It seems that most people enjoy life in a rural area.It appears that older people like city life less than young people.

How do you feel when you read these examples?You are sure about the information.You are not sure about the information.

It would seem that there is less violent crime in rural areas.It would appear that life is less stimulating in rural areas.

How do you feel when you read these examples?The information is close to you.The information is far from you.

There are not believed to be as many crimes in rural areas.It is not known whether people would consider changing their living circumstances.

How do you feel when you read these examples?It is your own opinion.It is not your own opinion.

hedge (verb) - to avoid giving a direct answer to a question.

When you dont want to state a fact or opinion too categorically (if youre not sure you can prove that its true), you can use a number of expressions that distance yourself from it.

This is HEDGING.

You can use verbs such as appear, seem, suggest.

You can use modal would.

You can use passive voice.

And you can use a noun phrase to hedge around a subject:

There is little / no doubt that living in a rural area offers a healthier lifestyle.There is little evidence of the goverments ability to manage change.

When we use noun phrases we explain our attitude towards the reliability of a statement.

Strong evidence: there is little/no doubt, there is little/no discussion.

Fairly strong evidence: there is some evidence, there is some discussion, there is some doubt

Unreliable statement: there is little/no evidence.

Weak evidence: would, appear, seem, discussion

Negative or limiting meaningsAt onceOnly after a long waitEven in the summerOnly thenFrequentlyQuite oftenNeverRarelyNot a wordSeldomNot until hed finishedUnder no circumstancesOn no accountusuallyOnly after a long night

I have never seen such breathtaking scenery.

Never have I seen such breathtaking scenery.

When you want to change of emphasis you can put a negative or limiting adverbial in the front position, but the subject and auxiliary word order is inverted:

auxiliary + subject

Verb to be

It is not only the oldest building, but also one of the most beautiful. (normal order)Not only is it the oldest building, but also one of the most beautiful.

Negative adverbials: no, not, never, never before, no sooner, etc.

Not a word did she say to anyone.Never before have I seen a more beautiful city.No sooner had I arrived than the doorbell rang.

Limiting adverbials: only, only by, only then, only after, only when, only if, etc.Adverbials: seldom, little, rarely, barely, hardly, etc.

I have played little tennis since I was a child (normal order)Little have I played tennis since I was a child.

When the doorbell rang I had barely arrived. (normal order)Barely had I arrived when the doorbell rang.

Rephrased:I didnt notice that my glass was broken until I filled it. (normal order)Not until I filled my glass did I notice that it was broken.exercise 3 page 28

spot (noun) - a particular place or area, especially a pleasant place where you spend time.impromptu (adj) - /mprmp.tu/ - done or said without any preparation or planning.ditty (noun) - a short simple poem or song - used humorously.ballad (noun) - a song or poem that tells a story, or (in popular music) a slow love songline up (phrasal verb) - if people line up, or if you line them up, they stand in a row or line, or you make them do this.congregate (verb) - to come together in a group.check out (phrasal verb) - to make sure that something is actually true, correct, or acceptable.eyeball (verb) - to look directly and closely at something or someone.handily (adj) - something that is handily placed is in a position where it can easily be reached or used.gorge (verb) to eat too much.feed-up (adj) healthy or good food.eatery (noun) - a restaurant or other place to eat.overwhelming (adj) - very large or greater, more important etc than any other.prim (adj) - very formal and correct in behaviour and easily shocked by anything rude.family-run (adj) family business.dim sum - a traditional Chinese cuisine in which small portions of a variety of foods.chain-store (noun) - One of a number of retail stores under the same ownership and dealing in the same merchandise

dim sumgawk (verb) - to look at something for a long time, in a way that looks stupid [= stare]chitchat (noun) - conversation about things that are not very important.slog (verb) - to work hard at something without stopping, especially when the work is difficult, tiring, or boring.all in all - used to show that you are considering every part of a situation (in general)

What the boys are doing is taking Sandy to the match.What I want for Christmas is a new coat.What I dont understand is why its so cold.

I dont understand why its so cold.What I dont understand is why its so cold.subjectobjectIn these sentences What means the thing(s) that. The emphasized phrase usually contains a bare infinitive or TO+INF.

All I want for Christmas is a new coat.All I did was (to) touch the bedside light and it broke.

I want a new coat for Christmas.All I want for Christmas is a new coat.It is sometimes very effective to use all instead of what . If you want to focus on one particular thing and nothing else.

It was my brother who bought his new car from our neighbour last Saturday. It was Carla Bruni who married Nicolas Sarkpozy in Paris in 2008.It was John who took the money.

John took the money.It was John who took the money.It + conjugated form of verb to be + emphasized phrase + clauseYou can use this structure to emphasize almost any part of a sentence.It was the money that John took.In this case we emphasize the money

It was Mike who took Sally to the party on Saturday. (emphasis on the subject)It was Sally that Mike took the party on Saturday. (emphasis on the object)It was on Saturday that Mike took sally to the party. (emphasis on the adverb)It was to the party that Mike took Sally on Saturday. (emphasis on the preposition)Mike took Sally to the party on Saturday.subjectobjectprepositionadverb

The thing that impresses me more than anything else is your generosity.The thing that I most disliked was the colour of her dress.The only thing I wont do is phone her again.The thing that impresses me more than anything else is your generosity.Your generosity impresses more than anything else.to be