head-driven phrase structure grammar...
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Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG)
Linguistics 614
With thanks to Detmar Meurers
Spring 2015
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Motivation
Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG)
The main mechanism of HPSG for linguistic analysis lies in itsfeature architecture
Trees, bar-level distinctions, subcategorization, agreement,etc. are handled via feature structures
Rough comparison to LFG:
Similar: use of feature structures, highly lexical
Different: only one layer of syntax, functions are notprimitives, stronger reliance on structure-sharing
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Motivation
Preview: lexical entry for letter
wordphon <letter>
syn
head
noun
agr 1
[pernum 3sng
gend neut
]
spr
⟨D
[agr 1
count +
]⟩
comps⟨(PP
)⟩
(This entry more or less follows Carnie (2013) / Sag & Wasow (1999),
which most of the rest of the slides don’t.)
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Motivation
Unpacking letter
syn: holds syntactic information (vs. phon or sem)
synsem is also commonly used (e.g., these slides)
head: category & inflectional properties
spr & comps: subcategorization properties
Sometimes 3 lists (subj, spr, comps), sometimes 1 list(subcat)Note that detailed properties of selected items can be specified
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a linguistic perspective
HPSG grammarsLinguistic perspective
An HPSG grammar, from a linguistic perspective, consists of
a) a lexicon: licensing basic words
b) lexical rules: licensing derived words
c) immediate dominance (ID) schemata: licensingconstituent structure
d) linear precedence (LP) statements: constraining wordorder
e) a set of grammatical principles: expressing generalizationsabout linguistic objects
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a linguistic perspective
Lexical rules
e.g., plural rule (adapted from Carnie 2013):
noun
phon 1
arg-st⟨[count +
]⟩
⇒
word
phon FNPL
(1)
syn|head|agr|num pl
Any feature not specified is unchanged
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a linguistic perspective
Grammatical principles
Grammatical principles allow one to generalize over entire classesof objects
e.g., every complete sentence in English is tensed
These can be interpreted as constraints on the acceptable featurestructures
HPSG is constraint-based: grammars are sets of constraintswhich hold simultaneously
This determines the collections of admissible linguisticstructures
Constraints do not define an order of the derivation orgeneration of linguistic signs
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a formal perspective
HPSG grammarsFormal perspective
An HPSG grammar formally consists of
I. the signature as declaration of the domain, and
II. the theory constraining the domain.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a formal perspective
The signature of an HPSG grammar
The signature
defines the ontology (‘declaration of what exists’):
which kind of objects are distinguished, andwhich properties of which objects are modeled.
consists of
the type hierarchy (or sort hierarchy) andthe appropriateness conditions, defining which type haswhich appropriate attributes (or features) with whichappropriate values.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a formal perspective
Signature: some examples
Signs
word phrase
signphon list(phonstring)
synsem synsem
Part of speech
adj adv det noun prep verb
part-of-speech
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a formal perspective
Models of linguistic objects
What do the mathematical structures used as model for HPSGtheories look like?
The objects are modeled by typed feature structures, whichcan be notated as directed graphs.
These models represent objects in the world → they are totalwith respect to the ontology declared in the signature.
Naturally, knowledge about objects in the world is partial.
Formally speaking, the feature structures used as models are
totally well-typed: Every type has every one of the attributesand their values which are appropriate for it.sort-resolved: Every type is maximally specific.
type and sort as well as attribute and feature are used synonymously.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a formal perspective
An example for a typed feature structure
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a formal perspective
The theory of an HPSG grammar
A theory is a set of description language statements, oftenreferred to as the constraints.
The theory singles out a subset of the objects declared in thesignature, namely those which are grammatical.
A linguistic object is admissible with respect to a theory iff itsatisfies each of the descriptions in the theory and so doeseach of its substructures.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a formal perspective
How do we express a theory? Descriptions
A description language describes sets of objects.
The AVM (attribute value matrix) notation is used tocompactly write down these descriptions.
Descriptions consists of three building blocks:
Type descriptions single out all objects of a given type
Example: wordAttribute-value pairs describe objects that have a particularproperty.
The attribute must be appropriate for the particular type ofobject, and the value can be any kind of description.
Example:
[spouse
[name mary
]]
Tags (structure sharing) to specify token identity
Example: 1
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a formal perspective
Descriptions (cont.)
Complex descriptions are obtained through
conjunction (∧)disjunction (∨)negation (¬)
In the AVM notation, conjunction is implicit.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Components: from a formal perspective
An example AVM - The pronoun she
wordphon <she>
synsem|loc
local
cat
cat
head
[noun
case nom
]
subcat 〈〉
cont
ppro
index 1
ref
per third
num sing
gend fem
restr {}
context
context
backgr
psoa
reln female
inst 1
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
SignsAspects of the signature
word[phrasedtrs constituent-structure
]
signphon list(phonstring)synsem synsem
synsemlocal localnon-local non-local
localcategory categorycontent contentcontext context
categoryhead headsubcat list(synsem)marking marking
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
Motivating subcat
(1) a. I laugh. (<NP>)
b. I saw him. (<NP NP>)
c. I give her the book. (<NP NP NP>)
d. I said that she left. (<NP S[that]>)
Cannot always be derived from semantics:
(2) a. Paul ate a steak. (<NP>)
b. Paul ate. (<NP NP>)
(3) a. Paul devoured a steak. (<NP>)
b. * Paul devoured (<NP NP>)
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
Syntactic category information
marker determiner
[functionalspec synsem
]
adjective
verbvform vformaux booleaninv boolean
[nouncase case
][prepositionpform pform
]. . .
substantiveprd booleanmod mod-synsem
head
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
Properties of particular categories
finite infinitive base gerund present-part. past-part. passive-part.
vform
nominative accusative
case
of to . . .
pform
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
Motivating VFORM
(4) a. Peter will win the race. (base form)
b. * Peter will won the race.
c. * Peter will to win the race.
(5) a. Peter has won the race. (past participle)
b. * Peter has win the race.
c. Peter has to win the race.(→ different verb)
(6) a. Peter seems to win the race. (to-infinitive)
b. * Peter seems win the race.
c. * Peter seems won the race.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
Motivating CASE
(7) a. He left. (nom)
b. * Him left.
(8) a. She sees him. (acc)
b. * She sees he.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
Indices
referential there it
indexperson personnumber numbergender gender
first second third
person
singular plural
number
masculine feminine neuter
gender
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
Semantic representations
quant
[laugh’laugher ref
]
give’giver refgiven refgift ref
think’thinker refthought psoa
psoa nom-objindex indexrestriction set(psoa)
content
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
Auxiliary data structures
true false
boolean
empty-listnon-empty-listfirst ⊤rest list
list . . .
⊤
Alternative names for the attributes first (ft) and rest (rt) ofnon-empty-list are head (hd) and tail (tl).
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
Abbreviations for describing lists
empty-list is abbreviated as e-list, <>
non-empty-list is abbreviated as ne-list
[first 1rest 2
]is abbreviated as
⟨1 | 2
⟩
⟨. . . 1 | 〈〉
⟩is abbreviated as
⟨. . . 1
⟩
first 1
rest
[first 2rest 3
] is abbreviated as
⟨1 , 2 | 3
⟩
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Aspects of the signature
Abbreviations for common AVMs
Pollard and Sag (1994) make use of the following abbreviations fordescribing synsem objects:
Abbrev. abbreviated AVM
NP 1
synsem
local
category
[head nounsubcat 〈〉
]
content|index 1
S: 1
synsem
local
category
[head verbsubcat 〈〉
]
content 1
VP: 1
synsem
local
category
[head verb
subcat⟨synsem
⟩]
content 1
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Theory: Lexicon
Theory: The Lexicon
The basic lexicon is defined by the Word Principle as part of thetheory. It is an implicational statement defining which of theontologically possible words are grammatical:
word → lexical-entry 1 ∨ lexical-entry 2 ∨ . . .
with each of the lexical entries being descriptions, e.g.:
wordphon <laughs>
synsem|loc
cat
head
[verb
vform fin
]
subcat⟨NP[nom] 1 [3rd,sing]
⟩
content
[laugh’
laugher 1
]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Theory: Lexicon
An example lexicon
word →
phon <drinks>
s|l
cat
head
[verb
vform fin
]
subcat⟨NP[nom] 1 [3rd,sing], NP[acc] 2
⟩
cont
drink’
drinker 1
drunken 2
∨
phon <drink>
s|l
cat
head
[verb
vform fin
]
subcat⟨NP[nom] 1 [plur], NP[acc] 2
⟩
cont
drink’
drinker 1
drunken 2
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Theory: Lexicon
∨
phon <give>
s|l
cat
head
[verb
vform fin
]
subcat
⟨NP[nom] 1 [plur], NP[acc] 2 ,
PP[to] 3
⟩
cont
give’
giver 1
gift 2
given 3
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Theory: Lexicon
∨
phon <to>
s|l
cat
head
[preposition
pform to
]
subcat⟨NP[acc] 1
⟩
cont[index 1
]
∨
phon <think>
s|l
cat
head
[verb
vform fin
]
subcat⟨NP[nom] 1 [plur], S[fin]: 2
⟩
cont
think’
thinker 1
thought 2
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Theory: Lexicon
∨
phon <poets>
synsem|loc
cat
[head noun
subcat 〈〉
]
cont
[index
[per third
num plur
]]
∨
phon <wine>
synsem|loc
cat
[head noun
subcat 〈〉
]
cont
[index
[per third
num sing
]]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Introduction
Different kinds of phrasal constructions in HPSG
For phrases, the dtrs feature has a constituent-structure type:
head-comps-struc
head-marker-struchead-dtr phrasemarker-dtr wordcomp-dtrs elist
head-adjunct-struchead-dtr phraseadjunct-dtr phrasecomp-dtrs elist
head-filler-struchead-dtr phrasefiller-dtr phrasecomp-dtrs elist
head-struchead-dtr signcomp-dtrs list(phrase)
coordinate-structureconj-dtrs set(sign)conjunction-dtr word
constituent-structure
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Introduction
The structure of a simple phrase
phrasephon <Kim,walks>
synsem
local|cat
head
[verb
vform fin
]
subcat elist
dtrs
head-comp-struc
head-dtr
word
phon <walks>
synsem|loc|cat|head[verb
vform fin
]
comp-dtrs
⟨
phrase
phon <Kim>
synsem|loc|cat|head[noun
case nom
]
⟩
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Introduction
Sketch of an example for head-complement structures
phon <Kim>
synsem|loc|cat|head[noun
case nom
]
phon <walks>
synsem|loc|cat|head[verb
vform fin
]
c h
synsem|loc|cat
head
[verb
vform fin
]
subcat 〈〉
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Introduction
Sketch of an example for head-complement structures witha ditransitive verb
[phon <John>
synsem 1
]
phon <gives>
synsem|loc|cat
head 4
[verb
vform fin
]
subcat⟨1 , 2 , 3
⟩
[phon <her>
synsem 2
] [phon <the book>
synsem 3
]h c c
[synsem|loc|cat
[head 4
subcat⟨1⟩]]
c h
[synsem|loc|cat
[head 4
subcat 〈〉
]]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Introduction
Head-Feature Principle:
The head value of any headed phrase is structure-shared with thehead value of the head daughter.
[phrasedtrs headed-structure
]→
[synsem|loc|cat|head 1dtrs|head-dtr|synsem|loc|cat|head 1
]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Introduction
Subcategorization Principle:
In a headed phrase (i.e. a phrasal sign whose dtrs value is of sorthead-struc), the subcat value of the head daughter is theconcatenation of the phrase’s subcat list with the list (in order ofincreasing obliqueness) of synsem values of the complementdaughters.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Introduction
Subcat Principle: (cont.)[dtrs headed-structure
]→synsem|loc|cat|subcat 1
dtrs
[head-dtr|synsem|loc|cat|subcat 1 ⊕ 2
comp-dtrs synsem2sign(2)
]
with ⊕ standing for list concatenation, i.e., append, defined asfollows e-list ⊕ 1 := 1 .[
first 1rest 2
]⊕ 3 :=
[first 1rest 2 ⊕ 3
].
and synsem2sign encoding conversion of synsem to sign lists definedas follows
synsem2sign(e-list
):= e-list.
synsem2sign
([first 1rest 2
]):=
[first
[synsem 1
]
rest synsem2sign(2)].
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Immediate Dominance Principle (for English):
[phrase
dtrs headed-struc
]→
synsem|loc|cat
head
([verb
inv −
]∨ ¬ verb
)
subcat 〈〉
dtrs
head-comp-struchead-dtr phrase
comp-dtrs⟨sign
⟩
(Head-Subject)
∨
synsem|loc|cat
head
([verbinv −
]∨ ¬ verb
)
subcat⟨synsem
⟩
dtrs
[head-comp-struchead-dtr word
]
(Head-Complement)
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Immediate Dominance Principle (for English):
∨
synsem|loc|cat
head
[verbinv +
]
subcat 〈〉
dtrs
[head-comp-struc
head-dtr word
]
(Head-Subject-Complement)
∨[dtrs
[head-marker-strucmarker-dtr|synsem|loc|cat|head marker
]](Head-Marker)
∨dtrs
head-adjunct-struc
adj-dtr|synsem|loc|cat|head|mod 1
head-dtr|synsem 1
(Head-Adjunct)
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Head-Subject Phrases (Schema 1)
[synsem 2
] [synsem|loc|cat
[head 1
subcat⟨2⟩]]
c h
[synsem|loc|cat
[head 1
subcat 〈〉
]]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Head-Complement Phrases (Schema 2)
[synsem|loc|cat
[head 1
subcat⟨2 , 3 ,...,n
⟩]] [
synsem 3].. .
[synsem n
]h c c
[synsem|loc|cat
[head 1
subcat⟨2⟩]]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Head-Subject-Comp Phrases (Schema 3)
[synsem|loc|cat
[head 1
subcat⟨2 ,...,n
⟩]] [
synsem 2].. .
[synsem n
]h c c
[synsem|loc|cat
[head 1
subcat 〈〉
]]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Sketch of an example with an auxiliary
[phon <John>
synsem 1
]
phon <can>
synsem|loc|cat
head 3
verb
vform fin
aux +
inv −
subcat⟨1NP
[nom
], 2VP
[bse
]⟩
[phon <go>
synsem 2
]h c
phon <can, go>
synsem|loc|cat[head 3
subcat⟨1⟩]
c h
phon <John, can, go>
synsem|loc|cat[head 3
subcat 〈〉
]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Sketch of an example with an inverted auxiliary
phon <can>
synsem|loc|cat
head 3
verb
vform fin
aux +
inv +
subcat⟨1NP
[nom
], 2VP
[bse
]⟩
[phon <John>
synsem 1
] [phon <go>
synsem 2
]h c c
phon <can, John, go>
synsem|loc|cat[head 3
subcat 〈〉
]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Complementizer as heads
Some verbs select a complementized sentential complementheaded by a verb with a specific verb form:
(9) I demand that he leave/*leaves immediately.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Markers
marker determiner
[functionalspec synsem
]
adjective verb noun preposition . . .
substantive
head
unmarked
that for
comp. . .
marked
marking
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Marking Principle:
In a headed structure, the marking value coincides with that ofthe marker daughter if there is one, and with that of the headdaughter otherwise.
[phrasedtrs headed-structure
]→
synsem|loc|cat|marking 1
dtrs
[head-mark-strucmarker-dtr|synsem|loc|cat|marking 1
]
∨synsem|loc|cat|marking 1
dtrs
[¬head-mark-struchead-dtr|synsem|loc|cat|marking 1
]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Lexical entry of the marker that
phon <that>
synsem—loc—cat
head
mark
spec
loc—cat
head
[verb
vform fin ∨ bse
]
marking unmarked
subcat 〈〉
subcat 〈〉marking that
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Immediate Dominance Schemata
Sketch of an example for a head-marker structure
phon <that>
synsem|loc|cat
head
[mark
spec 3
]
subcat 〈〉marking 1 that
phon <John laughs>
s 3
loc|cat
head 2
[verb
vform fin
]
marking unmarked
subcat 〈〉
m h
phon <that,John,laughs>
s|loc|cat
head 2
subcat 〈〉marking 1
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Determiners
SPEC Principle:
If a nonhead daughter in a headed structure bears a spec value, itis token-identical to the synsem value of the head daughter.
[phrase
dtrs[(marker-dtr ∨ comp-dtrs|first) |synsem|loc|cat|head functional
]]
→
[dtrs
[(marker-dtr ∨ comp-dtrs|first) |synsem|loc|cat|head|spec 1
head-dtr|synsem 1
]]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Determiners
Determiners
Common nouns subcategorize for their determiners:
phon <book>
synsem|loc
cat
head noun
subcat
⟨[loc|cat
[head det
subcat 〈〉
]]⟩
cont
index 1
restr
[reln book
inst 1
]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Determiners
Determiners (cont.)
Determiners select their nominal sister:
phon <every>
synsem|loc
cat
head
det
spec
loc
cat
[head noun
subcat⟨DetP
⟩]
cont 2
subcat 〈〉
cont 5
quant
det forall
restind 2
qstore{5}
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Determiners
Sketch of the head-comp phrase every book
phon <every>
synsem 4
loc
cat
head
[det
spec 3
]
subcat 〈〉
cont
[det forall
restind 2
]
phon <book>
s 3
loc
cat
[head 5
[noun
]
subcat⟨4⟩
]
cont 2
c h
phon <every,book>
s|loc
cat
[head 5
subcat 〈〉
]
cont 2
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Possessives
Lexical entry for the possessive pronoun my
phon <my>
synsem|loc
cat
head
det
spec N’:
[index 1
restr 2
]
subcat 〈〉
cont|index 3
ref
per 1st
num sing
context|c-indc|speaker 3
qstore
det the
restind
index 1
restr
reln poss
possessor 3
possessed 1
∪ 2
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Possessives
Lexical entry for possessive ’s
phon <’s>
synsem|loc
cat
head
det
spec N’:
[index 1
restr 2
]
subcat
⟨NP: 5
[npro
index 3
]⟩
cont 5
qstore
det the
restind
index 1
restr
reln poss
possessor 3
possessed 1
∪ 2
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Possessives
Sketch of an example for a determiner phrase
phon <Mary’s>
synsem|loc
cat
head
det
spec N’:
[index 1
restr 2
]
subcat 〈〉
cont
[npro
index 3
]
context|backgr
reln naming
bearer 3
name mary
qstore
det the
restind
index 1
restr
reln poss
possessor 3
possessed 1
∪ 2
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Adjuncts
Lexical entry of an attributive adjective
wordphon <red>
synsem|loc
cat|head
adj
prd −
mod|loc
cat
[head noun
subcat⟨[loc|cat|head det
]⟩]
content
[index 1 index
restr 2
]
cont
index 1
restr
{[rel red
arg1 1
]}∪ 2
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Adjuncts
Semantics Principle
In a headed phrase, the content value is token-identical to thatof the adjunct daughter if the dtrs value is of sort head-adj-struc,and with that of the head daughter otherwise.
[phrasedtrs headed-structure
]→
synsem|loc|content 1
dtrs
[head-adj-strucadjunct-dtr|synsem|loc|content 1
]
∨synsem|loc|content 1
dtrs
[¬head-adj-struchead-dtr|synsem|loc|content 1
]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Adjuncts
Sketch of an example for a head-adjunct structure
phon <red>
s|loc
cat|head
adj
prd −mod 3
cont 4
phon <book>
s 3
[loc|cat
[head 2 noun
subcat⟨1[loc|cat|head det
]⟩]]
a h
phon <red, book>
s|loc
cat
[head 2
subcat⟨1⟩]
cont 4
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Raising/EquiReview of ID Schemata
[phrasedtrs headed-struc
]→
synsem|loc|cat
head
([verbinv −
]∨ ¬ verb
)
subcat 〈〉
dtrs
head-comps-struchead-dtr phrase
comp-dtrs⟨sign
⟩
(Hd-Sbj)
∨
synsem|loc|cat
head
([verbinv −
]∨ ¬ verb
)
subcat⟨synsem
⟩
dtrs
[head-comps-struchead-dtr word
]
(Hd-Cmp)
∨
synsem|loc|cat
head
[verbinv +
]
subcat 〈〉
dtrs
[head-comps-struchead-dtr word
]
(Hd-Sbj-Cmp)
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Towards an analysis: Unsaturated Complements
Where does it say in these ID schemata that every subcategorizeditem must be realized?
In English, many verbs and adjectives subcategorize for anunsaturated complement.
In other words, a complement can be specified as[subcat
⟨NP
⟩], rather than
[subcat 〈〉
]
The Head-Subject Schema allows for this.And this will give consider access to the lower subject, as wellas its own subject.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Subject oriented raising verbs
wordphon <seem>
synsem
synsem
local
local
cat
cat
head
[verb
vform bse
]
subcat⟨1 , VP
[inf, subcat
⟨1⟩]: 2
⟩
cont
[seem
soa-arg 2
]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Subject oriented equi verbs
wordphon <try>
synsem
synsem
local
local
cat
cat
head
[verb
vform bse
]
subcat⟨NP 1 , VP
[inf, subcat
⟨NP 1
⟩]: 2
⟩
cont
try
tryer 1 ref
soa-arg 2
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Object oriented raising verbs
wordphon <believe>
synsem
synsem
local
local
cat
cat
head
[verb
vform bse
]
subcat⟨NP 1 , 2 , VP
[inf, subcat
⟨2⟩]: 3
⟩
cont
believe
believer 1 ref
soa-arg 3
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Object oriented equi verbs
wordphon <persuade>
synsem
synsem
local
local
cat
cat
head
[verb
vform bse
]
subcat⟨NP 1 , NP 2 , VP
[inf, subcat
⟨NP 2
⟩]: 3
⟩
cont
persuade
persuader 1 ref
persuadee 2 ref
soa-arg 3
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Analysis of: It seems to rain
wordp <it>
s 5
l
cat
[head noun
subc 〈〉
]
cont[index it
]
word
p <seems>
s|l
cat
head 9
[verb
vform fin
]
subc⟨5 , 8VP
[inf, subc
⟨5⟩]: 7
⟩
cont 10
[seem
soa-arg 7
]
phrase
p <to rain>
s 8
l
cat
head 6
[verb
vform inf
]
subc⟨5NP it
⟩
cont 7 rain
h c
phrasep <seems to rain>
s|l
cat
[head 9
subc⟨5⟩]
cont 10
c h
phrase
p <It seems to rain>
s|l
cat
[head 9
subc 〈〉
]
cont 10
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Analysis of: *It wants to rain
word
p <wants>
s|l
cat
head 9
[verb
vform fin
]
subc⟨3NP 11 , 8VP
[inf, subc
⟨5NP 11
⟩]: 7
⟩
con 10
want
wanter 11 ref
soa-arg 7
phrase
p <to rain>
s 8
l
cat
head 6
[verb
vform inf
]
subc⟨5NP it
⟩
con 7 rain
h c
phrase
p <wants to rain>
s |l
cat
[head 9
subc⟨3⟩]
con 10
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Unbounded dependency constructions (UDCs)
To account for UDCs, we will use the feature slash.
Named after the categorial grammar categories (S/NP as an Smissing an NP).
This is a non-local feature which:
originates with a trace,gets passed up the tree,and is finally bound by a filler
An example for a strong UDC
Johni
NP
we
NP
know
V
she
1NP
likes
V[loc|cat|subcat
⟨1 , 2
⟩]
i
2NPh c
VP[loc|cat|subcat
⟨1⟩]
c h
S[loc|cat|subcat 〈〉
]h c
VPc h
Sf h
S
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
The bottom of a UDC: Traces
wordphon 〈〉
synsem
local 1
nonloc
[inherited|slash
{1}
to-bind|slash {}
]
phonologically null, but structure-shares local and slashwe’ll talk about to-bind later
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
Traces
Because the local value of a trace is structure-shared with theslash value, constraints on the trace will be constraints on thefiller.
For example, hates specifies that its object be accusative, andthis case information is localSo, the trace has
[synsem|local|cat|head|case acc
]as part
of its entry, and thus the filler will also have to be accusative
(10) *Hei/Him i , John likes i
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
The middle of a UDCThe Nonlocal Feature Principle (NFP)
For each nonlocal feature, the inherited value on the mother isthe union of the inherited values on the daughter minus theto-bind value on the head daughter.
In other words, the slash information (which is part ofinherited) percolates “up” the tree.
This allows the all the local information of a trace to “moveup” to the filler.
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
The top of a UDC: Filler-head structuresFiller-head schema
[phrasedtrs head-filler-struc
]→
head-dtr|synsem
loc|cat
head
[verb
vform fin
]
subcat 〈〉
nonloc
[inherited|slash element
(1)
to-bind|slash{1}
]
filler-dtr|synsem|local 1
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
The top of a UDC: Filler-head structuresExplanation of the schema
Filler and trace are identified as the exact same thing (as faras their local structure is concerned)The trace is “bound” by the to-bind feature; this preventsthe slash value from going any higher in the treeOnly saturated finite verbs (i.e., sentences) license suchstructures
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
The top of a UDC: Filler-head structuresExample for a structure licensed by the filler-head schema
[local 1
] [nloc
[inherited|slash
{. . . , 1 ,. . .
}
to-bind|slash{1}
]]f h
[nloc|inherited|slash {}
]
Introduction Signs Phrases Raising/Equi UDCs
The analysis of the strong UDC example
Johni
NP[local 3
]
we
NP
know
V
she
1NP
likes
V[loc|cat|subcat
⟨1 , 2
⟩
nonloc|to-bind|slash {}
]
i
NP
2
[loc 3
nloc|inher|slash{
3}]
h c
VPloc|cat|subcat
⟨1⟩
nloc
[inherited|slash
{3}
to-bind|slash {}
]
c h
Sloc|cat|subcat 〈〉nloc
[inherited|slash
{3}
to-bind|slash {}
]
h c
VP[nloc
[inherited|slash
{3}
to-bind|slash {}
]]c h
S[nloc
[inherited|slash
{3}
to-bind|slash{
3}]]
f h
S[nloc|inherited|slash {}
]