health and the holy.pdf
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THOMAS J.
CSORD S
t h a n p o s s e s s i o n a n d h e a l i n g b e i n g t r e a t e d a s s u b -
t o p i c s u n d e r r e l i g i o n , p o s s e s s i o n w a s n o w a s u b t o p i c
i n a d i s c u s si o n o f p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y . W h e r e a s i n 1 93 7
F i e l d s t r e s s e d t h e ' f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e ' b e t w e e n
t h e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d p r e m i s e s o f A f r ic a n a n d E u r o -
p e a n m e d i c i n e , in 1 9 60 s p i r i t p o s s e s s i o n w a s p a r t o f
t h e ' i d e o l o g i c a l b a c k g r o u n d ' f o r a n a n a l y s i s o f p s y -
c h o p a t h o l o g y . T h e t r e n d c o n t i n u e d w i t h t h e f i r s t
m a j o r c o l l e c t i o n o n p o s s e s s i o n t r an c e , e d i t e d b y
P r i n c e [9 ] i n 1 9 66 , w h i c h i n c l u d e s , a m o n g s e v e r a l
a r t ic l e s c o n c e r n e d w i t h p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c a s p e c t s o f
p o s s e s s i o n , o n l y o n e t h a t s p e c i f ic a l l y a d d r e s s e s i t s
r e li g i o u s m e a n i n g s , a n d t h e n p r i m a r i l y w i th r e g a r d t o
A s i a n t r a d i t i o n s [1 0 ]. In 1 9 67 K e n n e d y [ 1 1 ] p u b l i s h e d
a n a c c o u n t o f t h e zar c u l t a s a fo r m o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y ,
i n c l u d i n g th e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e c o r e p a r t i c i p a n t s o f
t h e c u l t T e n d t o b e r a t h e r u n s t a b l e , e m o t i o n a l , a n d
h y s t e r i a - p r o n e p e r s o n s [ 7, p . 1 89 ].
I n h is 1 9 7 3 a c c o u n t o f t h e N o r t h A f r i c a n H a m -
a d s h a , C r a p a n z a n o [1 2] e x p r e s s e d a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
t e n s i o n i n h i s c h o i c e o f a f r a m e w o r k f a m i l i a r t o
r e a d e r s o f W e s t e r n m e d i c a l a n d p s y c h i a t r i c li t e ra -
u r e . H e a c k n o w l e d g e d t h is a s a b i a s , s t a t i n g t h a t h i s
i n f o r m a n t s w o u l d n o t a g r e e , a n d t h a t i n d e e d i t w o u l d
b e p o s s i b l e i n s t e a d t o e m p h a s i z e r e l i g i o n o r f o l k
t h e o l o g y . H i s r a t i o n a l e f o r a d o p t i n g t h e m e d i c a l
f r a m e w o r k w a s t h a t c u l t a d h e r e n t s s e e i t s r o l e n o t a s
m y s t i c a l u n i o n b u t a s c u re , a n d t h a t t h e q u e s t io n o f
w h e t h e r t h e s e c u r e s a r e r e l i g i o u s i s m e a n i n g l e s s f o r
t h e m , s i n c e f o r t h e m e v e r y t h i n g i s r e l i g i o u s . C r a p a n -
z a n o ' s o w n n o t i o n o f a s y m b i o t i c c u r e i n w h ic h t h e
p a t i e n t m e r g e s w i t h a c u l t c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n a n y e a s y
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n m y s t i c a l u n i o n a n d c u r e , h o w -
e v e r , a n d t h e f a c t t h a t i n f o r m a n t s s e e e v e r y t h i n g a s
r e li g i o u s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a ri l y g r a n t t h a t t h e a n t h r o -
p o l o g i s t le a v e t o m a k e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n f o r t h e m
b e t w e e n r e l i g i o u s a n d m e d i c a l d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e i r
e x p e r i e n c e - - a t le a s t n o t w i t h o u t s o m e c a r e fu l m e t h -
o d o l o g i c a l c r i t i q u e o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n . P r i n c e [ 13 ], in
h i s 1 9 74 d i s c u s s i o n o f Y o r u b a p o s s e s s i o n c u l t s a s
p s y c h i a t r i c t r e a t m e n t , a l s o b l u r s t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n . B e -
g i n n i n g w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n p s y c h i a t r i c d i s o r d e r s i n t h e
Y o r u b a p o p u l a t i o n , h e o b s e r v e d t h a t p s y c h o t i c p a -
t i e n t s w e r e a t t i m e s i n i t i a t e d f o r t h e r a p e u t i c p u r p o s e s .
H e d e s c r ib e s t w o c u l t i n i t i a t i o n s fr o m N i g e r i a w h i c h
a r e i n d e e d t h o s e o f p s y c h o t ic s , b u t i n t w o a d d i t i o n a l
i n i t i a ti o n s d e s c ri b e d f r o m t h e Y o r u b a candombl~ c u l t
o f B r a z i l , t h e r e i s n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e i n i t i a t e s a r e
' p a t i e n t s ' in a n y s e n s e . Y e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l in t e r -
p r e t a t i o n i s o f fe r e d t h a t l u m p s t o g e t h e r s i t u a t i o n s t h e
a c t o r s i n w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n ' p o s s e s s e d ' o f v e r y
d i f f e r e n t m o t i v e s .
L e w i s ' [ 1 4 ] i n f l u e n t i a l c r o s s - c u l t u r a l s t u d y o f 1 9 71 ,
w h i c h a l s o u s e d t h e zar a s a n e x a m p l a r y c a se , i n t r o -
d u c e d t h e p o l a r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f p o s s e s s i o n c u l t s a s
' c e n t r a l ' o r ' p e r i p h e r a l . ' T h i s w o r k h e l p e d t o c r y s -
t a l l iz e th e t r e n d i d e n t i f i e d h e r e , a n d t h u s d e s e r v e s
e x t e n d e d c o m m e n t . T h e c e n t r a l p o s s e s s i o n c u l t i s
d e f in e d a s p a r t o f t h e i n s t i tu t i o n a l a p p a r a t u s u p h o l d -
i n g a s o c i e t y ' s m o r a l o r d e r , a n d p o s s e s s i o n i s u s u a l l y
r e g a r d e d a s a p o s i t i v e e x p e r i e n c e , P e r i p h e r a l p o s -
s e s s i o n c u l t s a r e t h e r e f u g e o f m a r g i n a l , l o w - s t a t u s ,
n o n - m a i n s t r e a m i n d i v i d u a l s a n d p o s s e s s io n i s u s u a l l y
r e g a r d e d a s a f o r m o f i ll n e s s. T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i n t r o -
d u c e s a n i m p l i c i t n o t i o n o f s o c ia l p a t h o l o g y t o t h a t
o f i n d i v i d u a l i l l n e s s a n d t h e r a p y . T h e c e n t r a l c u l t i s
' n o r m a l ' i n t h a t i t s u p p o r t s a m o r a l s t a t u s q u o ,
w h e r e a s t h e p e r i p h e r a l c u l t i n d i c a t e s a l a c k o f s o c i a l
i n t e g r a t i o n , m o s t o f t e n s e r v i n g a s a r e s p o n s e t h r o u g h
w h i c h w o m e n a s a s o c i a l ly o p p r e s s e d g r o u p c a n
o b t a i n l i m i t e d r e d r e s s a s a ' s e c o n d a r y g a i n ' o f s p i r i t -
i n d u c e d i l l n e s s . T h e d i c h o t o m y i s w e a k i n s o f a r a s i t
s t u m b l e s o v e r i n s t a n c e s s u c h a s H a i t i a n
rodou
a n d
t h e B r a z i l i a n
candombl~
w h i c h w h i l e s o c i a l l y m a r -
g i n a l c o n s t i t u t e t h e d o m i n a n t r e l i ~ o n o f s pe c if ic
s e g m e n t s o f t h e i r r e s p e c ti v e p o p u l a t i o n s , a n d w h i c h
m a y o r m a y n o t e m p h a s i z e t h e r a p e u t i c g o a l s . T h e
d i c h o t o m y a l s o i m p l i e s a w i l l in g n e s s t o r e c o g n i z e a
r e l i g i o u s e l e m e n t o n l y i n t h e s o c i a l s a n c t i o n i n g f u n c -
t i o n s o f c e n t r a l c u l t s , w h i l e t h e m e a n i n g o f p e r i p h e r a l
c u l t s i s e s s e n t ia l l y re s t r i c t e d t o i s s u es o f p e r s o n a l a n d
s o c i a l p a t h o l o g y . T h i s p r e c l u d e s a d d r e s s i n g t h e r e -
l a t i o n o f m e d i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s m e a n i n g s i n e i t h e r
t y p e o f c u l t .
I n s p i t e o f i t s w e a k n e s s , n o t o n l y h a s t h e
c e n t r a l / p e r i p h e r a l d i c h o t o m y p e r s i s t e d , b u t a n t h r o -
p o l o g i c a l a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n f o c u s e d w i t h in c r e a s i n g
e x c l u s i v i t y o n t h e p e r i p h e r a l . T h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e
zar
c u l t b y Y o u n g [1 5] in 1 9 7 5 o p e n s w i t h a n
a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f a t r e n d t o w a r d c o n c e r n w i th
p e r i p h e r a l o v e r c e n t r al c u l ts , b u t m a k e s n o a t t e m p t t o
b a l a n c e t h i s c o n c e r n . I n s t e a d , Y o u n g a c c e p t s t h e
t r e n d , a n d a c c o r d i n g l y p r o p o s e s a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
s h i f t t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l l y n a r r o w s t h e r e l e v a n c e o f h i s
a r g u m e n t . T h a t i s, he r e je c t s t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f
p o s s e s s i o n a s t h e f o c u s o f a n a l y s i s , a n d r e p l a c e s i t
w i t h i l l n e s s, w h i c h h e g e n e r a l i z e s a s t h e p r i m a r y
c o n c e r n f o r m e m b e r s o f p o s s e s s i o n c u l ts . B y t h e t i m e
o f t h e s e c o n d m a j o r c o l l e c t i o n o f p a p e r s e d i t e d b y
C r a p a n z a n o a n d G a r r i s o n [ 1 6 ] i n 1 9 7 7 , n o t o n l y d o e s
t h e r e l i g i o u s e l e m e n t d i s a p p e a r , b u t t h e f o c u s s h i ft s
e x c l u s i v e l y o n t o s o c i a l l y m a r g i n a l s e t t i n g s o f p o s -
s e s s i o n a n d a f f e c ti v e l y n e g a t i v e p o s s e s s i o n t h e c u l -
t u r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e t o w h i c h is e t h n o m e d i c a l
t r e a t m e n t . E v e n t h e s i n g l e c o n t r i b u t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h
a c u l t i n w h i c h p o s s e s s i o n i s p o s i t i v e l y v a l u e d , n a m e l y
B r a z i l i a n U m b a n d a [ 1 7 ] , f o c u s e s o n i n s t a n c e s i n
w h i c h t h e p o s s e s s i o n i s a b e r r a n t a n d n e g a t i v e [ 1 8 ] .
T h e t r e n d c o n t i n u e d i n 1 98 0 w i th W a r d ' s [ 1 9 ] e l a b o -
r a t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l / p e r i p h e r a l d i s t i n c t io n a s a p p l i e d
s p e c i f i c a ll y t o m e n t a l h e a l t h . T h i s p a p e r c o n c l u d e s
t h a t c e n t r a l , o r ' r i t u a l , ' p o s s e s s i o n i s a k i n d o f d e f e n s e
m e c h a n i s m t h a t a c t s in a t h e r a p e u t i c c a p a c i t y , w h il e
p e r i p h e r a l p o s s e s s i o n i s a c u l t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f
i n d i v i d u a l p a t h o l o g y . T h e r e l ig i o u s m e a n i n g o f t h e
c u l t s is n e i t h e r d i s c u s s e d a s r e l e v a n t t o m e n t a l h e a l t h ,
n o r d i s c o u n t e d ; i t i s s im p l y n o t c o n s i d e r ed . F i n a l l y ,
i n 1 9 8 1 K e h o e a n d G i l e t t i [2 0 ] p u b l i s h e d t h e i r c o n t r o -
v e r s i a l f o r m u l a t i o n , b a s e d l a r g e l y o n f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h
t h e zar m a t e r i a l , o f th e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e p r e p o n -
d e r a n c e o f w o m e n i n p o s s e s s i o n c u l t s i s c o r r e l a t e d
w i t h n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c y , a c k n o w l e d g i n g l i t t l e i f
a n y r e l e v a n c e f o r r e l i g i o u s m o t i v e s a n d m e a n i n g s .
T h a t t h is is a t e n d a n d n o t a u n a n i m o u s c o n c l u s i o n
i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e c a n b e h i g h l i g h t e d b y m e n t i o n i n g
c e r t a i n e x c e p t i o n s . D e r e n ' s [ 2 1 ] e a r l y w o r k o n
H a i t i a n
vodou
h i g h l i g h t e d s p i r i t u a l a n d a e s t h e t i c d i -
m e n s i o n s o f t h e d a n c e s e x e c u t e d b y d e v o t e e s i n
p o s s e s s io n . B o u r g u i g n o n ' s [ 2 2 ] p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l y
s e n s i t i v e a c c o u n t o f vodou d w e l l s n e i t h e r o n m e d i c a l
i m p l i c a t i o n s n o r o n m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e s a c re d , b u t
d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e e v e r y d a y r e a l i ty o f s p i r it p o s s e s si o n
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African and Afro-A me rican spirit possession
a s i t is i m i t a t e d i n c h i l d r e n ' s g a m e s a n d a s i t is c a l l e d
i n t o p l a y i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e a n -
t h r o p o l o g i s t a n d h e r i n f o r m a n t s . T h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y
B r i t i s h v o l u m e e d i t e d b y B e a t t i e a n d M i d d l e t o n [ 2 3 ] ,
c o v e r i n g b o t h s p i r i t m e d i u m s h i p a n d p o s s e s si o n ,
t r a n c e a n d n o n - t r a n c e b e h a v i o r , a l s o l a rg e l y a v o i d s
t h e d e b a t e a s f o r m u l a t e d h e r e. S e v e r a l a u t h o r s e l a b -
o r a t e r a t h e r b r o a d r e p e r t o i re s o f p o s se s s i o n t y p e s a n d
f u n c t i o n s i n t h e s o c i e t i e s t h e y d i s c u s s , a n d d e m o n -
s t r a t e a n i n t e r e s t i n c o r r e l a t i o n s o f p o s s e s s i o n b e l i e fs
w i t h s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o r i n t h e r o l e o f s p i r i t a c t i v it i e s
a s a r t i c u l a t i o n s o f s o c i al c h a n g e p r o c e ss e s . L e a c o c k ' s
[ 2 4 ] s t u d y o f t h e B r a z i l i a n B a t u q u e e m p h a s i z e s t h a t
t h e t e r m
cura
h a s a c o n n o t a t i o n t h a t i n c l u d e s p r o b -
l e m s s u c h a s o b t a i n i n g e m p l o y m e n t o r r e g a i n i n g t h e
a f f e c t i o n s o f a w a n d e r i n g s p o u s e a s w e l l a s h e a l i n g
i l l n e s s , t h u s p o i n t i n g t o t h e o v e r l a p o f e x i s t e n t i a l
c o n c e r n s a t t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n r e li g i o n a n d m e d -
i c i n e . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e r e i s i n B a t u q u e a
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p u b l i c c e r e m o n i e s w h i c h t h e
d e i t i e s a t t e n d i n o r d e r t o 'h a v e f u n , ' a n d c u r i n g
c e r e m o n i e s w h i c h t h e d e i t i e s a t t e n d i n o r d e r t o
' w o r k . '
W h a t i s n o t e w o r t h y i n t h e f o r e g o i n g r e v i e w o f a
m e d i c a l i z e d d i s c o u r s e o n s p i r i t p o s s e s s i o n i s t h e
p r o m i n a n c e o f a s i n g l e c u l t , t h e E t h i o p i a n
zar
as a
p a r a d i g m c a s e i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e d o m i n a n t t r e n d i n
the l i t e r a tur e [ 6, 1 I , 14 , 15 , 19 , 20]. Such ino r d in a te
w e i g h t g i v e n t o a s i n g l e e x a m p l e m i g h t b e s u s p e c t i n
a n y c a s e . I t a p p e a r s m o r e s e r i o u s i n l i g h t o f a
c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y f r o m t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y p e r s p e c t iv e
o f t h e h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n s b y W a l k e r [ 2 5 ] , w h o
s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e zar i s i n f a ct u n i q u e a m o n g A f r i c a n
a n d A f r o - A m e r i c a n p o s s e s s io n c u l ts : T h e Z a r c u lt is
c o n s i d e r e d a h e a l i n g c u l t f o r d i s t u r b e d p e o p l e
w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r p o s s e s s i o n c u l t s i n q u e s t i o n a r e
a c t u a l l y r e l ig i o u s i n s t i tu t i o n s f o r t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e
g o d s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y [ 25 , p . 1 6 0 ] . W h i l e th i s
s t a t e m e n t m a y g o t o o f a r i n a s se r t in g t h e u n i q u e n e s s
o f t h e
zar
[ 26 ], i t l e g i t i m a t e l y a r g u e s f o r t h e n e c e s s i t y
o f m o r e c a r e f u l e m p i r i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e r e l a -
t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f m e d i c a l a n d s a c r e d i n te r e s ts
a c r o s s e t h n o g r a p h i c i n s t a n c e s . W i t h i n e t h n o g r a p h i c
i n s t a n c e s , i t s h o u l d a l s o b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t s o c i a l
c h a n g e m a y a l t e r th e r e l ig i o u s a n d t h e r a p e u t i c n e e d s
o f a c o m m u n i t y , a n d t h u s t r a n s f o r m t h e c u l t u r a l
p r o f il e o f p o s s e s s io n t r a n c e c u l ts . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e
r e c en t i n c a r n a t i o n o f th e A f r o - C u b a n S h a n g o c u l t
( R e g l a L u c u m i ) a s 'S a n t e r i a ' a m o n g C u b a n i m m i -
g r a n t s i n M i a m i h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d a s a t h e r a p e u t i c
r e s p o n s e t o s o c i a l m a l a i s e a n d p e r s o n a l c r i s i s g e n e r -
a t e d b y t h e s t r e s se s o f i m m i g r a t i o n a n d a c c u l t u r a t i o n
[ 2 7 , 2 8 ] , w h e r e a s i n C u b a i t w a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y a
r e l ig i o u s in s t i t u ti o n . E x a c t l y w h a t h a s c h a n g e d ?
I n a r e c e n t a r t i c le , B o u r g u i g n o n [ 2 9 ] c l e a r l y d e l in -
e a t e s s o m e o f t h e i s s u es r a is e d h e r e b y j u x t a p o s i n g
t w o a c c o u n t s o f th e
bori
c u l t a m o n g H a u s a w o m e n .
T h e a c c o u n t b y O n w u e j e o g w u [ 3 0] p o r t r a y s t h e c u lt
f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f s o ci a l p a t h o l o g y , o r s t r u c t u r a l
f l a w s i n t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n : i n
p o s s e s s i o n ,
bori
p a r t i c i p a n t s e n a c t r o l e s f r o m t h e
m a l e d o m a i n s o f p u b l i c l i fe a n d o f f ic i a ld o m , d e n i e d
t o t h e m i n r e a l li fe . T h u s t h e y e s c a p e i n f a n t a s y f r o m
t h e r o l e o f o p p r e s s e d f e m a l e t o t h a t o f d o m i n a n t
m a l e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e a c c o u n t b y M o n f o u g a -
N i c o l a s [3 1 ] g i v e s a m u c h m o r e b a l a n c e d v i e w o f t h e
s o c ia l p o s i t i o n o f bori a n d i t s d e v o t e e s . Bori i s b o t h
a r e l ig i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n a n d a t h e r a p e u t i c i n s t i t u t i o n
o r i e n t e d a r o u n d w o m e n , i n s o f a r a s c u l t a d e p t s a r e
r e s p ec t e d h e a le r s c o n s u l t e d b y b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n ,
a n d i n s o f a r a s f o r H a u s a p e o p l e a ll i ll n e s s h a s a
s p i r i t u a l d i m e n s i o n . R a t h e r t h a n a h y s t e r i c a l i m i t a -
t i o n o f m e n ,
bori
i s a s i g n i f i c a n t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e
s o c i al a d v a n c e m e n t o f w o m e n . P o s s e s s io n t r a n c e i s
s e e n a s a n o r m a l , v a l u e d , c a t h a r t i c b e h a v i o r i n a
s a c r e d c o n t e x t , a n d p l a y s a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in a r t i c u -
l a t i n g s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n i n e v e r y d a y l if e. B o u r g u i g n o n
c o n c l u d e s b y a d d i n g a s y m b o l i c a n a ly s i s o f d e v o t e e s '
c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a s b e i n g ' m o u n t e d ' a s ' m a r e s ' o f
t h e s p i r i t s , a s b e i n g ' w i v e s ' o f t h e s p i r i t s , a n d a s
h a v i n g t h e i r i n d w e l l i n g s o u l s d i s p l a c e d b y a s p i r i t
d u r i n g t r a n c e . T h e s e i m a g e s i n d i c a t e t h a t p o s s e s s i o n
t r a n ce i s u l t i m a t e l y a b o u t i d e n t i t y , a b o u t r e l a ti o n s o f
p o w e r , d o m i n a n c e , a c t i v it y , a n d p a s s i v i ty a n d a b o u t
s e x u a l it y a n d m o t h e r h o o d . W h i l e m e d i c a l a n d t h e r -
a p e u t i c e l e m e n t s a r e p r o m i n e n t , t h e r i t u a l a c t i v i t i e s
c a n t h u s b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a m e t a c u l t u r a l c o m m e n -
t a r y o n t h e e x i s t e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f s o c i a l l i f e t h a t
t r a n s c e n d s t h e ' b a t t l e o f t h e s e x e s . '
T h e e x i s t en c e o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y a c c o u n t s o f
bori
c a n
h a v e s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s . F i r s t , t h e t w o
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w o r k e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s :
O n w u e j e o g w u w i t h H a u s a i n n o r t h e r n N i g e r i a a n d
M o n f o u g a - n i c o l a s w i t h H a u s a i n N i g e r . A s e c o n d
a n d l i k e l y m o r e r e l e v a n t f a c t o r i s t h a t t h e f o r m e r i s
a m a n a n d t h e l a t t e r a w o m a n . H e n c e t h e y w o u l d n o t
o n l y d i f f e r i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l r e s e a r c h s t a n c e s , b u t
w o u l d h a v e a c c e s s t o d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f i n f o r m a n t s
a n d d a t a . Y e t a t h i r d f a c t o r i s a c u l t u r a l d i f f e re n c e
b e t w e e n s c h o l a r l y t r a d i t i o n s , in t h a t t h e f o r m e r w r i t e s
i n E n g li s h w i th i n t h e A n g l o - A m e r i c a n t r a d i t io n a n d
t h e l a t t e r w r i t e s i n F r e n c h w i t h i n t h e F r e n c h t r a d i -
t i o n . I n d e e d , p e r u s a l o f t h e F r e n c h l i t e r a t u r e o n
A f r i c a n a n d A f r o - A m e r i c a n s p i r i t p o s s e s s i o n d o e s
n o t r e v e a l a p r o n o u n c e d t r e n d t o w a r d m e d i c a l -
i z a t i o n , o r a n o v e r l y g r e a t c o n c e r n w i t h s o c i a l
p a t h o l o g y / m a r g i n a l i t y . M o n f o u g a - N i c o l a s [ 31 ] w o r k
i s a c a se i n p o i n t o f t h e b a l a n c e d a p p r o a c h p r e v a l e n t
i n t h e F r e n c h w o r k s . S h e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e
bori
i s n o t m a r g i n a l , b u t p r o v i d e s a p o w e r b a s e f o r w o m e n
v i s -a - v is t r a d i t i o n a l H a u s a r e l ig i o n a n d I s la m , b o t h
o f w h ic h a r e m a l e - d o m i n a t e d . S h e p o i n t s o u t t h a t
w h i l e a d e p t s a r e f r e q u e n t l y r e c r u i t e d a s t h e c o n -
s e q u e n c e o f a n i l l n e s s , t h e y m a y a l s o i n h e r i t a p o s i -
t i o n w i t h i n t h e c u l t , o r s e e k t o j o i n o f t h e i r o w n f r e e
w i l l a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e p r e s t i g e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
m e m b e r s h i p . F i n a l l y , w h il e e x a m i n i n g t h e i m p o r t a n t
w o r k o f c u l t l e a d e r s a s h e a l er s , sh e d o e s n o t n e g l e c t
t h e p a n t h e o n o f
bori
d e i t i e s a n d t h e s p i r i t u a l r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e n d e v o t e e s a n d t h e i r g u a r d i a n s .
O t h e r w o r k s o f n o t e i n t h i s t r a d i t i o n i n c l u d e th o s e
o f M ~ t r a u x [ 3 2 , 3 3 ], o n H a i t i a n
vodou
w h i c h i n c l u d e
d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s o u l i n t h a t r e l i g i o n .
L e i r i s' [ 3 4 ] m o n o g r a p h o n t h e
zar
c u l t d e m o n s t r a t e s
t h a t e v e n t h i s p a r a d i g m c a s e f o r t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y
m e d i c a l a p p r o a c h c a n b e a n a l y z e d a s a f o rm o f ri t u a l
d r a m a a s w e l l a s a f o r m o f e t h n o m e d i c a l t h e r a p y .
R o u g e t ' s [ 5 ] o u t s t a n d i n g r e c e n t w o r k o n t h e r o l e o f
m u s i c i n p o s s e s s i o n t r a n c e g i v e s p r o m i n e n c e t o s p i r -
i t u a l a n d a e s t h e t i c d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e .
M u s i c i s n o t s i m p l y a p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r i g g e r i n g m e c h -
a n i s m f o r t r a n c e , a s w r i t e r s l i k e N e h e r [ 3 5 ] h a v e
-
8/10/2019 HEALTH AND THE HOLY.pdf
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4 THOMAS J CSORDAS
s u g g e s t e d , b u t i s i n t e g r a l t o t h e t r a n c e e x p e r i e n c e , t o
t h e l if e o f t h e a d e p t a n d t o t h e u n f o l d i n g o f t h e r i t u a l
e v e n t : A p o s s e s s i o n r i t u a l is a n a r c h i t e c t u r e o f t i m e
c o m p o s e d o f d i f f e r e n t p h a s e s t o w h i c h d i f f e r e n t m u -
s i c s a r e a t t a c h e d . I t i s w i t h i n t h e d y n a m i c o f t h e
c e r e m o n y t h a t w e m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e r e l a t i o n s o f
m u s i c a n d t r a n c e [ 5, p . 6 4 ; m y t r a n s l a t i o n ] .
F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s t h e c l a s si c m o n o g r a p h b y B a s t i d e
[ 36 ] o n t h e A f r o - B r a z i l i a n candomblO. T h i s w o r k
e m p h a s i z e s t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m y t h a n d r i t u a l ,
e x a m i n e s t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l s tr u c t u r e o f t h e
candomblO
u n i v e r s e , a n d t r e a t s p o s s e s s i o n t r a n c e a s a f o r m o f
r e l i g i o u s m y s t i c i s m . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in a r e t r o s p e c t i v e
s o m e 1 5 y e a r s l a te r , B a s t i d e s t a t e d t h a t t h i s a p p r o a c h
h a d b e e n n e c e s s a ry t o c o u n t e r v a i l t h e m e d i c a l i z a t i o n
o f h i s t i m e t h a t s a w p o s s e s s i o n t r a n c e a s h y s t e r i a a n d
n e u r o s is , b u t t h a t u l t i m a t e l y a n a p p r o a c h m o r e b a l -
a n c e d b e t w e e n r e l i g i o u s a n d m e d i c a l m e a n i n g s w o u l d
b e n e c e s s a r y :
' In the end, after having repudiated the psychiatrists
interpretat ion as a unilateral interpretat ion, i t was necessary
to incorpo rate from i t that w hich could be of value to what
I was calling the sociology of trance. For in Africa pos-
session is, if not always, at least very often, linked to
therapeutics, not on ly of madness bu t of all illnesses of
psychosomatic origin or nature. I t was necessary to lay the
foundations for a unified discourse, where the sociological
and psychiatric w ere no longer identified, but on the con-
trary once again separated, co m ple m ent ary . . . [37, pp. 56
and 57; my translation].
T h i s r e v i e w i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e c o m p r e h e n s i v e ;
a n d a g a i n t h e r e a r e i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n s w i t h i n t h e
F r e n c h l i t e r a t u r e , s u c h a s Z e m p l e n i ' s [ 38 ] w o r k f o c u s -
i n g o n t h e t h e r a p e u t i c d i m e n s i o n o f p o s s e ss i o n t r a n c e
r i t e s a m o n g t h e L e b o u a n d W o l o f . I t i s a l s o n o t
i n t e n d e d t o d e n y t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f r e l ig i o u s e l e m e n t s
b y m o s t A n g l o - A m e r i c a n a u t h o rs , a l t h o u g h t h e y
a p p e a r t o e m p h a s i z e r e li g i o u s i d e o l o g y a n d p a r -
t i c i p a t i o n i n r i t u a l o v e r e x p e r i e n t i a l d i m e n s i o n s o f
r e l i g i o n , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g r e f e r r e d t o m e d i c a l o r
p s y c h i a t r i c i s su e s . I n a n y c a s e , w h a t m u s t b e e x p l o r e d
a r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f starting f r o m a ' m e d i c a l -
t h e r a p e u t i c ' o r i e n t a t i o n a s o p p o s e d t o a ' c o m p a r a t i v e
r e l i g i o n ' o r i e n t a t i o n . W h i l e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o m -
p a r i s o n o f t h e F r e n c h a n d A n g l o - A m e r i c a n li t e r a t u re
w o u l d d o u b t l e s s c o n f i r m t h e r e l a t i v e t r e n d s i d e n t i f i e d
h e r e , a n d b e v a l u a b l e i n i t s o w n r i g h t , t h e p r o b l e m
r e m a i n s o f t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f m e d i c a l a n d s a c r e d
r e a li t ie s i n t h is p h e n o m e n o n . I n s u m m a r y , w h a t i s t h e
r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s t a t e m e n t s li k e Y o u n g ' s t h a t . . . i t
i s t h e s e s i c k n e s s e p i s o d e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t h e r a p i e s
a n d r i t u a ls t h e y e n ta i l , t h a t d o m i n a t e t h e i n te r e s t o f
m a n y d e v o t e e s [ 15 ], a n d a s t a t e m e n t l i k e B a s t i d e ' s
t h a t T h e s t r u c t u r e o f e c s t a s y i s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f
m y t h [ 3 6 ]? A d m i t t e d l y th e s e s t a t e m e n t s a r e t a k e n
o u t o f c o n t e x t - - Y o u n g i s a s t u d e n t o f th e zar a n d
B a s t i d e o f t h e candombl B e y o n d t h e i s s u e o f
w h e t h e r s u c h s t a t e m e n t s a r e t r u e f o r s p e ci f ic e t h n o -
g r a p h i c i n s t a n c e s , t h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t t h e y t e n d t o b e
m a d e a s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a c ro s s t h e f ie l d o f p o s s e s si o n
t r a n c e s t u d i e s . D o t h e y c o n t r a d i c t o n e a n o t h e r , o r
c a n t h e y b e r e c o n c i l e d ? T h e q u e s t i o n i s l a r g e , a n d t h e
p r e s e n t p a p e r w i l l t a k e o n l y a f i rs t s te p b y p r e s e n t i n g
s o m e m a t e r i a l o n t h e A f r o - B r a z i l i a n
candombl
T h i s
m a j o r p o s s e s s i o n t r a n c e c u l t i s p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n
t h e A n g l o - A m e r i c a n l i te r a t u r e , a n d c o n t r a s t s s u b -
s t a n t i a l l y w i t h t h e b e t t e r k n o w n zar cul t .
CANDOMBL I ~
Candombl~
i n B r a z i l i s e s s e n t i a l l y Y o r u b a ( i n B r a z i l
Y o r u b a = N a g 6 = Q u e t u ) r e li g i o n t r a n s p l a n t e d f r o m
W e s t A f r i c a . P a r t i c i p a n t s h o n o r t h e g o d s a n d g o d -
d e s s e s , o r orixas o f t h e t r ad i t i o n a l Y o r u b a p a n t h e o n
[ 39 ]. In A f r o - B r a z i l i a n c u l t u r e a s a w h o l e t h e A n g o l a n
i n f l u e n c e i s s t r o n g e s t , d u e t o i t s p r e s e n c e s i n c e t h e
S i x t e e n t h C e n t u r y ; h o w e v e r , in t h e d o m a i n o f re l i g io n
t h e Y o r u b a p a n t h e o n , i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h
C e n t u r y , h a s l a r g e l y d i s p l a c e d o r a s s i m i l a t e d o t h e r
d e i t i e s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , e a c h orixa i s p a i r e d w i t h a
C h r i s t i a n s a i n t w h o i s i t s c o u n t e r p a r t w i t h r e s p e ct t o
s h a r e d a t t r ib u t e s .
Candomblk
h a s a n e s t a b l i s h e d l i t u r -
g i c a l c a l e n d a r , t h e f e s t i v a l s o f w h i c h o n l y p a r t i a l l y
o v e r l a p w i t h t h e f e a s t d a y s o f C a t h o l i c s a i n ts . W i t h i n
t h e s p e c t r u m o f A f r o - B r a z i l i a n p o s s e s s i o n c u l ts , t h e
N a g 6 candornbl~ o f B a h i a i s s a i d t o b e t h e m o s t
o r t h o d o x . O t h e r c u l t s w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r ee s o f Y o r -
u b a i n f l u e n c e i n c l u d e X a n g o o f R e c i f e a n d R i o d e
J a n e i r o , A n g o l a n candombl~s, U m b a n d a , B a t u q u e ,
M a c u m b a , C a t i m b o , a n d C a b o c l o [ 3 1 ]. T h e s e c ul t s
a r e p r o m i n e n t i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s , a n d r e p r e s e n t
v a r i o u s s y n c r e t i s m s o f
orixas,
A n g o l a n d e i ti e s , n a ti v e
I n d i a n s p i r i t s , a n d s p i r i t s o f t h e t w o f o u n d i n
K ar dec is t sp i r i t i sm [ 17 , 24 , 40 , 41] .
T h e f i r s t B a h i a n c o n g r e g a t i o n , o r terreiro, w as
f o u n d e d b y a p r i e s t e s s f r o m A f r i c a i n 1 8 30 , ~ i t h
f o r m e r s l a v e s a s m e m b e r s [ 4 2 ]. P e r i o d i c a l l y re p r e s s e d
b y t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y C a t h o l i c a u t h o r i t i e s , i t h a s
b e e n o n l y s i n c e 1 9 7 6 t h a t B a h i a n
terreiros
h a v e n o t
b e e n r e q u i r e d t o r e g i s t e r w i t h t h e p o l i c e . Terreiros
p a r t i c i p a t e p u b l i c l y i n t h e c a r n i v a l , a n d a n n u a l l y
s t a g e a p u b l i c f e s t iv a l f o r Y e m a n j a , t h e orixa p a t r o n -
n e s s o f t h e w a t e r s . M a n y B r a z i l i an s m a k e u s e o f t h e
s p i r i t u a l r e s o u r c e s o f t h e
candombl~,
a n d i ts m e m b e r s
i n c l u d e p e o p l e o f E u r o p e a n a s w e l l a s A f r i c a n d e -
s c e n t . T h e i m p a c t o f th i s r e l i g i o n e x t e n d s e v e n t o d i e t ,
w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t io n o f b o o k s o n p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e
r i t u a l c u i si n e h o n o r i n g t h e orixas----each d e i t y h a v i n g
his or he r f avor i te d i sh [ 43] .
I n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 9 , t h e A f r i c a n a n d A f r o -
A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s P r o g r a m a t t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f
N o r t h C a r o l i n a , C h a p e l H i l l , w a s f o r t u n a t e t o h a v e
a s g u e st t h e B r a z i l i a n p s y c h i a t r i s t D r A l v a r o R u b i m
d e P i n h o . I n a s e r i e s o f i n t e n s i v e i n t e r v i e w s c o o r d i -
n a t e d b y t h e p r e se n t a u t h o r a n d h i s t o r ia n L i n d a
G u t h r i e [ 4 4 ] , D r R u b i m o f f e r e d a v a l u a b l e k e y i n f o r -
m a n t p e r s p e c t iv e b a s e d o n h i s u n i q u e d u a l p o s i t i o n a s
c h a i r m a n o f th e D e p a r t m e n t o f P s y c h i a t r y i n t h e
F a c u l t y o f M e d i c i n e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B a h i a i n
S a l v a d o r , a n d i n i t i a t e d e ld e r o f t h e
eandombl~ terreiro
o f A x ~ O p 6 A f o n j a . T h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s n o t a s
a s t o u n d i n g a s i t m a y f i r s t s e e m t o n o n - B r a z i l i a n s , f o r
i t c o n t i n u e s a t r e n d b e g u n b y l i b e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n
t h e 1 9 3 0 s a n d 1 9 4 0 s , w h o f o u n d i n A f r o - B r a z i l i a n
c u l t u r e a f o c u s o f p o p u l i s t c o n c e r n w i t h f o lk c u l t u r e
i n r e s p o n s e t o d i s c o u r a g e m e n t o f a c t i v is t p o l i t ic s b y
a n a u t h o r i t a r i a n r i g h t - w i n g g o v e r n m e n t . D r R u b i m
a t t r i b u t e s h i s p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n candomblO t o t h r e e
s o u r c e s . F i r s t w a s h i s r e a d i n g o f w o r k s b y a n e a r l i e r
g e n e r a t i o n o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l y c o n c e r n e d B r a z i l ia n
p s y c h i a t r i s t s , n o t a b l y N i n a R o d r i g u e z [ 4 5 ] a n d
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African and Afro-American spirit possession
Arthur Ramos [46]; also influential were the works of
Rene Ribeiro [47,48] and Edison Carneiro
[49, 50]--few of these works are availab le in English
translation. Through this reading Dr Rubim was
self-instructed about issues of ethnopsychiatry, and
decided that it should be a responsibility of
psychiatrists of his own generation to resume these
studies. A second influence was the discovery that his
patients frequently submitted themselves to religious
treatments without being open about it to him. His
chance discovery of these visits led him to explore
their consequences for his patients at a private
psychiatric hospital where he was employed. Third
was the matter of curiosity, which led him to attend
his first candombl~ ceremony in 1968, along with a
group of colleagues participating in the transcult ural
psychiatry symposium sponsored that year in Bahia
by the World Association of Psychiatry. His initial
encounter with the cu lt leader evolved into a long-
stand ing involvement with the affairs of the terreiro.
Ax~ Op6 Afonja is one of three daughter terreiros
of the original Nag6
terreiro
of Bahia. It is organized
around an
ia lor ixa
or
M ~ e - d e - S a n t o
(Mother of
Saints), who is invariably a woman of African de-
scent. Male cult heads ( babalor ixa or P a i - d e - S a n t o )
have been known, but are infrequent in the Nag6
candornbl
Second in rank is the
iaquerere
or
M a e
P e q u e n o
(Little Mother), whose responsibilities in-
clude directing the music at ceremonies, and who is
the temporary replacement for a deceased Male- de-
S a n t o until a successor is chosen. She also directs the
initiation of the y a 6 s or F i l h a s - d e - S a n t o (Daughters
of the Saints) who constitute the rema inder of female
devotees who experience possession by the
or ixas .
Males seldom experience possession; in Ax~ Op6
Afonja the relation of male to female y a f s is 1:I0.
Finally among female participants, the eke ide is a
kind of general protectress. There are seldom more
than three
e k e i d e
in a
terreiro,
and they are typically
women of higher social status than the
y a f s .
They
serve as auxiliaries in charge of coordinating deco-
rative and aesthetic aspects of terreiro festivities,
especially those of a more social and less sacred
character.
Four ceremonial offices are available to male
participants. There are eight o g a n d e f a c a ( o g a n s of
the knife), full-time officiants of the terreiro who
must be present in all public and private rituals, and
who are the only persons ritually consecrated to kill
sacrificial animal s. The
ogan de quar to ( ogans
of the
room) are a larger group that may vary in number;
there are slightly more than 20 in Ax6 Op6 Afonja.
Aside from attending festivals of their guardian
or ixa ,
their primary responsibility is as patr on to the
y a f s
consecrated to the same
or ixa .
These
ogans
offer
advice and support to the
y a f s ,
and in certain in-
stances financial support as well; e.g. they may help
defray the cost of an o r i x a ' s expensive ritual costume.
They also act as general supporters of the terreiro.
They are typically both black and white men, and in
A x 6 0 p 6 Afonja a small but significant group of
artists and intellectuals of European ancestry occupy
this office, including Dr Rubim. Above the ogans in
rank, and serving the M 8 e - d e - S a n t o as direct advis-
ors, are eight
obas.
All are consecrated to the
o r i x a
Xango, who is also the principal deity of the
terreiro.
T h e o b a s
are organized hierarchically among them-
selves: first
oba
on the right of Xango, first on the left,
second on the right, etc. This g roup is responsible for
choosing a new M a l e - d e - S a n t o on the death of one in
office. Finally, the drummers or players of the a t a -
baque
are generally young men responsible for cere-
monial music, producing the sacred rhythms that
indicate the presence of particular or ixas . None of
these male cult participants experience possession
trance.
Whether or not a person experiences possession
trance, each participant is consecrated to a single
or ixa that serves as his or her guardian. Dr Rubim
acquired his patron when, while attending his second
candombl~ ceremony in 1969, he was l evantado para
ser ogan
(raised up to be ogan) by an entranced
F i l h a - d e - S a n t o
who was possessed by the deity Ox-
ala. During the following year he was required to
attend all public ceremonies of the terreiro, and
undergo a series o f interviews with the Mae-de-San to,
during which she instructed him about the structure
of the religion, his ritual obligations, and how to
comport himself during rituals. His initiation oc-
curred at the end of this period, at the culmination
of a 3 week cycle of ceremonies that constitutes the
festival of Oxala. The night before the initiation, he
was dressed in white, the sacred color of Oxala, and
required to keep vigil before Oxala's altar. The night
was punctuated by rituals that included a sacred
bath, anima l sacrifices, and rites of purification and
strengthening by means of the animals' blood and
cooked meat. On the day o f initiat ion he was given
a necklace sacred to Oxala as a sign of his office, and
a ritual name in the Yor uba language. From this time
he was entitled to attend private as well as public
rituals.
Having achieved the status of ogan, Dr Rubim
anticipated access to valuable ethnopsychiatric data.
As he states, in the course of 10 years this antici-
pation was disappointed.
At the time of my initiation, it looked like the circum-
stances which led me to be an
ogan
would give me the
opportunity to study what I wanted: the treatment of mental
illnesses. In fact, experience did not bear this out, because
in the Nag6 candombl~ few treatments of mental illnessesare
applied. There are far more religious practices than there are
treatments. The Nag6 M8e-de-Santo makes appointments
in which she gives advice, which is either moral advice or
advice about how to fulfil religious obligations. When one
talks about authentic mental illnesses--psychoses--she gen-
erally recommends going to a doctor. I continued as an ogan
to frequent the terreiro and attend the rituals, but for
purposes of research I have preferred to take another route,
using questionnaires [in general population surveys] [44, p.
721.
In general, it is not strictly speaking an episode of
illness that indicates initiation as a y a 6 capable of
possession trance. On occasion an unini tiate d indi-
vidual attending a public ceremony will become
possessed, and this is a possible indication that she is
chosen by an or ixa . The more usual process is
through consultation with the M a e - d e - S a n t o , again
not for an illness, but for some difficulty, problem, or
conflict in life, and not with the advance intention
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6 THOMAS J.
C ORDAS
o f b e c o m i n g a m e m b e r o f candomblO. I n s u c h a
c o n s u l t a t i o n , t h e
Male-de-Santo
s e e k s a d v i c e f r o m
X a n g o t h r o u g h t h e t e c h n i q u e o f I f a d i v i n a t i o n [ 5 1] .
X a n g o i n d i c a t e s t h e c a u s e o f th e p r o b l e m a n d t e n d e r s
a d v i c e . B e c o m i n g a ya6 o r Filha-de-Santo i s o n l y
o n e o f h i s p o s s i b le r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . T h e p e r s o n
m a y n e e d t h e r i t u a l o f bori ( n o t t o b e c o n f u s e d w i t h
t h e H a u s a
bori
c u l t ) , i n w h i c h o n e i s s t r e n g t h e d b y
' f ee d i n g t h e h e a d ' w i t h c o o k e d m e a t a n d b l o o d f r o m
a s a c r i f i c i a l a n i m a l , a n d w h i c h i s i n c l u d e d a s o n e
p a r t o f t he i n i t i a t i o n o f organs a n d yars. T h i s r i t u a l
f o r ti f ie s s p i r i t a n d m i n d , e n a b l i n g a p e r s o n t o c o n -
f r o n t l i f e ' s d i f f i c u lt i e s , b u t i ts e f f ec t s p e r d u r e f o r o n l y
a li m i t e d p e r io d , a n d e v e n f o r i n it i a t e d m e m b e r s m u s t
b e r e n e w e d a f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s . A n o t h e r c e r e m o n y ,
m e a n t t o p r e v e n t m i s f o r t u n e , i s 'c l e a n s i n g o f t h e
b o d y . ' T h i s i s a s i m p l e r i t e c o n s i s t i n g o f a s e r i es o f
p r a y e r s u t t e r e d b y t h e
Mre-de-Santo
w h i l e t h e s u p -
p l i c a n t p e r f o r m s p r e d e t e r m i n e d g e s t u r es . Y e t a n o t h e r
p r o p h y l a c t i c m e a s u r e i s b e s t o w a l o f a n e c k l a c e m a d e
i n t h e terreiro w i t h r i t u a l l y p r e p a r e d b e a d s . W h i l e
a l l ogans a n d yars r e c e i v e a n e c k l a c e o f c o l o r a n d
c o m p o s i t i o n s p e ci f ic t o t h e i r g u a r d i a n orixa a t t h e i r
i n i t i a ti o n , n e c k l a c e s m a y b e g i v e n t o a n y o n e i n c o n -
s u l t a t io n , t h o u g h t h e y v a r y i n c o l o r , si z e a n d s h a p e
o f be a d s. O t h e r p r e s c r ip t i o n s m a d e b y X a n g o
t h r o u g h m e d i u m o f t h e Mre-de-Santo i n c l u d e t a k i n g
s a c r e d h e r b b a t h s , a t t e n d i n g p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o u s
c e r e m o n i e s , o f f e r i n g a s a c r i f i c i a l a n i m a l t o a n
orixa,
a n d o f f e r i n g a m e a l o f a p a r t i c u l a r orixa s f a v o r i t e
d i s h (ebo or faze r um despacho).
I n a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h a w o m a n i s r e q u i r e d t o
b e c o m e a yar, D r R u b i m d e s c r i b e d t h e f o l l o w i n g
p r o c e s s o f i n i t i a t i o n :
I t i s ve ry d if fe ren t f rom the in i t ia t ion o f an ogan. M a n y
y e a rs a g o in A x~ O p 6 A fo n ja th e p e r io d o f i n it i a t io n
ex tended to n ine mon ths o f sec lus ion in the peji [ in i t ia t ion
house] . Th is t ime has been g rea t ly d imin ished , I suppose
because the process is expensive, and that it does not allow
the pe rson to work fo r too long a t ime . But even now the
process o f in i t ia t ing a ya6 i n A x 6 0 p 6 A f o n j a i s n e v e r
shorte r than th ree months . Ins ide the peji t h e e n v i ro n m e n t
is shadowy, semi-dark , qu ie t , and iso la ted . The iaquerere
(Mae Pequeno) en te rs da i ly and d irec ts the works , and on
cer ta in occas ions the ialorixa (Mac de Santo) visits to
supervise a nd give directions. It can be a group of initia tes ,
bu t the re a re d if fe ren t rooms . Sometimes they a re in
d iffe ren t rooms perfo rming d iffe ren t r i tua ls , and sometimes
the same r i tua l is pe rfo rmed s imultaneous ly fo r more than
one . A par t o f the fo rmat ion is spec if ic to each orixa. T h e
in i t ia tes don ' t ta lk to one ano ther ; they ta lk to the iaquerere
only for essential things. She is the one who coo rdin ates the
ambience o f the p lace .
I judge the p rocess o f in i t ia t ion to b e main ly a p rocess
of condi t ion ing , where the Filha de Santo i s p repared to be
a pe rson who dances in a ce r ta in way , m imics ce r ta in
charac te r is t ic s o f the orixa, and has ce r ta in ways o f
behaving socially. I imagine that during this process there
can a r ise resis tances o r dup l ic i t ie s to the adopt io n o f a k ind
of conduc t , a nd tha t the p rocess o f condi t ion ing makes i t
poss ible to ov ercom e th is and ado pt the p rop er behav ior .
Th is ra ises the is sue o f the separa t ion o f pa tho log ica l
processes f rom possession in the religious contex t, in which
la t te r case i t i s pe rfec t ly normal . The M~e-de Santo used
to te l l me tha t i t i s poss ib le be fore o r dur ing the in i t ia t ion
th a t m o re th a n o n e orixa would t ry to possess the same
daughte r . But i f the p rocess occurs correc t ly the re is a
definite link established betw een a ya6 a n d o n ly o n e orixa,
and possession occurs only ' in religious s itua tion s. In a
situation o f conflict, I imagine th at this could be com pre-
hensible to us as personality traits that appear to be in
disagreement. But I have the impression that the conflicts
about which the ,Side-de-Santo ta lks do no t concern
s i tu a t io n s o f p e r s o n a l i ty b u t m o m e n t s o f p o s s e s s io n - - th e
conflict between tw o orixas possessing the same body. I
imag ine that this is purely personal. I imagine tha t the
confl ic t the M8e-de-Santo ta lks about as possession by
m o re th a n o n e orixa has a connec t ion with wha t I would
th ink to be resis tance o f the pe rson to adop t ing tha t pa t te rn
of behav ior which is be ing induced as the pa t te rn o f
behav ior o f tha t pa r t icu la r orixa. But the Mac-de-Santo
says tha t when the work o f in i t ia t ion is done correc t ly , the
iden t i f ica t ion o f the ya6 with the orixa is perfectly defined
[44, pp. 48-50].
I n c o n t r a s t t o s o m e p o s s e s s i o n c u l t s , e a c h p a r -
t i c i p a n t i n candomblb h a s o n l y o n e g u a r d i a n s p i r i t . A
p e r s o n o f t e n r e s e m b l e s , o r h a s c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l i t y
t r a it s i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e g u a r d i a n orixa: i t i s
c o m m o n t o s ay t h a t a p e r so n i s ' f o r O x a l a ' o r ' f o r
O x u n ' i n t h e sa m e w a y t h a t a N o r t h A m e r i c a n m i g h t
s a y t h a t a p e r s o n ' t a k e s a f t e r h e r g r a n d m o t h e r . ' T h i s
s u g g e s t s c a u t i o n i n c o n c l u d i n g t h a t s p i r i t p o s s e s s i o n
in candomblk i s a c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e m u l t i p l e p e r s o n -
a l i ty p h e n o m e n o n , w h e r e i n r e p r es s e d o r u n -
r e c o g n i z e d m o t i v e s a r e a c t e d o u t [ 52 ]. T h o s e w h o a r e
i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e p o s s e s s i o n e x p e r i e n c e u n d e r g o a
c a r e f u l p r o c e s s o f t r a i n i n g o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v e r al
m o n t h s , s i n c e t h e y w i ll b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n c a r n a t -
i n g th e i r d e it y i n h u m a n f o r m . D u r i n g t h is p e r i o d .
i n i t ia t e s m a k e t h e e l a b o r a t e c o s t u m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
t h e i r p a t r o n , a n d l e a r n b o t h t h e c o m p l e x m y t h o l o g y
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h a t d i v i n i t y a n d i t s t ? p i c a l p a t t e r n s
o f b e h a v i o r a n d s p e e c h as m a n i f e s t e d o n r i t u a l o c c a -
s i o ns . D u r i n g i n i t i a ti o n t h e n o v i c e Filha-de-Santo is
s e c l u d e d i n d a r k n e s s i n a t w i l i g h t s t a t e o f s e m i - t r a n c e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s o n e o f c h il d l i k e s u g g e st a b i l it y o r
r e g r e s si o n , a n d r e f e r r e d t o i n Y o r u b a a s ~ r& W h i l e
t o t a l l y a b s o r b e d i n th e s a c r e d p r e s e n c e , t h e n o v i c e i s
s e n s it i z e d t o t h e d r u m r h y t h m s a c r e d to h e r orixa,
s o t h a t o n r i t u a l o c c a s i o n s h e r p o s s e s s i o n e x p e r i e n c e
i s i n i t i m a t e l y t i e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r m u s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e .
T h u s , t h e r e i s n o u n i f o r m s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o s o n i c
d r i v i n g [ 35 ] a s a m e c h a n i s m o f t r a n c e i n d u c t i o n , b u t
r a t h e r a s e le c t i v e s u g g e s t i b i l i t y b a s e d o n c u l t i v a t e d
s e n s i ti v i t y t o t h e i n t e r w e a v i n g o f m u s i c a l t h e m e s i n
th e c e re m o n ie s [ c f . 5 ] .
T h e e f f e c t s o f t h i s t r a i n i n g a r e s e e n n o t o n l y i n th e
c a r e f u l l y s t y li z e d b e h a v i o r o f t h e d e i t i e s d u r i n g r i t u a l
p o s s e s si o n s , b u t i n i n t e r a c t i o n s a m o n g orixas t h a t
r e f le c t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s i n m y t h . F o r e x a m p l e , B a s t id e
[3 6] r e c o u n t s t h a t o n e o f X a n g o ' s w i v e s , o n c e t r i c k e d
i n m y t h b y h e r c o - w i f e , o f t e n f l i e s i n t o a r a g e d u r i n g
c e r e m o n i e s , a n d m u s t b e r e st r a i n e d b y a s s is t a nt s f r o m
b e a t i n g h e r m a l e f a c t r e s s i n r e v e n g e . T h u s , i n s t e a d o f
t h e r a p e u t i c a c t i n g o u t , s p i r i t p o s s e s s i o n i n candomblb
c a n b e s e e n as a p u r e f o r m o f r i tu a l d r a m a , w h e r e t h e
p a r t s o f d e it i e s a r e n o t p l a y e d b y h u m a n s , b u t w h e r e
t h e d e i t i e s i n e f f e c t p l a y t h e m s e l v e s . A l s o a c c o r d i n g t o
B a s t i d e, t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o h e r p o s -
s e s s in g orixa i s e s s e n ti a l l y o n e o f m y s t i c a l c o m m u -
n i o n . O n a n i n t e r p r e t i v e l e v e l , t h e m y s t i c a l r e l a t i o n i n
t h i s i n s t a n c e t a k e s p r e c e d e n c e o v e r f e a t u r e s o f s o c i a l
p a t h o l o g y o r m a r g i n a l i t y t h a t a r e o f t e n i n v o k e d i n
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A f r i c a n a n d A f r o - A m e r i c a n s p ir i t p o s se s s i o n
t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f p o s s e s s i o n c ul ts . I n B a s t i d e 's
w o r d s :
. . . ( T ) h e s o c i al c a n o n l y i n s c ib e , in t h e d o m a i n o f i n t e r-
p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , t h e l a w s o f t h e m y s t i c a l l if e . T h e d e v e e s
o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e g r o u p c a n o n l y f o l l o w t h o s e o f t h e
i d e n t if i c a t io n o f a p e r s o n w i t h t h e
or ixa .
T h e v a r i a t i o n s o f
s o c i a l s o l i d a r i t y a r e f i n a l l y o n l y t h e r e f l e c t i o n , a n d t h e
c o n s e q u e n c e , o f t h e v a r i a t i o n s o f s o l i d a ri t y e s t a b l i s h e d
b e t w e e n t h e p e r s o n a n d t h e w o r l d o f t h e g o d s . . . I t is n o t
s o c i a l m o r p h o l o g y t h a t c o m m a n d s r e l i g i o n o r e x p l a i n s i t ,
b u t o n t h e c o n t r a r y t h e m y s t i c a l t h a t c o m m a n d s t h e s o c i a l
[ 3 6 , p p . 2 7 a n d 2 8 ; m y t r a n s l a t i o n ] .
CASE VIGNETTES
I f i l ln e s s i s n o t t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n o f c a n d o m b l ~
p a r t i c i p a n t s , a n d t h e c u l t ' s e x i s te n c e is n o t a d e q u a t e l y
e x p l a i n e d a s a r e s p o n s e t o s o c i a l m a r g i n a l i t y , i t i s s t il l
n e c e s s a r y in a b a l a n c e d e t h n o p s y c h i a t r i c a p p r o a c h t o
v i e w it a s a r e s o u r c e f o r t h e h e a l t h a n d w e l l - b e i n g o f
a c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h t h e m e a s u r e s o f r i tu a l p r o p h y -
l a x is p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e
M ~ e - d e - S a n t o
i n c o n s u l t a t i o n .
A l t h o u g h o n o c c a s i o n p e o p l e w i t h v a r io u s m e d i c a l
i l ln e s s e s c o n s u l t t h e M d e - d e - S a n t o , m o s t c o n s u l t e e s
a r e p e o p l e w i t h p s y c h o s o c i a l i s su e s s u c h a s m a r i t a l
p r o b l e m s , f i n a n c i a l d i f f ic u l t ie s o r p r o b l e m s w i t h
d r u g s a n d a l c o h o l . T h e f o l l o w i n g is a n e x a m p l e o f
s u c h a s i t u a ti o n , a s r e c o u n t e d b y D r R u b i m : .
Case 1. I t c o n c e r n s a f a m i l y t h a t l i v es in t h e A m a z o n r e g i o n .
A l a d y , m o t h e r o f o n e c h i l d , h a s a c o n f l i c t w i t h h e r
d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w . T h e d i f f i c u l t i e s g r e w w o r s e f o r t h e f a m i l y ,
s o t h e l a d y w e n t t o B a h i a t o h a v e a n a p p o i n t m e n t w i t h t h e
M ~ e - d e - S a n t o .
I n t h i s c a s e i t w a s m y
M a c - d e - S a n t o
i n A x 6
O p 6 A f o n j a . I k n o w t h i s f a m i l y v e r y w e l l , s i n c e t h e y a r e
f r o m m y h o m e t o w n ; t h e l a d y w a n t e d t o g o t o a M ~ e - d e -
S a n t o , s o s h e c o n s u l t e d m e a n d I r e c o m m e n d e d t h i s o n e f o r
h e r . F r o m w h a t s h e t o l d m e , s h e ga v e v e r y l i tt l e i n f o r m a t i o n
t o t h e M a c - d e - S a n t o , a n d t h e M a c - d e - S a n t o c o m p l e t e d h e r
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y s i t u a t i o n w i t h a b s o l u t e f i d e l it y .
T h e i n i t i a l c o n f l i c t w a s b e t w e e n d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w a n d
m o t h e r - i n - l a w , b u t t h e o l d e r w o m e n ' s h u s b a n d t o o k a
p o s i t i o n o f s o l i d a r i t y w i t h h i s w i f e a g a i n s t t h e i r d a u g h t e r - i n -
l a w . T h is i n t u r n h a d r e p e r c u s s i o n s f o r t h e ir s o n , w h o w a s
t h e i r o n l y c h i l d . A l l f o u r l i v e i n t h e s a m e c i t y , b u t n o t i n t h e
s a m e h o u s e ; t h e y s h a r e a l o t . N o w t h i s m o t h e r a l w a y s h a d
g r e a t a f f e c t i o n f o r h e r o n l y s o n , w h o d o e s n o t h a v e a n y
c h i l d r e n h i m s e l f . T h e m a r r i a g e w a s w e l l a c c e p t e d , b u t t h e
d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w b e g a n t o t h i n k t h a t t h e m o t h e r - i n - l a w w a s
o v e r p r o t e c t i v e o f h e r s o n . S o t h e d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w t r i e d t o
a v o i d s e e i n g t h e o l d e r w o m e n t o o m u c h - - b u t s h e s t i l l
w a n t e d t o p r o f i t m a t e r i a l l y a n d f i n a nc i a ll y f r o m h e r i n - la w s .
T h e s i t u a t i o n b e c a m e v e r y d i f f ic u l t , t o t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e y
d i d n o t s e e e a c h o t h e r u n l e s s t h e d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w w o u l d g o
t o a s k f o r s o m e t h i n g . T h e s i t u a t i o n w o u l d b e t e n s e , a n d t h e
y o u n g w o m e n w o u l d b e d e m a n d i n g . S h e t r i ed t o a s k f or
j e w e l l e ry , a n d o n c e s h e d e m a n d e d a c a r . T h e m o t h e r - i n - l a w
g a v e h e r t h e c a r , a n d s o o n a f t e r t h e y s o l d i t t o g e t c a s h .
I n t h i s c a s e , t h e o r i e n t a t i o n g i v e n b y t h e
M a l e - d e - S a n t o
w a s f o r t h e l a d y t o u s e , i n p e r p e t u i t y , a n e c k l a c e p r e p a r e d
a n d m a d e s a c r e d b y t h e M ~ e - d e - S a n t o . A n o t h e r n e c k la c e
w a s p r e s c r i b e d f o r t h e l a d y ' s h u s b a n d . E v e n t h o u g h t h e
h u s b a n d i s a l a w y e r h e a g r e e d t o w e a r i t , s a y i n g t h a t i t d i d n ' t
m a t t e r , b e c a u s e i f it d o e s n o t d o a n y g o o d , i t w i ll n o t d o a n y
b a d . I d o n o t w a n t t o j u d g e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a ll t h i s a s
i t e v o l v es , b e c a u s e t h i s h a p p e n e d o n l y a f e w m o n t h s a g o a n d
m a n y f a c t o r s c a n i n f lu e n c e t h e s i t u a t io n . H o w e v e r , a s o f
n o w , t h e s i t u a t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e b e c o m e b e t t e r. T h e l a d y
b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s m u c h b e t t e r . I t h i n k t h a t t h e
c o n s u l t a t i o n h a d b e e n m a d e w i t h m a n y d o u b t s , e v e n t h o u g h
t h e - w o m a n h a d t r a v e l l e d a l o n g w a y t o d o i t . B u t i t s e e m s
t h a t s h e a c q u i r e d a l o t o f t r u s t - - a f t e r a l l , s h e h a d c o n f i d e n c e
i n t h e
J , d e - d e - S a n t o
a n d t h e n e c k la c e . W h a t s e e m s c u ri o u s
t o m e i n t h i s c a s e is n o t t h e s i t u a t i o n ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , b e c a u s e
a l t h o u g h m y i n f o r m a t i o n i s t h a t t h e a m b i e n c e i m p r o v e d
q u i t e a l o t , i t i s s t i l l t o o e a r l y t o j u d g e . B u t t h e m o t h e r - i n -
l a w ' s c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e
M S e - d e - S a n t o
i m p r o v e d b e c a u s e t h e
M a l e - d e - S a n t o
d e s c r i b e d t h e f a c t s a s t h e y h a p p e n e d , h a v i n g
h e a r d v e r y l i tt l e o f t h e s t o r y . S h e d i d t h e d i a g n o s i s , m a d e
s o m e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , a n d d e c i d e d u p o n t h e u s e o f t h e
n e c k l a c e f o r t h e l a d y a n d a s m a l l e r n e c k la c e f o r h e r h u s b a n d
[44 , pp . 73 -75 ] .
I f t h i s c a s e i s a n e x a m p l e o f r el i g i o u s m e d i a t i o n o f
i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t , t h e f o l l o w i n g i s o n e w h e r e
r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i t s e l f i s a n i s s u e i n t h e c o n f l i c t
b e t w e e n s p o u s e s . N o t e a l s o D r R u b i m ' s r o l e a s a
p s y c h i a t r i s t i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , w h i c h a p p e a r s t y p i c a l o f
h i s s e l f - d e s c r i b e d o p e n n e s s t o r e l i g io u s t r e a t m e n t a s
l o n g a s i t i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e r a p e u t i c g o a l s , a s w e l l
a s h i s t e n d e n c y n o t t o c o n s u l t d i r e c t l y w i t h h i s
r e l ig i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t .
Case 2 . T h i s w a s a v e r y c u r i o u s c a s e t h a t c o n c e r n e d a l a d y
w h o w a s n o t a p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e c ul t o f
candornblk.
S h e w a s
a w h i t e w o m a n a b o u t t h i r t y y e ar s o f a g e . S h e w a s f r o m
C e a r a S t a t e i n t h e n o r t h o f B r a z i l, t h o u g h h e r f a m i l y m o v e d
t o B a h i a w h e n s h e w a s a n a d u l t. S h e h a d g o n e t o E u r o p e
w h e n v e r y y o u n g , a n d s p e n t s i x y e a r s t h e r e p u r s u i n g h e r
e d u c a t i o n . O n r e t u r n i n g s h e b e c a m e a P r o f e s s o r o f L i t e ra -
t u r e a t a u n i v e r s i t y . T h e n s h e g o t m a r r i e d . I n t h i s c a s e a
c o n f l i c t a r o s e w i t h i n h e r m a r r i a g e b e c a u s e s h e w a n t e d t o
p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e A f r o - B r a z i l i a n c u lt s , a n d h e r h u s b a n d d i d
n o t l e t h e r . H e r o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s t h i s h a d c o m e t h r o u g h
c o n t a c t w i t h a h o u s e o f U m b a n d a i n R i o . T h e c o nf l i c t g r e w
w o r s e a n d b e c a m e a g g r a v a t e d . H e r h u s b a n d s u g g e s t e d t h a t
t h e y g o o n v a c a t i o n t o t a k e h e r a w a y f r o m h e r a n x i e t y . S o
t h e c o u p l e s p e n t s e v e r a l w e e k s a t t h e b e a c h o f E s p i r i t o S a n t o
i n G u a r a p a r i . O n e m o r n i n g t h e h u s b a n d w o k e u p a n d d i d
n o t s e e h e r - - s h e h a d d i s a p p e a r e d . T h e p o l i c e w e r e a l e r t e d ,
a n d t h e y f o u n d h e r i n M i n a s G e r a i s , in t h e c it y o f M a r i a n a ,
i n a n A f r o - B r a z i l i a n t e r r e i r o - - a n o t h e r p l a c e , a n o t h e r s t a t e ,
c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t . S h e w a s h a v i n g a p o s s e s s i o n . S h e
w o u l d a g r e e t o l e a v e o n l y i f s h e c o u l d g o t o B a h i a t o c o n s u l t
a n o t h e r h o u s e o f r e l ig i o n , t h e a d d r e s s o f w h i c h s h e h a d
o b t a i n e d i n M i n a s . S h e h a d s i m p l y fl e d f r o m t h e h o t e l r o o m
i n G u a r a p a r i a n d g o n e t o M i n a s .
S h e d i d h a v e r e l at i v es i n B a h i a ; s o m e o n e i n M i n a s g a v e
h e r t h e a d d r e s s o f t h e
terreiro
t h e r e , s a y i n g i t w a s a v e r y
g o o d o n e . I n B a h i a I w a s c a l l e d t o h e l p t h i s l a d y , w h o ,
b e s i d e s h a v i n g l i v e d in E u r o p e a n d b e i n g a p r o f e s s o r a t t h e
u n i v e rs i t y , h a d f o r m o r e t h a n t w o y e a r s s u b m i t t e d h e r s e l f t o
p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . I f o u n d h e r i n a v e r y a ~ t a t e d a n d a n x i o u s
s t a t e . A f t e r t w o c o n s u l t a t i o n s w i t h h e r , I d e c i d e d t h a t a
p s y c h o t i c c o n d i t i o n d i d n o t e x i s t . I t w a s a n e u r o t i c s t a t e ,
a g g r a v a t e d b y h e r r e a c t i o n t o t h e s i t u a t i o n - - t h e c o n d i t i o n
w a s p s y c h o g e n i c , a s w e s a y i n p s y c h i a t r y , . B u t s h e r e f u s e d
p s y c h i a t r i c t r e a t m e n t . S h e d i d n o t a c c e p t m e . I t r i e d t o g e t
a n o t h e r p s y c h i a t r is t , b u t t h e p r o b l e m w a s n o t w i t h m e - - - s h e
w a n t e d a r e l i g i o u s s o l u t i o n . I n t r y i n g t o g e t h e r t o a c c e p t
m e , I t o l d h e r a b o u t m y c o n t a c t s w i t h
candombl
I j u s t u s e d
m y p o s i t i o n a s
ogan
i n o r d e r t o b e w e l l a c c e p t e d . S h e
c o n t i n u e d t o r e f u s e m e , s a y i n g t h a t w h e n i n t e ll e c t ua l s g o t o
candombl~ i t ' s o u t o f c u r i o s i t y , a n d n o t b e c a u s e t h e y b e l i e v e.
T h e n I s u r p r i s e d t h e f a m i l y . I a d v i s e d t h e m t o t a k e h e r t o
t h e cu l t w h o s e a d d r e s s s h e h a d b r o u g h t b a c k f r o m M i n a s .
A f t e r t w o w e e k s o f f r e q u e n t i n g t h e h o u s e a n d f u lf il l in g
r e l ig i o u s o b l i g a t i o n s , h e r a n x i e t y d i s a p p e a r e d . S h e w e n t t o
t h e
M a c - d e - S a n t o
d a i l y , t a l k i n g w i t h h e r a n d p a r t i c i p a t i n g
i n t h e c u l t . S h e r e c e i v e d t h e i n d o c t r i n a t i o n a n d f u l fi l le d
o b l i g a t i o n s , b u t I d o n o t k n o w w h i c h o n e s . T h e a n x i e t y
d i s a p p e a r e d . A p r a y e r w a s g i v e n t o h e r a n d s h e w a s t o l d t o
c o n t i n u e t o u s e i t . B u t i t w a s i n d i c a t e d t o h e r t h a t s h e s h o u l d
n o t b e c o m e a
y a r .
I d o n o t k n o w i f t h is i n d i c a t i o n w a s
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8 THOMAS J. CSORDAS
proper th rough religious means or because it coincided with
the wish of her husband. The evolution of the situation was
quite normal. But it seems to me that this was funny
behavior on the part of the Male-de-Santo: she gave re-
ligious orientation and obligations, but she advised that, on
returning to Rio de Janeiro, the woman should no t frequent
the cults. That was the major conflict with her husband. But
what was said was that there had been an orientation from
a superior entity. From the description, I understood that
it was not a traditional terreiro but one characterized by a
syncretism of candombl~ and the beliefs of Kardecist spirit-
ism. The spirit who advised through the medium was not an
orixa. I remember this because, although the ceremonials
described were ofcandombl~ type, the woman told me it was
Irm~o Basa-- Spiri t of the Brother Basa ( Irm~o is the
Kardecist term for spirit ).
Very simply, I think she was neurotic. I have reason to
think this because she submitted herself to psychiatric
treatment for two years, a treatment which she interrupted.
So there must already have been some reasons to motivate
the consultation and treatment. In Rio, after she interrupted
her psychoanalytic treatment, she had consulted an Um-
banda house. There she was advised to have initiation. It
would have been that she sensed a problem intuitively in
Rio. and felt the incapacity of psychoanalysis to unde rstand
the problem. Religion was an alternative solution. I have
heard that everything is now going well in this case. As a
psychiatric instrument I would not have been able to resolve
it. because it was not a psychiatric problem [44, pp. 75-79].
Two points must be made in commentary on this
case. First, Dr Rubim s simultaneous ability to diag-
nose a neurosis and willingness to declare the prob-
lem not a p sychia tric one is directly related to his own
conception of psychiatry s proper boundary. He is
critical of the trend in American psychiatry since
Adolph Meyer toward increasing medical izat ion of
human life to the point of presu med omniscience for
psychiatry. Thus, for him, the area of neuroses is no
more the privileged doma in o f psychiatry than it is of
religion. His willingness to acknow ledge informal
psyc hiatr y is tied to a critique o f the lack of limits
between pathological and normal socially condi-
t ioned phen omena in North American psychiatry, to
a conception of Latin American psychiatry as limit-
ing its scope to psychiatric pheno men a in the strict
sense, and to a view that those who are waiting for
a solution through programs of mental heal th to
societal problems of poverty, unemployment and
commun ality will ultimately be frustrated. Second, in
this instance the prescribed level of religious par-
ticipation goes well beyond that observe d in the first
case, but it stops short of full initiation as a cult
devotee. The treatment approach of both Dr Rubim
and the Mac-de-Santo--be tween whom there was
apparently no direct contact--appears to have been
aimed at compromis e between the woman s perceived
spiri tual needs and her hu sband s adamant op-
position to her cult participation. In the third case,
the degree of ritual participation is greater still,
actually reaching the initial stages of initiation, and
the relation between medical and sacred realities
becomes critical.
Case 3. Let me tell you about a case in which I was involved
that illustrates the capacity of the Mile-de-Santo to separate
what comes from the religious side and what comes from the
medical side. It concerns a recently graduated medical
student, who had been an excellent student. After her
~aduation she went to New York for a time. According to
what she told me later, she experienced certain perturbing
reactions while she was in New York. She consulted a
religious cult, and was told that her problem was a religious
one; I have the impression that the cult had to do with black
magic, demonology. When she was back in Bahia she
decided, on the indication of a Mde-de-Santo. to submit
herself to the process of initiation and become a Filha-de-
Santo. In this case, it was an Angolan candornblk.
She initiated the process, and stayed in the eamaria (the
room where the MSe-de-Santo stays) for two months. So
there she was, despite the fact that we knew that the process
of becoming a Filha-de-Santo included modification of
one s level of consciousness. The M~e-de-Santo observed
that there was a different disturbance that aggravated her to
such an extent that one day she burned certain sacred
objects. In the Peji there were some days when she submitted
herself in a disciplined way to the determinations of the
Male-de-Santo and fulfilled her rituals, but there were some
days when she interrupted the rituals with her behavior.
This behavior would cause disturbances in the environment,
and the M8e-de-Santo identified it as not being proper
within possession. She would be very talkative, talking too
much during times when she should not have been speaking.
She would have episodes of agitation and accentuated
insomnia. In one of the nights when she could no t sleep, in
the middle of an agitation, she burned sacred objects. Later
on, she told me she was having fun, playing--but that is
proper to these manic syndromes. It is common that an
ecstasy of happiness is associated with an activity that does
not correspond to, or is inappropriate to the feeling, and
that the action is done without any reflection or inhibition.
Although the family of the girl was opposed to her
initiation, the Mae-de-Santo asked her relatives to come,
and told them that she suspected that there was a medical
problem in addition to the religious one. The Male-de-Santo
felt uneasy, because according to the rule of candomblk she
could not call a stranger or uninitiated pers on-- a doc tor --
to help her in the private area of the house. By coincidence,
an ogan of this candombl~ had been an attendant in a
psychiatric hospital, and he knew me becasue of this. He
knew that I was an ogan of another candombl~. He
informed the M~e-de-Santo about this, and she accepted.
So I was called to give my opinion, and diagnosed that the
young woman was in a psychotic episode. It was a
manic-depressive psychosis. I explained this diagnosis to the
M~e-de-Santo and we were in total agreement. The
M~e-de-Santo concluded that while she was ill, conditions
were not right to proceed with the initiation. Later on, this
girl was cured, but she then had other episodes. She
continued to attend the house, but the Mae-de-Santo did
not accept her for initiation again, because she thought that
the existence of a medical problem made a contrary
indication.
What I find curious about this is that the Male-de-Santo
did not attribute the agitation to religious causes, and
thought it necessary even in that mo ment to obtain medical
intervention. My contact with the M?te-de-Santo wasn t
good enough to know why she thought as she did, but she
told me that there were situations of mental illness that
were considered to be natural illnesses, and that in such
cases Xango did not think that initiation was convenient.
I don t know if in the past this would have been regarded
as the correct procedure for a Mde-de-Santo--it may be a
consequence of some awareness of psychiatric subjects on
the part of contemporary Males-de-Santo. Nevertheless,
although this M~e-de-Santo looked like a very intelligent
woman, she was very primitive in her knowledge; she didn t
have the higher level such as does the M~e-de-Santo in Ax6
Op6 Afonja. The present M~e-de-Santo in my Terreiro was
a public functionary who left that work when she was
chosen as Mile-de-Santo. This Mile-de-Santo with whom I
have been associated knows how to differentiate trance by
possession of an orixa hysterical crisis, and simulated
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African and Afro-American sp ir i t possess ion
trance----something we psychiatris ts do n ot know . Whe n she
decides it is a hysterical cris is she does not use that term,
of course. She s imply decides it is a case for the psyc hiatris t
by excluding possession by an orixa and s imula t ion . I don ' t
know how she can do i t ; bu t I have seen my Male-de-Santo
observe trances even in the initia ted ya6s o f h e r terreiro,
and te l l them to see a doc tor . H er ev idence is tha t the San to
does no t know wha t she is do ing ; the sa in t does no t
man ifest itself in that w ay.
It is a lso curious in this case that the Mac-de-Santo k n e w
how to separa te the in fan t i le behav ior o f ~r~ [p repara to ry
trance---see above] f rom the euphoric be hav ior o f menta l
d isease . A nd the re was ano ther ep isode in which the young
woman was hospitalized and it was necessary to use
e lec tr ica l shock t rea tment--a t rea tment done in few cases ,
bu t w hich in ce r ta in ones can be necessa ry, though i t mus t
be used with ca re . In tha t case i t was admin is te red under
anaes thesia . The fam ily was in formed and au thorized the
trea tment , bu t the pa t ien t d idn ' t know a bout i t ; even now
she does no t know tha t she underwent e lec troshock t rea t-
ment . She passed th rough a pe r iod o f several days during
which she had a p rob lem w ith f ixa t ion o f memory , w hich
is com mo n am ong p eople who rece ive e lec tric shock , W hen
she commented to me about th is pe r iod , she sa id she had
the impress ion o f hav ing passed th roug h several days which
she remem bered on ly as i f i t were a d ream, and which she
in te rpre ted as a superna tura l s i tua t ion . She confused the
effect of electro shock w ith a possession. But she herself told
me tha t the M~e-de-Santo l is tened to the nar ratio n o f this
pe r iod and d id no t confi rm the possess ion . The Mac-de-
Santo d o e s n o t k n o w w h a t h a p p e n e d , b u t t o ld h e r t h a t
wha t she describ ed was not a possession. She know s how
to m ake th e differential diagn osis [44, pp. 82-90].
I n th i s a c c o u n t o f d i r e ct c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n
p s y c h i a t r i s t a n d r e l i g i o u s s p e c i a l i s t , t h e m e d i c a l e x -
p e r t i s i m p r e s s e d b y h i s c o u n t e r p a r t ' s i n t u i t i v e a n d
p r a c t i c a l a b i l i t y t o d i s t i n g u i s h p a t h o l o g i c a l f r o m
s a c r e d e x p e r i e n c e ; D r R u b i m n o t e s t h a t t h i s c o n -
f o r m s t o a n o b s e r v a t i o n m a d e d e c a d e s e a r l i e r b y
R i b e i r o [ 4 8] . T h e s e j u d g m e n t s b y a Male-de-Santo a r e
a p p a r e n t l y b a s e d b o t h o n o b s e r v a t i o n o f m o r e o r le ss
s u b t l e b e h a v i o r a l c u e s a n d o n e v a l u a t i o n o f s t at e s o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s e n t e r e d b y d e v o t e e s . E c s t a s y a s a c a t e -
g o r y o f c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e i s e l a b o r a t e d t o a d e g r e e
a l i e n t o W e s t e r n s c i e n c e , s u c h t h a t t h e r e a r e d e f i n i t e ,
i f i m p l i c i t, d i s t i n c ti o n s b e t w e e n n o r m a l e c s t a sy a n d
p a t h o l o g i c a l e c s ta s y . C o n t r a r y t o th e c o m m o n g e n e r -
a l i z a t i o n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e i n i t i a te d i n t o p o s s e s s io n
c u l t s as a f o r m o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y f o r m e n t a l i ll n es s ,
t h i s i s a c a s e i n w h i c h i n i t i a t i o n w a s d e n i e d p r e c i s e l y
b e c a u s e t h e n o v i c e w a s d i s c e r n e d t o b e m e n t a l l y i l l.
L i k e w i s e i n t h e p r e v i o u s c a s e , a n e u r o t i c i n d i v i d u a l
w a s d e e m e d a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e c a n d i d a t e f o r i n i t i a t i o n ;
i t i s u n l i k e ly t h a t t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f h e r h u s b a n d w a s
t h e o n l y f a c t o r a f f e c ti n g t h e Mde-de-Santo s d e c i s i o n
t o l i m i t h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n . F i n a l l y , a l l t h r e e c a s e s
d e s cr i b ed b y D r R u b i m i n v o l v e d i n d i vi d u a ls w h o
w e r e m a r g i n a l n o t t o t h e i r s o c i e t y - - a l l w e r e p r o f e s -
s i on a l c la ss w o m e n o f E u r o p e a n a n c e s t r y - - b u t m a r -
g i n a l t o t h e r e l i gi o u s m i l ie u , a n d h e n c e n o t c o n s i d e r e d
a s v i a b l e c a n d i d a t e s f o r i n i ti a t i o n . A s D r R u b i m
n o t e d , e v e n i n i t i a te d ya6s w i l l b e r e f e r r e d t o a d o c t o r
i f t h e i r p o s se s s i o n b e h a v i o r b e c o m e s i n a p p r o p r i a t e ,
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e c u l t e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f i s n o t p r i m a r -
i ly a f o r m o f t h e r a p y . T h e a b i l i t y t o e x p e r i e n c e
p o s s e s s i o n b y a n orixa i s a h i g h l y v a l u e d r e l i g i o u s
s k i ll a n d a s e r i o u s r i t u a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , e n t r u s t e d
o n l y t o t h o s e r e g a r d e d a s s t a b l e e n o u g h t o f u n c t i o n
a p p r o p r i a t e l y .
ON LUSION
U s i n g t h e e x a m p l e o f A f r i c a n a n d A f r o - A m e r i c a n
s p i r i t p o s s e s s i o n , i t h a s b e e n a r g u e d h e r e t h a t c e r t a i n
r e l i g io u s o r h e a l t h - r e l a t e d p h e n o m e n a c a n b e a d e -
q u a t e l y u n d e r s t o o d o n l y by e x a m i n i n g b o t h t h e i r
m e d i c a l a n d s a c r e d d i m e n s i o n s . T o a r g u e f o r t h e
i n c l u s io n o f t h e h o l y a s a f a c t o r i n t h e d i s c o u r s e o f
m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y i s n o t t o a d v o c a t e a r e tu r n t o
o l d e r p a r a d i g m s , o r a b a n d o n m e n t o f th e s ub -
d i s c i p l in e ' s i m p o r t a n t m o v e t o w a r d c l i n ic a l re l e v a n c e.
I n d e e d , t h e ' n e w c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p s y c h i a t r y ' [5 3] c o m -
b i n e s t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l m e t h o d
w i t h t h e se n s i ti v i t y o r h e r m e n e u t i c m e t h o d . K l e i n -
m a n a n d G o o d ' s [ 41 ] r e c e n t o u t l i n e o f a r e s e a rc h
p r o g r a m f o r a n a n t h r o p o l o g y o f e m o t i o n s s pe ci fi es
t h e n e e d f o r d e t a i l e d p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l d e s c r i p t