another property of

brick is expansion. Bricks thermal expansion is almost negligible (0.00025 inches for

100F temperature change), and is reversed with a decrease in temperature.3 Brick also

expands with the absorption of moisture, though this change is permanent. The

coefficient of absorption is 0.02 to 0.07%, depending on the grade of brick.4 This

movement must be accounted for in brick wall construction, as will be discussed in

Chapter 3.

2.1.2 Types of Brick

Bricks are typically of a cuboid shape, a result of the moulds into/through which

the clay is pressed. Their size and shape is mainly determined by the need for bricks to be

easily handled by a single mason during construction. Bricks are almost always cored,

2 Ibid, 18.3 Ibid, 63.4 Ibid, 64.


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hollowed, or frogged to aid in the drying process, to allow for the insertion of reinforcing

bar, and to make the bricks lighter and easier to handle. In the United States, there is no

one standard brick size; dimensions vary based on the design and application. There are

many commonly manufactured sizes, however, that are readily available in the US. See

the chart below for dimensions of these bricks. Special shapes of brick are also available,

to be used for elements such as water tables, jambs, lintels, copings, and more. Some

examples of these are shown below. Custom-made brick is almost always available as

well, though it comes at a high price. Many different bond patterns may be created using

a single size of brick, and various sizes can be incorporated into the pattern.5 Some

common patterns are shown to the right.

5 Edward Allen,Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods (New York: Wiley, 1999)

Unit Name

Modular 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 7 1/2 or 7 5/8 2 1/4Standard 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 8 2 1/4

Engineer Modular 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 7 1/2 or 7 5/8 2 3/4 to 2 13/16

Engineer Standard 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 8 2 3/4

Closure Modular 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 7 1/2 or 7 5/8 3 1/2 or 3 5/8

Closure Standard 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 8 3 5/8

Rom an 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 11 1/2 or 11 5/8 1 5/8

Norm an 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 11 1/2 or 11 5/8 2 1/4

Engineer Norm an 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 11 1/2 or 11 5/8 2 3/4 to 2 13/16

Utility 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 11 1/2 or 11 5/8 3 1/2 or 3 5/8King Size 3 9 5/8 2 5/8 or 2 3/4

Queen Size 3 7 5/8 or 8 2 3/4

Typical Brick Sizes in the U nited States

Width (in) Length (in) Height (in)

Figure 2-6 Bonding Patterns


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There are three grades of brick, distinguished by their absorption properties:

severe weathering (SW), moderate weathering (MW), and negligible weathering (NW).

SW grade brick is to be used where the brick is subject to water saturation or where

freezing conditions are possible while the brick is permeated with any amount of water;

this includes most below-grade applications. MW brick is recommended for above-

ground application on vertical surfaces, and NW brick should only be used in sheltered

or interior conditions.6

There are also three types of face brick, indicating appearance: FBX(select), FBS (standard), and FBA (architectural). Type FBX are bricks that are highly

controlled, with negligible differences in size and color, and are to be used where a high

level of precision is required in the construction of the wall. Type FBS bricks have some

variation in color and size, and type FBA bricks have little uniformity of color, size, or

texture. FBA are popular in residential construction, because they can be specialized to

have a distinct appearance.7

2.1.3 Mortar

Mortar is the binding agent in a brick wall, mechanically connecting the

individual pieces together. Whereas it only makes up a small portion of the wall, mortar

highly impacts the structural performance and aesthetics of the wall, and is therefore an

important component to consider. In general, there are two different types of mortar:

6 Beall, 35-37.7 Allen, 1999.


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lime-based and portland cement-based. Lime mortars, consisting of lime, sand and

water, cure slowly, providing a tight bond, and have excellent workability; unfortunately,

they have a low compressive strength. Portland cement mortar cures very quickly and

has a high compressive strength, but is very difficult to work with and creates a poor

bond. Admixtures can be combined with the mortar to increase its workability, but this

reduces the bond strength, compromising the strength of the entire wall. Typically,

portland cement-lime mortar is used, which is a combination of the two types, takingadvantage of the benefits of each. The proportions can vary, depending on the specific

needs of the project.8

Now that we have an understanding of brick as a unit of masonry, we can better

understand its nature as a material for building. Through this understanding, designers

can use the material to its fullest potential, pushing it to new or different ends to create

new and exemplary buildings. To use brick in creating architecture, however, more must

be learned about the material: how it has been made and assembled to create architecture

in the past.

8 Allen, 1999.


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2.2 The History of Brick

A lot can be learned about a material by studying its history. Examining how

brick has been formed and assembled in the past provides an understanding of where

the materials strengths and weaknesses are and knowledge of how to best take

advantage of these. In addition to learning about the physical properties of a material,

this type of research surveys the various styles that have been created using brick, andshows the aesthetic opportunities presented by the material. Bricks long history of

development has resulted in a wide range of uses; but the versatility of the material lends

itself to limitless possibilities, and as technology advances, more options for its use are

presented to designers.

2.2.1 Origins of Brick

Brick has been used in building for at least 10,000 years, sharing its origins with

the beginning of civilization. The first bricks, found in both Egypt and Jericho (Jordan),

were hand-formed out of mud and then left to dry and harden in the sun.9 The next

significant advancement was the molded brick, developed approximately 5000 BC. This

is important because builders were now able to fit bricks closely together, unlike with the

previous rounded-edge bricks. Brick as we know it today has its origins around 3500 BC

in Mesopotamia, with the invention of the fired brick. Baking bricks at high temperatures

9 N. S. Baer, et al, Conservation of Historic Brick Structures (Dorset: Donhead, 1998)

Figure 2-7 Ziggurat, Mesopotamia


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made them structurally capable of being used for large-scale buildings. This process,

however, was costly and complicated: large amounts of fuel were required, and

achieving accurate temperatures was critical to the structural integrity of the brick.10

2.2.2 Brick Development

Egyptians were the first to use bricks to make arches and vaults, which were

constructed mainly in tombs and temples. In Egypt, mud brick was mainly used becauseit was much simpler to make than fired brick, and stone was readily available when there

was need for more durable construction. In Mesopotamia, where stone was not

abundant, fired bricks were highly valued, and therefore used principally in temples and

palaces. The ziggurat, a base for a temple, was common throughout the Mesopotamian

region, and these structures were often built of a mud brick core surrounded by a fired

brick shell. Typically, a bituminous mortar (bitumen is a by-product of oil) was used for

these structures because it was readily available. Excavations of Babylon, a major city in

Mesopotamia, have shown that the city had a high level of mastery of fired and glazed

bricks, though there is no record of their methods. This mastery can be seen in the

Babylonian Palace, the Ishtar Gate (pictured to the right), and their use of sculpted brick

relief.11

10 James W. P. Campbell,Brick: A World History (London: Thames & Hudson, 2003) 30.11 Ibid, 34-35.

Figure 2-8 Ishtar Gate Detail, Babylon

Figure 2-9 Ishtar Gate, Babylon


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There is little record of fired brick from the 1st century BC in the Roman Empire,

though it was present in southern Italy and Sicily during that time. Vitruvius, author of

the greatest architectural writings of antiquity, wrote during this time, and there is no

mention of fired brick anywhere in his papers. By the end of the 1st century AD, however,

there is evidence of fired brick being used throughout the Roman Empire. This is the first

time that fired brick was extensively used in all of Europe.

This growing popularity of fired brick in the 1st

century AD led to thedevelopment of a brick industry in the Roman Empire, and by the 2nd century it was fully

established, and brickyards with kilns were commonplace. Typical wall construction

was not solid masonry, but a concrete wall faced with brick. The square, flat bricks most

often were cut at a diagonal, with the long edge pointed towards the face of the wall, in a

similar fashion to how a stone wall was built. By this time in Rome, the Greek system of

post and lintel construction was being replaced with arches and vaults, which were easily

constructed out of bricks. This can be seen in the aquaducts and bathes throughout the

empire, and especially in the Roman Colosseum, built 70 80 AD12(pictured to the right).

This elliptical amphitheatre is a three tiered arcade of brick-enforced concrete vaults,

which optimize the circulation in the outer ring of the Colosseum. Until the 2nd century,

brick was not typically left as the finish face of a wall, and so the Colosseum was clad in

travertine marble. This was the practice for most buildings that were constructed with

brick, the primary cladding material being either plaster or stone. Once masons became

12 Ibid, 56. Figure 2-12 The Colosseum, Rome

Figure 2-11 The Colosseum, Rome

Figure 2-10 Roman Brickwork


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practiced in brickwork, however, decorative patterning began to emerge in buildings.

An early example of this is Trajans Markets in Rome, built about 100 AD. This four level

marketplace is built into the side of a hill, with entablatures and pediments carved out of

the brickwork.13 Another significant building of this period is the Roman Pantheon,

constructed in 124 AD. There is no finish brickwork in the building, but the structural

support for the dome is brick piers, and brick arches were built into the walls for

strength.14

The Eastern Roman Empire used brick extensively in their buildings, fully

developing the solid brick wall. Builders in Byzantium created intricate bonding patterns

that were unique to the region. Wide mortar joints, sometimes wider than the bricks

themselves, became typical. The most fantastic example of Byzantine brickwork is the

church of Hagia Sophia, built in Constantinople in 532 AD. It is built almost entirely out of

brick, including the massive 100 ft wide, 180 ft high dome. During this same time period,

however, was the fall of the Roman Empire, and the brick industry, along with building

in general, went dormant for awhile.15

The first use of fired brick in the East has been dated between the years of 475 and

221 BC, and was found in China. These bricks are in the form of flat, rectangular slabs,

and the material is similar to terracotta. Later, more standard-sized bricks were used in

13 Ibid, 52.14 Andrew Plumridge and Wim Meulenkamp,Brickwork: Architecture and Design (New York: Abrams,

1993)15 Campbell, 64.

Figure 2-13 Hagia Sophia


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China. There have not been kilns discovered, so it is speculated that the Chinese used a

firing method similar to the clamp method, where the bricks are clamped together and

heated from below. Later, a more sophisticated method was developed, as is evident by

the consistency in the bricks. Until 960 AD, there was no technology of an adhesive

mortar, and mud was therefore used to bind the bricks together. When mud mortar is

used in a wall, it is required for stability that the bricks fit closely together, which the

Chinese were able to successfully achieve. Their walls were usually covered with somesort of mud-plaster, for the purposes of both decoration and sealing the mud mortar from

excess water.16

Islamic buildings in the 7th and 8th centuries were constructed of both mud and

fired bricks, usually in a square shape. There was advanced development of brick

patterning in this region during this time period, mainly in their sacred buildings. This is

a result of the Muslim belief that no living thing be represented in the decoration on

buildings, and therefore geometric patterns were used, often created using the square

geometry of bricks. These patterns were exquisitely designed and detailed, the best

example being the well-preserved late 7th century Tomb of Saminids (pictured to the

right).17

The early Middle Ages showed little development of brick, except in the Po

Valley of northern Italy. Stone was not readily available in this region, but the clay was

16 Campbell, 70-71.17 Ibid, 75.

Figure 2-14 Tomb of Saminids


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ideal for brick making. The thick, rectangular bricks were different in form than those

used by the Romans, which were flat, square-shaped slabs. This form developed in

Ravenna (Italian mainland town near Venice) in the 6th century, and spread throughout

the Po Valley by the 15th century.18 Northern Europe was using brick during this period

as well, though it is not clear how the technology was revived (brick had been used in

Europe when it was part of the Roman Empire, but its use declined with the fall of

Rome). North of the Alps, a new, smaller brick was developed in the 12th

century thatwas easier to handle, changing the construction industry, which had now been

established throughout most of Europe. In Germany and Poland, a style of brick

building developed called Backsteingotik, meaning baked stone gothic, and was mainly

used for castles, towers, and fortifications. This style was modest at first, but eventually

led to a style of building that used brick in a beautifully decorative way. The gate in

Lubuck, Germany is an example of this style.19

It has been established that there was a strong brick-building tradition in the

Buddhist settlements of India and south-east Asia before the Middle Ages, but few

buildings and little record remain to prove its existence. What has survived from the 7th

century on, however, shows a highly developed knowledge of brick-making, centralized

around the ancient capital city Pagan (present-day Myanmar, formerly Burma). Using

burnt bricks of brilliant orange color and the vaulting technology of the indigenous Pyu

18 Campbell, 94.19 Campbell, 103.

Figure 2-15 Neubrandenburg Gate,

Lbeck, Germany

Figure 2-16 Pagan, Myanmar


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people, the settlers of Pagan built Buddhist temples and stupas that climbed high into the

sky.20 Further south-east, in present-day Thailand, the people were building their version

of the stupa, which was similar in form, but influenced by the four different cultures

living there. In this region, there is evidence of a vegetable-based mortar that was used to

bond the bricks together. All across the region, these stupas, covered in decorative

plaster, dominated the skylines of the cities throughout the Middle Ages.21

The stupa form also influenced Chinese architecture during this period, where itquickly evolved into what is now known as the pagoda. These buildings, which were

tiered and usually occupiable, were made out of either brick, stone, or wood, or a

combination of these materials. Only the masonry pagodas survive today. Records exist

of a Chinese building code, established in 1103, that standardized brick sizes and the

firing process. This resulted in an accuracy in the bricks that allowed the pagodas to bebeautifully constructed and precisely detailed.22

The Renaissance marks the rise of architecture as an art, and it is during this

period that we see the role and title of architect clearly defined and distinctly separated

from the master builder. Brunelleschi is perhaps the most established architect of the

Renaissance because of his admirable feat of spanning the dome in Florences cathedral

(the Duomo). This was an amazing engineering feat, but also an innovative solution to

the problem of constructing a dome out of brick. In his design, the bricks were essentially

20 Campbell, 82-86.21 Ibid, 88-89.22 Ibid, 90-93.

Figure 2-18 The Florence Cathedral

Figure 2-17 Chinese Pagodas


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wedged into place as the dome tapered inwards.23 This was the largest dome ever

constructed in the Western world, though a larger dome was achieved 1000 years earlier

in present-day Iraq.24 Brick continued to flourish during the Renaissance as the Baroque

style became the norm throughout Italy. At the same time, beautifully crafted brickwork

was emerging in England, and carved and molded terracotta became a staple in all

buildings of the wealthy class. A striking example is the Layer Marney Tower, built in

the 16th century, which demonstrates the popular practice of diapering, or creatingdiamond-shaped patterns in the walls with brick headers of a different color.25

The Persian Renaissance, during the same time period, also shows extensive use

of brick in their palaces, mosques, squares and bazaars. Large vaults and domes show

their knowledge of brick as structure, and the intricately patterned facades of glazed and

colored brick demonstrate their mastery of bricks aesthetic potential.26 Russia was alsodeveloping brick at this time, and as a result of limited western influence, a distinct style

emerged. In China, this period marks the third construction of the Great Wall, which

remains to this day one of the largest and most extensive uses of brick throughout the

world.27

From the Renaissance onward, various styles and techniques of brick construction

were continuously developed throughout the world. New and innovative strategies

23 Campbell, 126-127.24 John Warren, Conservation of Brick, (Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 1999)25 Campbell, 141.26 Ibid, 150-155.27 Ibid, 158-159.

Figure 2-21 Vaulted ceiling

of Persian bazaar

Figure 2-20 Russia

Figure 2-19 Diapering


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were often employed in building, but some things remained the same: the industry was

standardized, and bricks were modules that were laid by hand and adhered together for

stability. Forms and styles were abundant, often reflecting the region and culture, but

bricks inherent nature was inescapable. This is fortunate, though, because it is this

nature that has allowed brick construction to succeed. Some cases of historical brick

construction prevail, however, for their extraordinary use of the material, and some of

these are detailed in the following section. Examples of modern brick style and

construction will be reviewed in Chapter 4.

2.2.3 Exemplary Applications of Brick

Tomb of Saminids

As discussed previously, this mausoleum in Bukhara is fantastically preserved,

and one of the only remaining buildings from its period. Built between 862 and 907 AD, it

is an example of the intricacy of the brickwork used by the Muslims. Bricks of special

sizes were cut and formed to create the textured patterns covering the walls on the

interior and exterior of the building. The patterns are enhanced by the contrast betweenthe light brick and dark shadows created on the surface by the harsh sun of the Middle

East. In addition to being a stunning example of complex brickwork, the tomb is early

evidence of a dome over a square space. This structural problem was solved by arching

over the four corners of the building to support the dome (see photo to the right); theseFigure 2-23 Tomb of Saminids, brick details

Figure 2-22 Tomb of Saminids, interior


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arches are hidden on the outside by the gallery arches, but revealed on the interior.28 This

building survives today because it was buried under sand for centuries, only to be

uncovered in 1934, thus escaping the Mongol invasions of Bukhara in 1220. Local legend

claims, however, that the tomb survived because the Mongols were so struck by its

beauty that they spared it.29

Antoni Gaudi i Cornet

This Spanish architect is most commonly identified with his polychromatic,

organically formed facades, found in Barcelona and throughout Spain. Gaudis work is

most frequently rendered in colorful tiles or painted, but he also used exposed brick in

some of his buildings, especially his earlier works (mid-late 1880s). The Colegio

Teresiano in Barcelona, a convent school, uses brick parabolic arches for its interior

structure as well as on the faade, where a beautiful rhythm is created with the brick. The

organic nature of Gaudis work begins to emerge in the Crypt of the Colonia Gull. The

entire church was never finished, but the completed crypt employs a mixture of stone

columns and brick vaults for the structure. The vaults are created by laying the bricks in a

traditional method called la tabicada, which uses thin, tile-like bricks stacked at an angle toeach other and covered with a layer of quick-setting gypsum mortar. The resulting space

is a truly amazing network of brick arches and vaults.30

28 Campbell, 74-77.29 Warren.30 Campbell 237-239.

Figure 2-24 Colegio Teresiano, Barcelona

Figure 2-25 Crypt of Colonia Gull


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Eladio Dieste

An engineer by trade, this Uruguayan revolutionized mid-20th century

architecture in Latin America. A contemporary of Gaudi, Dieste used reinforced brick,

known locally as ceremica armada, to create dynamic structural forms. His work earned

him honorary architectural degrees from two Latin American universities. 31 The best-

known example of his work, built in 1959 in Atlntida, Uruguay (just outside the capitol,

Montevideo), is the Church of Christ the Worker. Amazingly, this was Diestes first

architectural work.32 The undulating walls function to support the roof, and their

construction of a double layer of brick with a mortar bed in between needs no additional

31 Ramn Gutirrez, Sense and Sensuality,Architecture Aug. 1999: 57-58.32 Sanford Anderson, ed,Eladio Dieste: Innovation in Structural Art(New York: Princeton ArchitecturalPress, 2004) 42.

Figure 2-26 The Church of Christ the Worker,

Uruguay

Figure 2-27 Port Warehouse, Montevideo


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lateral support. For vaults, roof, and other horizontal surfaces, the bricks were cored

across their length (as opposed to the vertical cores of typical bricks), making them

lightweight while maintaining their strength. These construction practices were used in

most of Diestes buildings. Dieste used brick because it was locally available, and its

technology was already understood by masons in Uruguay; this was a benefit

economically as well as creating an expression of the region. He also liked the material

because it is resistant to sudden temperature change, ages well, and requires little

maintenance.33

33 Malcolm Quantrill, ed,Latin American Architecture: Six Voices (College Station: Texas A&MUniversity Press, 2000) 22-23.

Figure 2-28 Vittorio Vergalito, master

mason, working on Christ the Worker

Figure 2-29 Church of San Pedro, DurzanoFigure 2-30 Don Bosco School

Gymnasium, Montevideo

Figure 2-31 Diagram of vault construction


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3 Brick Enclosure

3.1 Evolution of Modern Enclosure

In the past, enclosure was built out of a limited number of materials, and so

construction was fairly simple. Methods were standardized, and the technology was

well understood and practiced. This allowed for durable enclosures that succeeded in the

primary goal of shelter: keeping the weather outside. Typical methods for doing this

were to shed water off of the wall and to use mass as a means of delaying heat transfer.

Buildings were far from perfect, however, and so as technology advanced throughout the

20th century, new methods and materials were developed for use as enclosure. These

systems are complex and specialized, and as a result, knowledge of them tends to belimited to what is provided by the manufacturers.1

During the years following World War I, the typical solid brick bearing wall was

reduced in thickness in order to lower the cost of building. This resulted in moisture

problems, because the there was not enough mass in the walls to allow the naturally

absorbed moisture in the brick to escape to the outside. This realization led to the design

of a wall that was two wythes of brick separated by a 2 inch wide air space. This design,

which was common practice until the Second World War, allowed moisture to escape the

cavity, but only improved thermal comfort slightly. Insulation needed to be added in

1 William Allen,Envelope Design for Building(Oxford: William Allen, 1997) 76.


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order to improve thermal comfort, and cavity walls presented the perfect opportunity for

its insertion. Through the 1950s and 60s, block back-up walls became common, and

various cladding materials were developed to be used as facing, employing the cavity

wall concept. The end result of this was that the inner and outer wythes of the wall acted

almost independently of each other in their response to thermal and moisture forces.2

Masonry cavity walls very popular today because they provide resistance to rain

penetration, have good thermal capabilities, and are resistant to sound transmission and

fire.3

3.2 The Basics of Enclosure

3.2.1

Climatic ResponseA building enclosures performance is greatly affected by its surrounding

environment. There are two zones that the enclosure must moderate between: the

interior and the exterior. In almost all building cases, these are two very different climatic

zones. The interior climate should be relatively static, remaining at a constant

temperature range of about 68

to 78

F, with a relative humidity between 25 and 70%, no

matter what the exterior temperature and weather conditions. The enclosure plays a

2 Ibid, 77.3 Brick Masonry Cavity Walls, Technical Notes on Brick Construction (Brick Institute of America, Issue21 Revised, May 1987) 1.


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major role in keeping the interior in that thermal comfort range.4 Typically, the exterior

temperature is above or below the desired interior temperature.

It is important to understand the climate and weather systems of a particular

region when designing building enclosure. The major climatic forces on an enclosure are

temperature, precipitation, and wind. These forces work together to penetrate the

exterior envelope, and therefore must be anticipated in design. Norbert Lechner, a

leading professor and writer on creating comfortable and sustainable environments, has

divided the United States into 17 climatic regions, based on information in the AIAs

book Regional Guidelines for Building Passive Energy Conserving Homes. He details the

regions with climate data tables that include a climate description, envelope design

suggestions, thermal comfort information (the psychrometric-bioclimatic chart), and the

normal conditions of temperature, relative humidity, wind, and sunlight for the region.5

This information is intended to be used for the design of climate responsive building

enclosure.

In climatic regions in which temperature fluctuations are large, building materials

will experience thermal expansion and contraction (as will be discussed further in section

3.3.2). If the temperature drops below the freezing point, the enclosure materials are

subject to freeze-thaw conditions. This is important to consider because often (especially

with brick) moisture is present in the wall, and it will expand upon freezing. If there is

4 Ibid, 22.5 Norbert Lechner, Heating, Cooling, Lighting(New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2001) 74-79.

Figure 3-1 Lechner's Regions


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too much moisture trapped in the wall system, the materials may be damaged; therefore,

the amount of moisture in a wall must be controlled. Rainfall is the most common way

that water enters the envelope. A wall must be protected from rainfall with copings,

overhangs, sills and gutters to prevent excessive amounts of water from entering the wall,

but diving rain will still reach the wall. Once a wall is wet, water enters by means of

capillary action, thermal pumping, and surface absorption.6 Moisture in the air can be

forced into a wall system by differential air pressure. Air moves from areas of high

pressure to areas of low pressure, and always carries moisture with it. Once this moist air

is inside the wall, it is likely to condense on a surface, where it could be trapped if not

given a means of escape. If that happens, mold and mildew will form, creating air quality

problems within the building.7 If the wall is sealed too tightly, moist trapped air can

cause another problem: when the cavity heats up, the air pressure increases, creating ahigher pressure on the inside of the wall than on the outside. This will cause the exterior

enclosure to bulge outwards, possibly leading to structural (and aesthetic) problems. The

concept of a rainscreen wall addresses this issue. In this type of system, air is free to flow

in and out of the wall, maintaining a constant air pressure between outside and inside,

while preventing moisture build-up. The concept will be discussed in more detail in

Section 3.3.1.

6 Allen, 1997, 15-17.7 Ibid, 121.


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There are certain properties of enclosure that affect the way it responds to the

previously discussed climatic forces. The first is its thermal inertia, defined by the mass of

the wall. Brick masonry walls have a relatively high thermal inertia because of the

materials high capacity for heat absorption. This means that heat moves slowly through

the wall, whether it is going in or out. This property can be used to the buildings

advantage (such as in a trombe wall), but it can also cause stress on the buildings

mechanical environmental control system if not properly anticipated. The surface

material of the enclosure also affects how the building responds to heat. Light colors and

shiny surfaces reflect the suns rays, while dark, textured surfaces tend to absorb them.

Insulation greatly affects the heat gain/loss through the enclosure of a building. It

is an important aspect of buildings today, improving both thermal comfort and

sustainability. Layered cladding systems are typically very accommodating of insulation.The most important aspect to consider with the insertion of insulation is how it affects the

temperature in the wall. Without insulation, the wall would exchange considerable

amounts of heat with the interior of the building; with insulation, the wall (outside of the

insulation) remains closer to the temperature of the exterior environment. This means

that it will be expanding and contracting at a different rate than the materials on the

interior of the building (which typically includes the structure). This differential

movement must be accounted for in the design of the enclosure.

To prevent air infiltration and exfiltration (air moves from high to low

temperature) into the exterior envelope, an air barrier should be included in the wall


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assembly. This is necessary for thermal comfort and HVAC efficiency. The barrier

should be located on the warm side of the enclosure, which in most climates is the

interior side of the insulation.8

3.2.2 MaterialsMaterials respond differently to temperature and moisture, resulting in

differential movement that must be taken into account. Typically, when a material

increases in temperature or absorbs moisture, it will expand. This property, known as the

coefficient of expansion, is predictable, and has therefore been calculated and catalogued

for most building materials. Bricks coefficient of expansion was defined in section 2.1.1.

Materials can also chemically react to one another or to air and water, such as the reaction

between aluminum and lime (present in mortar) or the corrosion of steel in the presenceof oxygen. If the reaction is unavoidable (cannot be prevented), the materials should not

be allowed to come into contact with each other. In the case of corroding steel, measures

can be taken to prevent the oxidation (such as galvanizing or stainless steel). In a brick

wall assembly, the most vulnerable material is the steel tie that bonds the brick to the

back-up wall. Using galvanized or stainless steel ties is an option, but the best

preventative measure is to keep the wall as dry as possible using the methods described

in the previous section. Corrosion problems will only occur if large amounts of water

become trapped in the wall.

8 International Masonry Institute, Air Barriers Update, Technology Briefs, Annapolis, MD: IMI, 2004.


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3.2.3 Proper Detailing and AssemblyDesigners must realize the constraints of assembly when detailing the enclosure

of a building. The order in which the layers of the envelope are to be constructed should

be thought about, as well as the method of installation. If the person constructing the wall

cannot install certain elements the way that they are designed, then a new solution will

have to be designed, which may not achieve the same end results as the original detail.

This could compromise the structural and environmental durability of the enclosure, and

could also delay the construction process. For brick walls above one story, there must be

a secure place for the mason to stand, preferably on the inside of the building rather than

on scaffolding.9

It also must be realized that construction is not an exact science. Brick masonry

walls, as with all cladding systems, must have adequate construction tolerances includedin the design, to allow for inaccuracies of the frame and other building systems. With

brick masonry veneer walls, the allowable out-of-plumb tolerance is inch in each

direction for walls up to 100 ft high. To account for this, shelf angles should be wider

than necessary; a 5-inch leg for a wall with a 2-inch cavity is typical.10 Providing

mechanisms for adjustment in cladding systems is also helpful when aligning building

components, such as having slip joints on brick ledges where they attach to the steel

frame.

9 E. Allen, 679.10 Beall, 448-449.


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3.3 The Brick Wall

3.3.1 Types of Brick WallsToday, brick can be used to create both structural and veneer walls. In modern

buildings, it is not common to create bearing walls using only brick; however, it is

possible, and in low- to mid-rise buildings, it can be economical. Bearing walls are

typically reinforced with steel re-bar, and the materials and construction must conform to

strict standards set out by the ASTM and ANSI.11 The walls can be either solid masonry

or cavity wall construction. More detailed information on structural brick follows in

section 3.3.4. Non-structural brick walls, or veneer walls, are often self-supporting, but

they do not bear any additional loads and transfer any lateral loads to the connected

structure/back-up system. Often veneer walls are panel walls, in which panels of brick

are supported at each floor by a shelf, typically connected to the floor slab. It is important

to remember differential movement in the design of these systems, for there is a variety of

materials that come into contact with each other, as discussed in section 3.3.2.

Most brick walls constructed today, whether they are bearing or veneer, are cavity

walls. A cavity wall has two layers of enclosure separated by an air space, which may ormay not be filled with insulation. This cavity should be no less than 2-inches wide, and is

typically no more than 4-in. In all cavity walls, the facing layer is attached to the backing

11 ANSI (American National Standards Institute) www.ansi.org, ASTM International (American Society forTesting and Materials) www.astm.org

Figure 3-2 Section: brick veneer wall with

steel stud back-up wall.


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layer for lateral stability. The cavity has many useful functions, making it a superior

enclosure system. The outer layer (in our case brick) stops water from entering the cavity,

but is permeable to moisture. The cavity should therefore contain a moisture barrier to

collect and shed water. The water can escape the cavity through weep holes located at

the bottom. Continuous flashing is required at all places where water must be drained,

including the foundation, sills, lintels, brick ledges, and parapets.12

A further development of the cavity wall system is the concept of a rainscreen

wall, used to keep excess moisture out of a wall. When there is driving rain, moisture

enters a wall through its cracks not only by capillary action, but also because of the

pressure differential. The windy exterior conditions have a greater pressure than inside

the cavity; in order to equalize the pressure, air moves into the wall, carrying moisture

with it. The rainscreen principle counters this process by specifying that vents be insertedat the top of a cavity, allowing the exterior and cavity pressures to be equal at all times.

These vents can be created in a brick wall by leaving some of the head joints free of

mortar (as with weep holes).13

3.3.2 Movement: Moisture and Thermal ForcesAll building materials expand and/or contract in response to temperature and/or

moisture, and this must be taken into consideration in the design of enclosure systems. In

12 Beall, 240.13 Ibid, 238-239.

Figure 3-3 Axonometric: brick veneer

wall with flashing detail.


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brick walls, a major portion of the differential movement occurs as a result of moisture:

brick absorbs moisture over time, expanding in volume, and mortar loses moisture over

time, shrinking in volume. Both of these processes are irreversible, and essentially

simultaneous. This is advantageous because as the mortar shrinks, space is created into

which the brick can expand.14 It can be problematic where the brick meets concrete,

however (such as at foundations and slabs on brick bearing walls), so a joint must be

created to account for horizontal movement. This phenomenon must also be taken into

account when mixing the mortar, because if the brick absorbs too much moisture while

the cement is curing, it will not hydrate properly, resulting in decreased structural

strength. To avoid this, masons may wet the brick before laying the mortar.

Thermal expansion and contraction occurs in all materials. In a brick wall, this

movement is easy to quantify, and is calculated using each materials coefficient ofthermal expansion. This movement, and the movement resulting from change in

moisture content, must be taken into account in the design of the wall, or else cracking

will occur. This is done by inserting movement joints at certain locations, which will

allow the wall to expand and contract as necessary. These should occur any place where

the wall changes in thickness or height, and at columns, slabs, and openings. Abutment

joints need to occur wherever there is a change in material. At expansion joints, any bond

reinforcing should be broken to allow for movement; out of plane movement (lateral)

must still be prevented, however, so it may be necessary to interlock the courses. The

14 Ibid, 225.


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diagram to the right explains this further. All movement joints must be sealed to prevent

the passage of air and water.15

3.3.3 Construction MethodsThe construction of a brick wall is critical in the overall performance of the wall in

regards to its structure, thermal transmittance, and moisture resistance. Though there are

many different types of masonry walls, there are certain techniques that always apply

during construction. Following is a description of the construction process for a typical

brick cavity wall. The techniques on grout-laying and tooling that are described also

apply to solid masonry walls.

The most important principle in constructing a brick cavity wall is keeping the

cavity free of any solid materials that bridge from one side to the other, to preventmoisture from being carried to the inner wythe. The only exceptions to this are the metal

ties that join the two wythes, but these are typically specially designed to resist moisture

transfer. Mortar is the main thing that obstructs cavity walls, and there are various

techniques that masons use to keep the cavity clean. They include: beveling the inner

edge of the mortar joint before setting the brick, to minimize mortar seepage into thecavity; rolling the bricks to the outer face while placing them; and spreading any excess

mortar left on the inside face of the wall across the face of the wall, known as parging.

Even when using these techniques during construction, it is still possible for mortar to fall

15 Allen, 1999.

Figure 3-4 Beveling the mortar joint


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into the cavity. Hardened mortar at the bottom of a cavity would prevent the necessary

escape of water from the cavity. Therefore, masons may insert a wooden or metal strip

lengthwise in the cavity to catch any fallen mortar. This strip is raised up out of the cavity

each time ties are laid into the wall.16

The second most important principle in constructing a brick wall is the thorough

filling of all mortar joints. This is critical in creating a bond between the brick and the

mortar, on which the structural integrity of the wall depends. Mortar should be spread

over a few bricks at a time as well as on the head of the brick to be placed. Once the brick

is set, mortar should be squeezed out of the face of the joint, to increase the pressure on

the bond. Often, it is specified that the mason wet the brick before placing it. This helps

to tighten the bond as the brick absorbs the water, and reduces the possibility of the brick

absorbing too much moisture out of the mortar, which can limit the necessary hydrationof the cement. The relative humidity at the site determines whether this technique is

necessary. Once the bricks are set, the mortar joints must be tooled to tighten the bond

and create a seal against moisture. Tooling means to scrape the face of the mortar joint,

creating a finished edge while sealing the joint against excess moisture at the same time.

There are different ways to tool the joints, with varying degrees of weather tightness. Aconcave profile creates the most effective weather seal.17

16 Brick Masonry Cavity Walls Construction, Technical Notes on Brick Construction (Brick Institute of

America, Issue 21C Revised, Oct 1989) 2.17 Ibid, 1-2.


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Brick ties must be placed in cavity walls to join the interior and exterior wythes.

One tie must be placed for approximately every 4 square feet of wall. The brick ties

must be corrosion resistant because they are in almost constant contact with moisture. In

addition to the brick ties, horizontal joint reinforcement may be used. This reduces the

stress on the brick ties and strengthens the mortar joint.18

Holes, called weeps, must be left in the bottom of all cavity walls to allow trapped

water to escape. They should occur about every 16 in a brick wall, and may be achieved

by leaving the head joints free of mortar, inserting wicks (such as rope), or putting in

temporary rods, ropes, or pins that are removed after the wall is set. Flashing should be

inserted in the wall at the same height as the weeps, so that water cannot collect at the

bottom of the cavity. The flashing needs to go from the inner wythe through the cavity

and all the way through the outer wythe, so that it sticks out of the face of the wall.19

3.3.4 Structural BrickNot only can brick masonry be used to create structural (load-bearing) walls, but

it can be used to create beams and lintels, arches, vaults, and domes. There are many

ways to build these elements, though this section will only briefly describe the standard

methods for their construction. Walls using structural brick can be single- or multi-wythe

and with or without a cavity. If there are multiple wythes in the wall, they must be tied

18 Ibid, 4.19 Ibid, 2-3.

Figure 3-5 Brick tie with rebar spacer

Figure 3-6 Bearing wall detail at floor


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together with masonry headers or metal ties. Codes determine how thick the wall must

be and the amount of reinforcement that is necessary in order to carry the axial and lateral

loads.20 Extensive analysis must be done on the walls to determine these loads.

Typically, contemporary load-bearing brick masonry walls are 4 to 12 inches thick. They

have been known to reach heights of 18 stories, though it is not common for brick bearing

walls to be higher than three to four stories.21 Historically, it was common practice for

brick bearing walls to be much thicker, and therefore it was not thought that they could

be more than 10 stories high. The Monadnock building defied this 10-story rule in 1889,

and is now one of the tallest load-bearing brick buildings in the world at 215 feet. To

achieve this height, the walls at the base of the building are 6 feet thick.22

Structural lintels may be formed using brick masonry when adequately

reinforced. This steel reinforcing can be placed in the bed joints, or, for larger loads, a

collar joint can be created.23 See the diagrams to the right for more explanation. The size

(depth of lintel) and amount of reinforcing depend on loads and length of span. Brick

masonry lintels also may be supported by steel angles, but, in many cases, reinforced

brick is equally as strong and more economical.24 Lintels may be constructed on site,

using temporary support, or they may be pre-fabricated and installed as a single unit. Aswith structural walls, all lintels must be analyzed to determine the loads.

20 Beall, 144-150.21 BIA, Technical Notes 24, June 2002.22 Campbell, 250.23 Beall, 318.24 Ibid, 319.

Figure 3-7 The Monadnock Building, Chicago

Figure 3-8 Lintel details


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There are many different structural forms for arches and vaults, including

parabolic, catenary, and circular. These forms developed in different areas of the world,

and may be constructed in different ways. The figure to the right shows these forms and

the different construction practices in Europe, the Middle East, and Catalonia (Spain).

The structural integrities of these forms will not be discussed here, but it is noted that a

funicular shape is the most structurally efficient form of an arch. Under uniform loads,

the funicular is a catenary shape, which is similar to a parabola. 25 All of these forms (and

more) can be created using brick. Structural analyses for circular brick arches have been

done by the Brick Institute of America, and may be used as a guideline when designing.

Arches and vault that are not circular must be engineered for their particular application.

25A funicular shape for an arch is the inverse of the form that is created when a flexible string is subject to

the same loads as the arch: S. Anderson, ed,Eladio Dieste: Innovation in Structural Art(New York:Princeton Architectural Press, 2004) 66-69. Figure 3-8 Vaults


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4 The Role of Brick in Contemporary Architecture

4.1 Modern-day Brick

4.1.1 Style & TechnologyWhat constitutes a modern building? Some would say that its the molothic

simplicity of KPFs new office tower in Shanghai, China, which could be considered a

vision of technology and progress.1 Many agree that Frank Gehrys soaring curves and

shiny metal panels, products of hi-tech computer programming, represent the future of

architecture. In general, it can be said that modern architecture includes experimenting

with new forms and/or materials. Over the past 50 years, technological innovation has

been an important part of our global society in all disciplines, including architecture.

Employing new technology can result in a contemporary style, whether the technology

expressed or implied. In the 1980s, the employment and expression of innovative

structural and mechanical systems represented a contemporary style. Today, Gehrys

buildings are doing a similar thing, expressing hi-tech computer technology combined

with material innovation. This experimentation does include brick, though, as is seen in

his Vontz Center, which uses brick that is essentially adhered to a substrate and hung in

1 www.kpf.com

Figure 4-1 KPFs office tower in

Shaghai, China


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panels that appear to bulge outwards. The innovation in this case is clearly seen in the

unconventional forms created by seemingly conventional brickwork.

Using more common materials in new ways, such as brick, is a less typical way of

approaching a modern style. It is being done in todays architectural world, though

these buildings tend to be less noticed than the glass and metal icons that make the covers

of current issues ofArchitectural Record. The later half of the 20th century has not seen

many architectural icons constructed of tried-and-true brick, especially in the United

States. Stunning examples of brick architecture exist, however, some of them well-

known, others not as well-known. Louis Kahn is probably the most recent popular

example, his Philips Exeter Academy Library being a well-known brick icon. There are

many other famous brick buildings, done by architects such as Alvar Aalto and Frank

Lloyd Wright, which will be discussed later in this chapter, along with others that are less

well-known.

4.1.2 SustainabilityBrick is a very environmentally sustainable material for many reasons, foremost

its lifecycle. As was previously discussed, bricks durability enables it to last for hundreds

of years. And if its building does not last that long, the brick is able to be reused (salvagedbrick) or recycled (crushed or chipped for use as fill).2 If the brick is instead put in a

landfill, there are no adverse effects because brick is made of 100% natural materials (clay

and shale).

2 Go With Brick,Brick Industry Association, 2003.

Figure 4-2 Gehrys Vontz Center, Cincinnati

Figure 4-3 Vontz Center, brick detail


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Another sustainable benefit of brick is the availability of its materials: clay and

shale are abundant resources in our world. There are federal regulations governing the

extraction process, including requirements for the restoration of the extraction sites into

natural conditions.3 Since the raw materials are readily available, manufacturing sites are

often able to be located near the extraction sites (the Brick Industry encourages this). This

availability also allows for manufacturing almost anywhere, potentially reducing

required shipping distances of materials. In the US, there are brick manufacturing sites in

38 of the 50 states, resulting in average shipping distances for the finished product of 175

miles.4 This distance is less than the 500 miles established by the USGBCs LEED rating

system, under credits 5.1 and 5.2, which deal with regional extraction and manufacturing

of materials.5

The Clean Air Act regulates emissions during the brick manufacturing process, as

is the case with all industrial processes in the United States. These emissions are mainly

carbon gases, hydrogen fluoride, and particulates.6 There are existing processes that

clean the air before it is released to the environment, and research is being done on

modifying the process to produce fewer pollutants from the start. Material waste during

the manufacturing process is also an issue of sustainability. The brick industry in theUnited Kingdom, whose manufacturing processes are comparable to those in the United

3 Ibid.4 Ibid.5 LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) is the United States Green Building Councils

system for rating sustainable design practices in building (www.usgbc.org).6 A Sustainability Strategy for the Brick Industry,Brick Development Association, United Kingdom:2003


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States, produces 14,600 metric tons (about 16,000 imperial tons) of waste annually, which

is only 0.28% of the total production material. Only 2.27% of this waste is hazardous,

which is only 0.01% of all production materials.7

As a result of these extraction, manufacturing, and transporting processes, the

actual embodied energy of brick is comparatively low, at 4,000 BTUs per pound, on

average. This is lower than the embodied energy of concrete, steel, aluminum, and

wood.8 Another sustainable benefit of brick is a result of the materials high thermal mass

(discussed in Chapter 3), which can be used to create a passive heating system in a

building, such as a trombe wall, or to delay the absorption of heat by the building.

4.1.3 Efficiency and DurabilitySomething that is not typically given much consideration is the shape, or

geometry, of a brick; it tends to be taken for granted. But brick is what it is for a reason.

Its mass (determinant of size) is the standard weight that is able to be lifted by one arm of

the average person. This size results in an efficient assembly process. An even more

elemental quality of the brick that goes unconsidered is its perfectly stackable shape. This

rather ordinary shape lends itself to an extremely efficient and standardized

manufacturing process, discussed in Chapter 2. These properties are inherent to thematerial, and are a major reason that brick has remained popular for so many centuries.

In 1936, an article was written in Architects Journal about bricks properties and its

7 A Sustainability Strategy for the Brick Industry: An Update 2004,Brick Development Association,

United Kingdom:2004.8 AIA Environmental Resource Guide, 1996.


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popularity of use. The article speculated that two characteristics of brick, its size and

standardization, were essential, and therefore unalterable by the fluctuations in social

habit and outlook that determine the course of architectural design.9 This means that,

no matter where the course of architectural design leads, brick will remain a prominent

building material; and after almost 70 years, that statement is still valid.

Despite bricks simplicity and standardization, the geometry of brick can create an

endless variety of forms and textures in architecture. This versatility was shown in the

history of brick in Chapter 2, which also demonstrated the materials durability. As the

next section of this chapter will show, architects and designers are continuing to create

new and beautiful ways to use brick.

4.2 Contemporary Brick Architecture

4.2.1 IntroductionAs discussed in the previous section, brick is a particularly appropriate building

material in the modern world due to its sustainability, durability, and versatility. There

have been many architects and building in recent years that employed brick in a uniqueor exemplary way. The following section includes some of these to demonstrate how

brick has been used in the past century (or so). They are in addition to the works already

discussed, such as Gehrys Vontz Center. These examples are no better or worse than the

9 Brick: The English Contribution, The Architects Journal [London] May 1936: 195.


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examples discussed in Chapter 2s history, but they are of particular interest to this thesis

because their connection with the present.

4.2.2 ExamplesFrank Lloyd Wright used brick uniquely in many of his houses and other buildings.

One of his earlier works of exemplary brickwork is the Robie House, built in Chicago in

1910. Wright used a Roman bond for the brick in this house10, which is a longer and

flatter bond than the standard English or American bonds. This type of brickwork was

commonly used by Wright in many of his houses, as well as in the Imperial Hotel in

Japan, built 1916.11 Whenever Wright used brick in his buildings, whether Roman bond

or not, he had the horizontal joints raked and the vertical joints finished flush,

emphasizing the horizontal.

Louis Kahn was one of the most prominent American architects of the 20th century,

and many of his buildings were done using brick. The most notable example is probably

the Phillips Exeter Academy Library, completed in 1971. This building has a brick

veneer, but is detailed to appear as though the brick is load-bearing, by tapering the

exterior walls as the building ascends (representing the need for more structural material

needed at the bottom). These thick, occupiable walls house reading nooks that areframed by brick piers and drenched in light.12 Kahn was also architect of the Capital

Complex in Dhaka, Bangladesh, which includes a number of exemplary brick

10 Donald Hoffmann,Frank Lloyd Wrights Robie House, (New York: Dover Publications, 1984) 27, 42.11 H.R. Hitchcock,In the Nature of Materials (Da Capo Press: New York, 1973) 68.12 Louis I. Kahn: Concept and MeaningArchitecture and Urbanism [Tokyo] Nov. 1983: 158-171.

Figure 4-5 Kahns Exeter Acadamy

Library, arcade

Figure 4-4 Wrights Robie House


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buildings;13 the most notable is the Sher-e-Bangla Nagar Ayub National Hospital,

completed in 1974, the year of Kahns death. The building features an exposed brick

arcade, made of Kahns signature geometric circles (pictured to the right). The entire

building is constructed of these acrobatic brick-clad forms, supported by a poured-in-

place concrete structural system.14

Brick is being used for architecture more in the United Kingdom than in the

United States, and many of the buildings are of a more contemporary style. Oneexample is the Arco Building, designed by well-known British architect Rick Mather. His

portfolio includes many modern buildings, which made the firm famous, but this

13 Haroon Rashid, Construction and Kahns CapitalMIMAR 38: Architecture in Development [London]

1991: 38-39.14 Louis I. Kahn: Concept and Meaning 100-109.

Figure 4-6 Kahns Sher-

e-Bangla Nagar Ayub

National Hospital,

Dhaka- exterior arcade(far left)

Figure 4-7 Kahns

National Hospital,

brick detail (center)

Figure 4-8 Kahns

National Hospital,

inside arcade(immediate left)

b ildi K bl C ll i O f d i i l d b i k k K bl


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building at Keble College in Oxford is a stunning example modern brickwork. Kebles

campus includes many late 19th century buildings by William Butterfield that boast

Victorian gothic-styled brickwork facades. These lavish buildings are rich in color and

texture, making them difficult to blend with contextually, something that was a must for

the neighboring Arco building. Housing student dormitories, the Arco building is clad in

handmade, flatter than ordinary, red brick veneer. One of the most unique characteristics

is the Roman bond, which is laid both horizontally and vertically, to address the street

and express circulation. The Arco building is not high-tech; its image, however, can be

considered modern architecture, at peace with its location, environment, and

technology.15

There are many more exceptional examples of brick application in modern

architecture: the Monadnock Building and skyscrapers of industrial America, the work of

Alvar Aalto and Finnish architecture, Mario Bottas Evry Cathedral, and most recently

the work of Office dA, to name only a few. The extent of these cannot possible be

covered here churches, civic buildings, houses, baseball stadiums, corporate

headquarters the list is endless. All are proof of bricks beauty, versatility, and

practicality.

15 John Welsh, Brick Layers,RIBA Journal, September 1995: 49.

Figure 4-9 Mathers Arco Building;

Butterfields library beyond

5 D i P j t


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5 Design Project

5.1 IntentThis thesis document has argued that brick is a beautiful, durable, and practical

building material. To demonstrate this argument, a brick chapel will be designed, using

the material to its fullest aesthetic potential. A chapels purpose is for personal and

spiritual reflection, and to many people, it is considered a sacred space where there is a

separation from the outside world. Therefore, brick will be used to create a beautiful

environment that fosters those ideas. Brick is not only physically durable and therefore

appropriate for use in a building with an indefinite lifespan, but its image represents the

idea of durability, something that is comforting to those seeking a place of refuge from

the pressures of daily life.This chapel will not be associated with any specific religious group; all people,

whether affiliated with a particular religion or not, should feel welcome in the chapel.

These would primarily be people living in the community around the chapel. It is meant

to be a place of reflection, something that is unique to each individual who will enter the

chapel. This reflection may be spiritual, personal, or external. For some, there may be a

healing element that is involved. The environment needs to support and encourage

contemplation, meditation, and reflection. Elements should be present in the space that

represent renewal, spirituality, and nature.

5 2 Strategies


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5.2 StrategiesCreating an atmosphere that fosters spirituality involves many different aspects of

design, all of which contribute to the mood of the space. Traditionally, chapels and other

spiritual places use sacred forms and geometries to convey spirituality. Most often,

however, these symbols are associated with a particular religious belief system. As this

chapel is not to be associated with any religion, it should not incorporate any types of

these symbols.

The site is highly prominent and visible from both the surrounding Mt. Adams

neighborhood and the riverfront below. As such, form will be its means of identification:

some part of the building should mark its presence on the side of the hill in the larger

context, while the chapels street side presence should be sympathetic to its surroundings.

Its image should identify the buildings purpose, without needing signage, by utilizing

the universal qualities of brick to create a place for people of any belief.

Two of the most important features in creating sacred spaces are light and energy,

which are closely related to each other and to the natural environment. The use of

daylight connects the occupant to natural rhythms and cycles, marking the passage of

time over the course of a day and over a year. The changing color and intensity of lightand shadow creates a dynamic space. The suns energy should be incorporated by using

passive design strategies, bringing the building more into harmony with its site and

minimizing its impact on the environment. These include using natural day lighting and

minimizing mechanical climatic controls, further tying the building to its surroundings.

Temperature differences will be felt from interior to exterior exposures and from below


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Temperature differences will be felt from interior to exterior exposures and from below

grade to above, furthering the variety of experiences.

The construction of the building should demand the most out of brick, using the

material to its fullest structural and environmental potential. In accentuating bricks

durability, versatility, and tradition, the design of the chapel will create an atmosphere

appropriate for reflection. All five senses are stimulated when a person experiences a

space, and in this chapel, those experiences will be carefully controlled through the

seamless integration of the building and the site using built form and landscaping.

Bringing people into direct contact with brick will create a tactile experience of the

building, allowing its texture, scale, and assembly to be experienced first-hand by

occupants. Another sensual element to consider in the design of the chapel is sound. The

chapel represents a world that is separate from the world surrounding it, and therefore

the entry of outside noise must be minimized. Thick walls and controlled fenestrations in

the direction of traffic, in addition to earth-berming and vegetation minimize noise that

could harm a visitors experience. Inside the spaces, the hard surfaces of brick must be

controlled to maintain the desired auditory levels. Reverberation and echo can be

manipulated to create varying experiences.The visual experience of the chapel comes primarily from the manipulation of the

brick patterns and the solids and voids of the walls. Changing pattern and texture creates

visual interest and directs the eye, as well as reinforces the ordering of the space. The use

of solid and void manipulates lines of sight into and out of the space, framing views and

extending or contracting space Some areas will open only to the sky; others will have


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extending or contracting space. Some areas will open only to the sky; others will have

views to the river and hills beyond, while some will frame views of the landscape.

Selected reflection spaces will be dark with only a sliver of light visible.

Brick will be used, though indirectly, in the manipulation of smell and taste.

Planters, paths, and courtyards full of plantings will stimulate the olfactory senses. Some

spaces may be underground and therefore cool, wet, and damp, while others will hang

over the hillside, fully exposed.

Bricks ability to be used both as an interior and exterior finish will be exploited to

create a building which blurs the distinction between indoors and outdoors. The intent is

an integrated complex where indoor and outdoor spaces are equally important to the

experience of meditation and reflection. Regionally appropriate vegetation will be

prevalent throughout. Though the spaces vary in size, shape, and exposure, brick will be

the constant that can accommodate the many variables.

5.2 Program


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g

5.2.1 PrecedentsEero Saarinen - Chapel at MIT

This circular brick chapel, 50 feet in diameter, is Saarinens response to the need

for a chapel on the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston. The

building is a perfect cylinder on the outside with undulating brick walls on the inside,

creating dynamic forms and textures. A reflecting pool is located at the base of the

chapel, which bounces sunlight into the interior, where it dances along the walls (as seen

in figure 1). Figure 4 shows how Saarinen changed the treatment on the brick walls by

deeply raking the joints to control acoustics while adding to the texture.

Figure 5-1 MIT Chapel, interior

Figure 5-4 MIT Chapel, reflecting pool and brick

arches

Figure 5-2 MIT Chapel Figure 5-3 MIT Chapel, interior

Sigurd Lewerentz St. Peters Church, Klippan, Sweden


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g pp

St. Peters Church in Klippan, Sweden, built 1963-66, is a fine example of

brickwork. The architect, Sigurd Lewerentz, used brick for the walls, floors, vaults, alter,

and pulpit. Only standard, full-sized bricks were used, and Lewerentz specified that

none be cut; uneven joints had to be filled with mortar.1 The result of this can be seen at

the baptismal font, pictured to the right, and at corners and windows where large andvarying mortar joints are necessary. These joints, along with the stretcher bond, creates a

brutalism that is reminiscent of ancient Persian brickwork. The final effect is a unified

space that is richly colored and textured.

1 Colin St John Wilson,Architectural Reflections (Oxford, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemenn, 1992) 120.

Figure 5-5 St. PetersChurch (left)

Figure 5-6 St. Peters,

interior brick vaults

(right top)

Figure 5-7 St. Peters,

baptismal font (bottom)

Eladi

he timelessness of brick

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