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Part 1Part 1

Review

I. Review Questions

1. What’s the difference between langue and parole?

2. What’s the difference between competence and performance?

3. What’s the difference between the distinction of langue Vs. parole and that of competence Vs. performance?

III. Definition of Language

Question:

What’s language?

Webster' s New World Dictionary (Pp. 759) [ 1

] (a) human speech; (b)the ability to communicate by this means; (c) a system of vocal sounds and combinations

of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings;

(d) the written representation of such a system;

Webster' s New World Dictionary (Pp. 759) [2]

(a) 'any means of expressing or communicating, as gestures, signs, or animal sounds;

(b) a special set of symbols; letters, numerals, rules etc. used for the transmission of information, as in a computer; ...

A Generally Accepted Definition

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

Understanding the Definition

QS: 1. Why a system? 2. Why arbitrary? 3. Why vocal? 4. Why symbols? 5. Why human? 6. Why communication?

II. Design Features of Language

1. Arbitrariness （任意性） : Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.

Saussure’s Model of Linguistic Sign

Concept

SoundPattern

Signal

Signification

A Linguistic sign is not a link between a thing and a name, but between a concept and a sound pattern, or the hearer’s psychological impression of a sound.(Saussure, 1916: 66)

First Principle: Arbitrariness

The link between signal and signification is arbitrary. Since we are treating a sign as the combination in which a signal is associated with a signification, we can express this more simply as: the linguistic sign is arbitrary. (Saussure, 1916: 67)

It must not be taken to imply that a signal depends on the free choice of the speaker. The term implies simply that the signal is unmotivated: that is to say arbitrary in relation to its signification, with which it has no natural connection in reality. (ibid.: 68-69)

Significance of Arbitrariness

The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.

Arbitrariness and Symbolic Nature of Language

Words are just symbols, because they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention.

Pierce’s Model of Sign

2. 标记符（ indexes ）：与指称对象之间呈某种因果的或时空的连接关系或标记关系，如路标、箭头、指针等 。语言中的专有名词、指示代词等也属此类 。

3. 代码符（ symbols ）：与指称对象之间的关系完全是约定俗成的，它通过某种法规指称其对象。这种法规通常是一般观念的联想，致使该抽象符号被解释为指称那个对象。自然语言与指称对象之间不存在什么内在的联系，属于代码符。

解释项

代表项 对象

1. 象似符（ icons ）：通过写实或模仿来表真其对象，如照片，地图、线路图。语言中的拟声词、象形文字也属此类。

Arbitrariness Vs. Iconicity: A Dialectical View of the Nature of Language

必须说明的是，所谓的“理据”，指的是在语言共时平面上的语言符号的形式面和内容面之间的因果、先后、象似等“逻辑”关系，而不是符号被发明时的可能存在的依据。（熊学亮 2003 ：5 ）即语言的任意性以语言符号形式面和内容面之间从共时角度考虑没有任何理性关联为事实依据。（ ibid.: 8-9 ）

Arbitrariness Vs. Iconicity: A Dialectical View of the Nature of Language

语言的象似性和任意性其实是一个很开放的问题。要得出比较合理的结论，需要考虑很多方面的因素。如：

1. 语种 2. 语言单位（词汇还是短语或句子） 3. 语言描写层面（语音层面还是词汇文字层

面） 4. 象似性的性质（功能象似还是形式象似） （ ibid.: 9 ）

Arbitrariness Vs. Iconicity: A Dialectical View of the Nature of Language

在任何一种语言中，任意性和象似性是相辅相成的，是以互补的方式存在的。 （ ibid.)

The functionalists hold that the most strictly arbitrary level of language exists in the distinctive units of sounds by which we distinguish pairs of words like pin and bin, or fish and dish. （胡壮麟 2001 ： 5 ）

2. Productivity （能产性） Language is productive or creative or

generative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

人可以通过使用数量有限的语法规则来对数量同样有限的词汇排列组合，生成数量无限的词组、短语和句子，即通过对数量有限的语言基本成分的排列组合来产生新的语言单位。（熊学亮 2003 ： 11 ）

3. Duality （双重性）

By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. (Lyons 1982: 20)

Hierarchy of Language: Expression of Duality

Scores of sounds

Hundreds of morphemes

Thousands of words

Astronomical number of sentences

语言的双重性表现在两个方面：

1. 用自身无意义的 语音构成 有意义的

语言单位

2. 用小单位构成大单位

Significance of Duality

Because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. （胡壮麟 2001 ： 7-8 ）

In other words, language is productive because of its own duality.

4. Displacement （位移性 / 置换性）

By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

Significance of Displacement

1. 语言的置换性使语言具有元语言功能2. 使得话语对上层建筑和意识形态具有一定的

反向影响作用，即话语可以制造意识形态和创造现实。 （熊学亮 2003 ： 5 ）

3. In a word, the intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms. (Fowler, 1974: 8)

5. Cultural Transmission （文化传递性）

By cultural transmission is meant that the details of any language system are not genetically but culturally transmitted. That is, it is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.

Therefore, it is also called learnability language.

Implications of Cultural Transmission

1. The importance of language exposition for the acquisition of one’s mother tongue.

2. The importance of conscious study for the leaning of a foreign language.

22

Origin of Language

Question

How did language come into being?

11

The Divine- Origin Theory

Adam’s naming

And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof.

耶 和 华 神 用 土 所 造 成 的 野 地 各 样 走 兽 和 空 中 各 样 飞 鸟 都 带 到 那 人 面 前 ， 看 他 叫 什 么 。 那 人 怎 样 叫 各 样 的 活 物 ， 那 就 是 它 的 名 字 。

Adam’s naming

And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found an help meet for him.

那 人 便 给 一 切 牲 畜 和 空 中 飞 鸟 ， 野 地 走 兽 都 起 了 名 。 只 是 那 人 没 有 遇 见 配 偶 帮 助 他 。

仓颉造字 仓颉陵遗址 仓颉、史皇氏，

今濮阳市南乐县吴村人，相传是黄帝时期造字的史官，仰观天象、俯察鸟兽虫鱼之迹，总结远古各部落的刻划符号首创文字，从而结束了远古先民结绳纪事的历史，后人尊之为 ' 造字圣人 ' 。仓颉陵遗址上建有仓颉陵墓和仓颉庙，还有藏甲楼、故宅井及部分石刻、碑刻。目前主要修复的建筑有万古一人殿、仰圣门、碑亭、朝天门、六书殿、字圣坊、造书台、碑林。

上古仓颉造字时 ,飞沙走石 ,“天雨粟、鬼夜”哭 ,

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The Invention Theory

1. The Bow-wow theory （咆哮说 / 拟声说）

2. The Pooh-pooh theory （啵啵说 / 感叹说）

3. The “Yo-he-ho” theory （吆嘿嗬说 /喘 息说）

4.The Ding-dong theory （丁咚说 / 声象说）

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The Evolutionary Theory

There is certain relationship between the development of language and the

evolutionary development of the human species.

1. Children are born with both thought and language.

2. The development of the physical apparatus for speech.

3. It is labor that created the necessity for language.

1. Review. 2. Prepare L 16

Homework

1. P.12, Q8 (oral) 2. Prepare 2.1&2.2