heat treatment of steels- i
TRANSCRIPT
Heat Treatment Of Steels
By:Nishant Khatod
Assistant ProfessorSTC, Latur
Cooling curve of pure iron
Cooling curve of pure iron [Source: V.D. Kodgire, S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
Structures
BCC Structure FCC Structure
Iron-carbon diagram
iron carbon phase diagram.mp4I-C diagram [Source: V.D. Kodgire, S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
Phases existing in iron-carbon diagram α-ferrite: Interstitial solid solution of carbon in BCC α-iron, at low temperatures Solubility of carbon in α-iron at room temperature is 0.008% and increases with
increase in temperature to about 0.025% at 727ᵒ C Soft and ductile phase ϒ(Austenite): Interstitial solid solution of carbon in FCC ϒ-iron Phase is stable above 727ᵒC Solubility of carbon in ϒ-iron at 1147ᵒ C is 2% Soft, ductile, malleable and non-magnetic phase δ-ferrite: Interstitial solid solution of carbon in BCC δ-iron, at high temperatures Similar to α-ferrite except occurrence at high temperatures Cementite: Intermetallic compound with a fixed composition of 6.67% Orthorhomic structure Extremely hard and brittle phase
Three invariant reactions in I-C diagram Peritectic transformation: General reaction: S1 + L S2 [At constant temperature] In I-C diagram δ(0.1% C) + L(0.55%C) ϒ(0.18%C) [At 1492ᵒ C] Eutectoid transformation: General reaction: S1 S2 + S3 [At constant temperature] In I-C diagram ϒ(0.8% C) α (0.025%C) + Fe3C (6.67%C) [At 727ᵒ C] Eutectoid mixture of α and Fe3C is called pearlite (average carbon content is 0.8%) Eutectic transformation: General reaction: L S1 + S2 [At constant temperature] In I-C diagram L (4.3% C) ϒ(2% C) + Fe3C(6.67%) [At 1147ᵒ C] Eutectic mixture of ϒ and Fe3C is called ledeburite (average carbon content 4.3%)
Critical temperaturesSr. No.
Critical Points [Symbols] Temperature [ᵒC]
Significance during heating
1 A0 [Curie temperature of cementite]
210 Cementite becomes paramagnetic
2 A1 [Lower critical temperature] 727 Pearlite starts transforming to austenite
3 A2 [Curie temperature of ferrite]
768 Ferrite becomes paramagnetic
4 A3 [Upper critical temperature for hypoeutectoid steels]
727-910 Completion of ferrite to austenite transformation
5 Acm [Upper critical temperature for hypereutectoid steels]
727-1147 Completion of cementite to austenite
6 A4 1400-1492 Completion of austenite to δ-ferrite transformation
Termination of I-C diagram @ 5% Beyond 5% C, Carbon sublimes at atmospheric pressures instead of melting and alloys are
very difficult to prepare Cementite decomposes into long and thick graphite flakes as soon as it forms
and detoriates the mechanical properties
Transformation products of austenite Transformation of austenite to pearlite:
Growth of pearlite colony in austenite
[Source: V.D. Kodgoire, S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
Nucleation and growth of pearlite colonies [Source: V.D. Kodgoire,
S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
Mic rostructures of coarse and fine pearlite
[Source: R. N. Ghosh, 2006]
Transformation products of austenite Transformation of austenite to pearlite:
Transformation products of austenite Transformation of austenite to bainite: Obtained on rapid cooling below 550ᵒC Bainite is a extremely fine mixture of ferrite
and cementitte Transformation starts with nucleation of ferrite Lower temperatures and hence diffusion rate is
very low Upper bainite: Formed at higher temperatures
and has feathery appearance Lower bainite: Formed at lower temperature
and has acicular(needle) like appearance Finer distribution of carbides in lower banite
than in upper bainite and hence lower bainite is stronger, harder and tougher than upper bainite
Properties depend upon temperature and carbon content
Microstructures of lower and upper bainite [Source: R. N.
Ghosh, 2006]
Transformation products of austenite
Transformation products of austenite Transformation of austenite to martensite: Diffusionless transformation Transformation takes place by shear mechanism Instability of austenite at lower temperatures and as there
can be no diffusion austenite tries to stabilize by changing its microstructure
Thus FCC gets transformed to BCT Martensite is very hard strong and brittle Properties depend on carbon content Ms: Martensite tranformation starts Mf: Martensite transformation completes Ms and Mf depend upon amount of carbon and alloying
element Difference between Ms and Mf is in the range of 150-
210ᵒ C 99% austenite transforms to martensite, 1% remains
untransformed and is called as retained austenite
Microstructure of martensite
[Source: R. N. Ghosh, 2006]
Transformation products of austenite
Retained austenite 99% austenite transforms to martensite, 1% remains untransformed and is
called as retained austenite Austenite is relatively soft phase and its presence detracts from the hardness
usually desired in a steel requiring full hardening Martensite has a BCT structure whereas austenite has FCC structure Due to this, components are like to distort or crack due to the volume changes
resulting in increase in residual stresses Thus retained austenite is not a useful phase for applications like precision
gauges and measuring instruments Retained austenite can be eliminated by two methods namely, subzero
treatment and tempering
TTT diagrams [I-T diagrams]
TTT diagram [Source: R. N. Ghosh, 2006]
Critical cooling rate It is a rate which just bypasses the nose
of the TTT diagram OR Rate of cooling necessary to just suppress the diffusion transformation
Critical cooling rate depends upon amount of carbon and alloying elements
With increase in carbon content and alloying elements (except Co) the critical cooling rate decreases i.e. shift of nose of TTT curve to the right
Shift of nose to the right gives an idea about hardenability; lower the cooling rate higher is the hardenability
Lower cooling rate reduces the tendency of warping and cracking
Critical cooling rate [Source: V.D. Kodgoire, S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
Heat treatment Every heat treatment process consists of three steps; Heating: Small grains will combine and form large grains Heating media: Air – Non-uniform and Slow Oil – Uniform and rapid heating – Used upto 200ᵒC Salt bath - Uniform and rapid heating – Used above 200ᵒC to avoid oxidation and
decarburization Holding: All grain will turn into uniform shape and size All carbides dissolve to form austenite Time of soaking depends upon Size of component Type of steel Initial microstructure Cooling: Based on rate of cooling, final grain size of the component (properties) will be
decided
Quenching media Quenching medium should be in such that it should extract heat rapidly at high temperatures and slowly at
lower temperatures Cooling media in decreasing order of cooling rates: Brine (Cold water + 5-10% salt): Reduces distortions and eliminates weak spots Costlier than water, corossive, service life is reduced Commonly used salts are NaCl, CaCl2, NaOH etc Cold water: Low cost, abundantly available and easy handling Used for carbon steels, alloy steels and non-ferrous alloys Bubbles can be formed which lead to soft/weak spots Water + soluble oil: Non-uniform hardness, distortion and cracks Oil: Minerals oils are used Reduces risk of distortion More suitable for alloys steels than plain carbon steels Fused salt (Salt containing large number of ions): Used for HSS Advantages over brine solutions: Uniformity in temperature, uniform heat transfer and no danger of oxidation
and decarburisation Air: It should be dry Lowest cooling rate, no cracking
Objectives of heat treatment Increase hardness, wear and abrasion resistance and cutting ability of steels Re-softening the hardened steel To adjust mechanical, physical or chemical properties like hardness, tensile
strength, ductility, electrical and magnetic properties, microstructure or corrosion resistance
Eliminate internal residual stress Induce controlled residual stresses Stabilize the steel Refine grain size Increase machinability Eliminate gases like hydrogen which embrittles steel Change composition of surface by diffusion of C, N, Si etc so as to increase
wear resistance, fatigue life or corrosion resistance
Conventional annealing
Applicable: Steels with %C = 0 to 2% Objectives: Relieve residual stresses induced during cold working To soften the hardened steel To refine grain size To increase ductility To make steel suitable for subsequent heat treatment Process: Heating: Hypo-eutectoid steel: A3 + 50ᵒ C; Hyper-eutectoid steel: A1 + 50ᵒ C Holding: Holding at this temperature for definite period (for equalization of temperature and complete
austenitization) Cooling: Furnace cooling to room temperature
Conventional annealing Hypereutectoid steels are always annealed
from above A1 temperature and never annealed from above Acm temperature;
Dislocations get blocked which induces brittleness in the steel
Oxidation and decarburisation Grain coarsening
Schematic representation of blocking of dislocation by
cementite region [Source: V.D. Kodgoire, S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
Isothermal annealing
Applicable: Medium carbon (0.3-0.6%C), high carbon (0.6-2%C) and some of the alloy steels Objective: To obtain improved machinability Process: Heating: Hypo-eutectoid steel: A3 + 50ᵒ C; Hyper-eutectoid steel: A1 + 50ᵒ C Holding: Holding at this temperature for definite period Cooling: Slightly fast cooling than conventional annealing to a constant temperature just below A1, holding at
this temperature for completion of transformation and then cooling to room temperature in air Advantages: Reduced annealing time than conventionally annealing specially for alloy steels Homogeneity in structure Improved machinability (because of spheroids of cementite), surface finish and less warping during subsequent
heat treatment Disadvantages: Large size components cannot be subjected to this treatment
Isothermal annealing (a) Hypereutectoid steel (b) hypo-eutectoid steel [Source: T. V. Rajan, C. P. Sharma, 2013]
Diffusion annealing
Diffusion annealing Also known as homogenizing annealing Applicable: High carbon (0.6-2%C) and high alloy steels Objectives: Remove structural non-uniformity Process: Heating: Above Acm (say 1000-1200ᵒ C) Holding: 10-20hrs Cooling: Air cooling (Slow cooling) Heating to such high temperatures leads to grain coarsening and hence it is
always followed by another heat treatment or plastic deformation for plastic deformation
Hypoeutectoid and eutectoid steel casting are given annealing and hypereutectoid steels are normalised or partially annealed
High temperatures, holding times and slow cooling rates of second heat treatment makes the process highly expensive
Spherodise annealing Applicable: Steels with % C = 0.6-1.2 and
alloy steels Objectives: Improve machinability and ductility Microstructure shows globules of cementite
particles in the matrix of ferrite Methods of producing spherodised
structures: Hardening and high temperature tempering Holding for long time below A1 temperature Thermal cycling around A1 A very coarse structure is to be preheated to
make it fine before spherodising, to ease spherodising
Typical heat treatment cycle to produce spherodised structures
[Source: V.D. Kodgire, S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
Partial annealing Also called as intercritical annealing or incomplete annealing Applicable: Low and medium carbon steels Objectives: Improve machinabilty Process: Heating: Hypoeutectoid steel: Between A1 and A3; Hypereutectoid steel:
Between A1 and Acm Holding: Definite period Cooling: Slow cooling Resultant microstructure consists of fine pearlite and cementite Less expensive than full annealing because of low temperatures involved
Subcritical annealing Applicable: Steels with % C less than 0.4 Objectives: Relieve internal stresses Reduce hardness Modify grain size Types: Stress-relieving: Process: Heating: 500-550ᵒ C [Recrystallisation temperature = 600ᵒ C for steels with %
C less than 0.4] Holding: 1-2hrs Cooling: Air cooling Internal stresses are partly releived without loss of strength and hardness i.e.
without change in microstructure Reduces risk of distortion in machining and increases corrosion resistance
Subcritical annealing Recrystallization annealing: Process: Heating: 625-675ᵒ C [Above recrystallisation temperature] Holding: Definite period Cooling: Air cooling Ferrite recrystallizes and cementite tries to spherodises Internal stresses are relieved and steel becomes soft and ductile Process annealing (Intermediate annealing): Process: Same as recrystallization annealing except that it is an intermediate process Used to soften the metals during mechanical processing so as to continue the
cold working process without cracking
Normalising Applicable: Steels with % C = 0-2% Objectives: To eliminate coarse grain structure obtained during forging, rolliing and
stamping Improve machinability of hypoeutectoid steel To reduce internal stresses To increase homogeneity of structure Process: Heating: Hypoeutectoid steels: A3 + 50ᵒ C; Hypereutectoid steels: Acm + 50ᵒ C Holding: Definite period Cooling: Air cooling [ Slightly faster than furnace cooling]
Annealing Vs Normalising
Conventional hardening Applicable: Steels with % C = 0.1-2 Objectives: To harden the steel to the maximum level by austenite to martensite
transformation To increase wear resistance and cutting ability of tools Process: Heating: Hypoeutectoid steels: A3 + 50ᵒ C; Hypereutectoid steels: A1+ 50ᵒ C Holding: Definite period Cooling: With a rate just exceeding critical cooling rate of that particular steel Tempering
Conventional hardening Hypoeutectoid steels are always hardened above A3 and not between A1 and A3
Hypereutectoid steels are always hardened between A1 and Acm
Hypereutectoid steels are never hardened from above Acm
Selection of quenching medium for hardening Critical cooling rate must be exceeded Critical cooling rate depends more on alloying elements and less upon carbon
content; Alloy steels: Less cooling rate- Air cooling High carbon steel: Slightly critical cooling rate – Oil quenching Medium carbon steel: More critical cooling rate than high carbon steel – Water
or Brine
Hardening Methods
Timed quench (Interrupted quench) [Source: V.D. Kodgoire, S.V. Kodgire,
2010]
Martempering [Source: V.D. Kodgire, S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
Hardening methods
Ausforming [Source: V.D. Kodgire, S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
Austempering [Source: V.D. Kodgire, S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
Factors affecting hardening methods Properties of steel developed by hardening depend on various factors like; Chemical composition of steel Size and shape of the steel part Hardening cycle i.e. heating rate, hardening temperature, holding time and
cooling rate Homogeneity and grain size of austenite Quenching media Surface conditions
Defects in hardening and remedies Low hardness and strength after hardening: Causes:- Low hardening temperatures, Insufficient soaking time, delayed
quenching, slow cooling rates, retained austenite Remedies:- Subzero treatment, No delay in tempering, Selection of proper
cooling rates Soft spots: Causes:- Localized decarburisation, Inhomogenous microstructure, Dirt,
Improper handling during quenching, Large components leading to non-uniform heating
Remedies:- Spray quenching Oxidation and decarburisation: Causes:- High temperatures heating in a furnace open to atmosphere Remedies:- Salt bath, removing decarburized layer by machining, copper plating,
ceramic coating Quench cracks: Causes:- Non-uniform cooling Remedies:- High temperature tempering, Adding alloying elements to lower
cooling rates, Avoid sharp changes in the part, Immediate tempering
Defects in hardening and remedies Distortion and warping: Distortion(Shape change): Change in size and shape of the heat treatment
component due to thermal and structural changes Warping (Bending): Asymmetrical distortion of component after heat treatment Causes of distortion:- Increase in volume of steel due to martensitic
transformation Causes of warping:- Change in volume during heating and cooling, Non-
uniform heating and cooling, Internal stresses, Lowering component into a quenching bath in inclined position
Remedies:- Slow cooling in martensitic region, Heating and quenching uniformly, applying surface hardening wherever possible
Warping
Necessity of tempering During hardening, the outer envelope of the component will undergo cooling
process immediately compared to the core of the material Outer envelope converts into hard phase, due to martensite formation but the
core remains soft due to retained austenite Outer envelope is in contraction due to cooling, whereas the core remains in
expansion state Thus residual stresses will be produced on the component Severe intensity of crack will be formed on the surface Hardened component possess some residual stresses and hence it should not be
used directly in any application without removing residual stresses Hence tempering is to be performed to remove the residual stresses
Tempering Applicable: Steels with % C = 0 to 0.4% Objectives: Relieve internal stresses produced during hardening Reduce hardness Increase ductility and toughness Stabilize structure Eliminate retained austenite Process: Heating: Hardened component – 100 to 700ᵒ C Holding: 1-2hrs Cooling: Air cooling Types of tempering: Low temperature tempering [100-200ᵒ C] Medium temperature tempering [200-500ᵒ C] High temperature tempering [500-700ᵒ C]
Types of tempering Low temperature tempering [100-200ᵒ C]: At 200ᵒC, Martensite Low carbon martensite + ϵ carbide Structure appears dark with common etching reagents like nital and picral due separation of ϵ
carbide No appreciable change in retained austenite Brittleness reduces because of decrease in internal stresses Excellent wear resistance Applications: Cutting and measuring tools Medium temperature tempering [200-500ᵒ C]: Retained austenite may get converted to bainite or decompose to form ϵ carbide and martensite. Freshly formed martensite and ϵ carbide also decompose to cementite and ferrite Microstructure consists of fine cementite and this microstructure with fine cementite is called as
troosite Hardness decreases with increase in tempering temperature Toughness and ductility increases Produces maximum elastic properties Applications: coil and leaf springs High temperature tempering [500-700ᵒ C] No change in microstructure except coarsening of cementite particles Coarsening results in slight decrease in hardness and toughness Applications: Connecting rods, shafts and gears
Effect of alloying elements on tempering For alloy steels containing W, Cr, Mo, V etc hardness rises during tempering
(secondary hardening) This is due to the separation of very hard complex alloy carbides from
martensite Such steels retain their hardness upto 600ᵒ C in contrast to plain carbon steels
which soften badly above 300ᵒ C High resistance to tempering makes alloy steels suitable for use above 600ᵒ C
Temper colors Tempering can be judged by temper colors which appear on the bright red
surface and experienced eyes are guided by these colors while heating materials for tempering
Colors are formed because of formation of oxide layer film, which is a function of oxide film thickness
Oxide film thickness depends upon tempering temperature and holding time As the thickness increases, color changes from light straw to grey
Temper colorsTemperature (ᵒC) Temper colors
220 Straw yellow
240 Light brown
270 Brown
285 Purple
295 Dark blue
310 Light blue
325 Grey
350 Grey purple
375 Grey blue
400 Dull grey
Temper embrittlement Alloy steels containing Ni, Mn, Cr, P, Sb, Sn and Ar when cooled slowly or
hold for a prolonged period within a specified temperature range between 350-500ᵒ C become brittle and show marked decrease in toughness
This phenomenon is known as temper brittleness or temper embrittlement Higher the cooling rate lower is the degree of embrittlement Thus, it can be eliminated by quenching in oil or water Addition of Mo, Ti, Zr also eliminates embrittlement
Subzero heat treatment Employed for high carbon and high alloy steels used for making tools,
measuring gauges, bearings and components requiring high impact and fatigue strength coupled with dimensional stability
Objective: To eliminate retained austenite Process: Cooling hardened steels to a subzero temperature, which is lower than Mf
temperature. Mf temperature for most of the steels lies between -30ᵒC and -70ᵒC
Stresses are developed and hence should be tempered immediately Subzero treatment should be performed immediately after hardening
treatment Cooling media: Mechanical refrigeration units, dry ice, liquid nitrogen
Patenting Applicable: Steels with %C = 0.3-0.6 Process: Heating: Above austenitization
temperature Holding: Definite period Cooling: Molten salt bath, slightly
above or below nose of TTT curve Holding: Till completion of
transformation Cooling: Air or water spray Microstructure: Varies from pearlite to
upper bainite depending upon transformation temperature
Applications: Wires, ropes and springs Good toughness to resist severe stresses
encountered during wire drawing operation (90% reduction in c/s can be achieved intermediate annealing0
Patenting [Source: V.D. Kodgire, S.V. Kodgire, 2010]
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