henryk grossman 'fifty years of struggle over marxism', appendix to r. kuhn - 'marxist crisis theory...

8/13/2019 Henryk Grossman 'Fifty years of struggle over Marxism', appendix to R. Kuhn - 'Marxist Crisis Theory to 1932 and to the Present'

1/43

239

AppendixtoRickKuhnMarxistcrisistheoryto1932andtothepresent:ReflectionsonHenrykGrossmansFiftyyearsofstruggleoverMarxismHenrykGrossmanTranslatedfromGermanbyRickKuhnandEindeOCallaghan

AMarxistsoftheearlyperiodUntiltheendoftheseventiesofthelastcentury,circumstancesfortheunderstandingofMarxsideaswerenotparticularlyfavourable,evenwithinthesocialistcamp.AparticulardifficultywasthatinitiallyCapitalwasonlyavailableasatorso,asonlyoneofseveralvolumes.Almostanotherthreedecadespassedbeforethevolumescompletingthesystemappeared(volume2in1885,volume3in1895).AndafurtherfifteenyearspassedbeforeKarlKautskybroughtoutthelastvolumeofTheoriesofsurplusvalue(1910).These,intendedbyMarxasthefourthpartofCapital,areamagnificenthistoryofpoliticaleconomyfromtheendofthe17thcentury,onethatbourgeoishistoricalwritinghasbeenunabletoequal.

DuringthefirstdecadeafterthefoundingoftheGermanEmpireitwashardlypossibletospeakofMarxisminGermany(andstilllessinothercountries).Therewasonlyaverylooseconnectionbetweentheworkersmovementandthetheoriesofscientificsocialism.ManyyearsafterLassallesdeaththeGermanworkersmovementwasstillundertheinfluenceofLassallestheoriesandwork.Apartfromthat,itdrewitsideasandsentimentsfrommemoriesof1848,from[PierreJoseph]Proudhon,[Karl]RodbertusandEugenDhring.1ManysocialistsjustifiedtheirdemandsbyappealingtoethicsandhumanityororientedthemselvesonthepublicationsoftheInternationalWorkingMensAssociation[theFirstInternational].WhenthetwotendenciesintheGermanworkersmovement(thesocalledtheLassalleansandtheMarxistEisenachers)unitedattheGothaCongress(1875),LassallesideasanddemandsweretoagreatextentincorporatedinthenewlyagreedGothaProgramme(cf.MarxscriticismsinhisCritiqueoftheGothaprogramme).2Intiallyworkersinlargescaleindustrywerenotorganisedineitherparty,ratherthebulkofthemovementwasworkers,suchasshoemakers,tailors,bookprinters,tobaccoworkersetc.,whostillretainedclosetieswiththepettybourgeoisie.Lassallespamphletsanddemands,hisambiguousconceptofthestate,hiscompletelackofclarityaboutthegoalofthepartyevidentlyexpressedmuchmorethelabourmovementslackofmaturityatthattimethanthecohesiveandmagnificentedificeofMarxstheory.Eventheleadingfiguresinthelabourmovementwere,foralongtime,unabletograspkeyaspectsofMarxstheory.Characteristicofthisistherequest,in1868,byWilhelmLiebknecht,whoduringhisstayinLondonhadhadacloserelationshipwithMarx,thatEngelsshouldmaketheactualdifferencesbetweenMarxandLassalleclearinanarticleforthepartyorgan.3FromcorrespondencebetweenMarxandEngelsitisapparenthowdistressedMarxfeltaboutthefactthatGermanpartycircleswerealmostincrediblyindifferenttoCapital.

[1 PierreJoseph,18091865,ProudhonwasanearlytheoristofanarchisminFrance.KarlRodbertus18051875wasaGermaneconomistandtheoristofstatesocialism.EugenDhring,18331921,wasaGermaneconomistandphilosopherwhoadvocatedasocialismofcompetingproductioncooperatives.Marxwrotecritiquesoftheeconomicideasofallthree.]

[2 KarlMarx,CritiqueoftheGothaProgramme,KarlMarxandFrederickEngels,ThecollectedworksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels.Volume24(MECW),InternationalPublishers,NewYork19751995,pp.75100.]

[3 WilhelmLiebknecht,lettertoFrederickEngels,20January1868,WilhelmLiebknecht:BriefwechselmitKarlMarxundFriedrichEngels,Mouton,Hague,1963,pp.88.]


2/43

240

Onlygraduallyandinconstantstruggleagainstotherviewsthatwerewidespreadinthelabourmovement(thestruggleagainstProudhonismandBakuninismintheFirstInternational,EngelsspolemicagainstDhringin1878,etc.4)didMarxistideaspermeatetheworkersmovement.From1883KarlKautsky(born1854)soughttospreadMarxistideas,astheeditor

ofthepartystheoreticalorgan,NeueZeit.However,theperiodoftheAntiSocialistLaw(187890)wasquiteunfavourableforthetheoreticalconsolidationofMarxism.5

ThegreatpopularitythatMarxslifework[Capital]achievedisdueinitiallytothosesectionsofvolume1thatdescribetheimmediateprocessofproductionwithinthefactoryandthusmakethesituationoftheworkingclass,itsexploitationbycapitalandeverydayclassstrugglestakingplacebeforeeveryoneseyesintelligible.Sothisvolumebecamethebibleoftheworkingclassfordecades.Thefateofthosepartsoftheworkwhichpresentthehistoricaltendenciesofcapitalistaccumulationandthetendencytowardsthebreakdownofcapitalismthatfollowintheirwakewasquitedifferent.HereMarxwassofarinadvanceofhisepochintellectuallythatthesepartsofhiswork,atfirst,necessarilyremainedincomprehensible.Capitalismhadnotyetachievedthematuritythatwouldhavemadeitsbreakdownandtherealisationof

socialismanimmediatereality.Soitisunderstandablethatinareviewofvolume2ofCapital(1886)Kautskyexplainedthat,inhisopinion,thisvolumehadlessinterestfortheworkingclassthanthefirst,thatforthemonlytheproductionofsurplusvalueinthefactorywasofimportance.6Theadditionalquestionofhowthissurplusvalueisrealisedwasofmoreinteresttothecapitaliststhantotheworkingclass!KautskyswellknownbookTheeconomictheoriesofKarlMarxalsolimitsitselfexclusivelytodescribingthecontentsofthefirstvolumeofCapital.Anextremelydeficientoutlineofthetheoriesinvolumes2and3wasonlyaddedtolatereditions.7

TwogenerationshadtopassaftertheappearanceofCapitalbeforecapitalism,asaresultofcapitalaccumulation,maturedtoitspresenheightandconflictsdevelopedinitswombthattranslatedtheproblemoftherealisationofsocialismfromthedomainofaprogrammatic

demand,onlyappropriatefortheremotefuture,tothesphereofdailypoliticalpractice.TheunderstandingofMarxsideashasalsogrown,incorrespondencewiththechangedhistoricalsituation.

ThesituationwasdifferentaftertheendoftheAntiSocialistLaw(1890),whenpoliticalsocialismstartedtodeveloprapidlyfromasmall,persecutedgroupintothelargestpartyinGermanyanditsappealencompassedbroadlayersofintellectualsandthepettybourgeoisie,farbeyondtheworkingclass.ThestrengthofMarxismapparentlyincreasedinthisperiod.IntheErfurtProgram(1891)itachievedavictoriousexpression.But,preciselyatthetimewhentheappearanceofvolume3ofCapital(1895)publiclyconcludedMarxstheoreticalsystem,withtherapidblossomingofinternationalcapitalismandthestrengtheningofanopportunistlabouraristocracywithintheworkingclass,achangeoccurredthatwastobeofthegreatest

significanceforthefurtherdevelopmentofMarxisttheory.Soonerorlaterthesocial

[4 MikhailBakunin,18141876,wasaRussiananarchistwhoorganisedconspiraciesagainsttheleadershipoftheFirstInternational.FrederickEngels,AntiDhring:HerrEugenDhringsrevolutioninscience,MECW25,pp.1309.]

5 TheAntisocialistorExceptionalLawagainstthepublicdangerofSocialDemocraticendeavoursbannedsocialdemocraticorganisations,publicationsandtradeunionsinGermanybetween1878and1890.

[6 KarlKautskyDasElendderPhilosophieundDasKapital,DieNeueZeit,4,1886p.164.]

[7 KarlKautsky,KarlMarxkonomischeLehren,Dietz,Stuttgart1887;TheeconomictheoriesofKarl

Marx,Black,London,1925[translatedfromthethe8

th

Germanedition,1903,whichincludedanaccountoftheformationoftheaveragerateofprofit,fromvolume3ofCapital].]


3/43

241

differentiationoftheworkingclasshadtobeexpressednotonlyinpoliticsbutalsoinitstheoreticalconceptionsofthegoalsandtasksofthelabourmovement.

BTheadvanceofreformism

a)Revisionism

Thevictoryofopportunism,initiallyinEngland,theninFranceandGermanyaswellasaseriesofsmallerEuropeancountries,isnecessarilyconnectedwiththestructuraltransformationofworldcapitalism,whichexhibitedextremelypowerfuldevelopmentandincreasinglyshoweditsimperialistfaceduringthelastdecadeofthelastcentury.Itsfundamentaleconomictraitsarethereplacementoffreecompetitionbymonopolyandcolonialexpansioncombinedwithbellicoseentanglements.Throughcapitalexports,monopolisticdominationandexploitationofhugeregionsthatsupplyrawmaterialsandprovideoutletsforcapitalinvestmentinCentral

andSouthAmerica,AsiaandAfrica,thebourgeoisieandthefinancialoligarchyofthecapitalistgreatpowersacquirebillionsinsuperprofits.Thesemakeitpossibleforthemtowinoveranupperlayeroftheworkingclassandthepettybourgeoisfollowingofthesocialistpartieswithhigherwagesandvariousotheradvantages,sothatthesetakeaninterestincolonialexploitation,arepoliticallyboundtothemandenteracommunityofinterestsagainstthebroadmassesandtheothercountries.Theseupperlayerswerethebourgeoisieschannelsofinfluenceintotheproletariat.Theemergenceofthelabouraristocracy,whichfoundexpressionpoliticallyintheformationofbourgeoisworkerspartiesonthemodeloftheLabourPartyinEngland,istypicalofalltheimperialistcountries.

Theselayers,whichfoundtherevolutionarytenetsofMarxisttheoryinconvenientandahindrancetotheirpracticaleffortstocooperatewiththebourgeoisieandstateorgans,soon

wentontotheoffensiveagainstMarxisttheorywiththeargumentthatitwascontradictedbycapitalismsrealtendencies.TheirmaindifferencewithMarxismwasthatthelatterdeniedthepossibilityofalastingimprovementintheconditionsoftheworkingclassunderthecurrenteconomicorder(apartfromtemporaryimprovementsforshorterperiods)andadvocatedtheoppositepointofview:that,withitsfulldevelopment,theimmanentpowersofcapitalismwouldnecessarilyleadtoaworseningofworkersconditions.Incontrast,therepresentativesofreformismpointedoutthat,evenundertheexistingeconomicorder,alastingimprovementinthesituationoftheworkerswhetherbymeansofstatelegislation(pensions,accidentandunemploymentinsurance)orbymeansofselfhelp(byfoundingandexpandingtradeunionsandconsumercooperatives)waspossibleandalreadyoccurring.Heretheratherslightimprovement,confinedtoanarrowupperlayeronly,wasovervaluedandgeneralisedandits

characterwasmisjudged,totheextentthatitwasnotconsideredtemporarybutthestartofatransformationthatwasconsistentlyexpandinginbreadthanddepth.

Therisingstrengthofthetradeunionmovementwas,nodoubt,themosteffectiveleverfortheenforcementofantiradicalattitudes.Fortheleadersofthetradeunionsthetypicalrepresentativesofthelabouraristocracyreformismwastailormade.Forthesemen,conductingthesmallscalewarforentirelygradualimprovementsinthesituationoftheworkersthatwereagainandagainthreatenedbysetbacks,allradicalismrepresentedathreattothepositionstheyhadconquered,theirorganizationsandtradeunionfunds.Theythereforesoughttonipeveryintensificationofthemethodsofstruggleinthebud.UndertheAntiSocialistLaw,therewasnoroomforsucheffortsasthetradeunionsthenhardlysufferedlessthanpoliticalsocialdemocracy.Withthestrengtheningofthetradeunionmovement,after

therepealoftheEmergencyLaw,particularlyfromthefoundationoftheGeneralCommission


4/43

242

oftheFreeTradeUnions,whichwascombinedwiththetightcentralisationofthemovement,therelationshipofthetradeunionstothepartychanged.Theinitialdependenceonthepoliticalmovementwassoontransformedand,atboththeKlnTradeUnionCongressinMay1905andtheMannheimPartyCongressinSeptember1905,thetradeunionsandtheirleaders

knewhowtoimposetheirdemandsoftenondecisivequestionstooagainstthewillofthePartyauthorities.Nowtheirinfluenceonthetheoreticalconceptionsofthesocialistworkersmovementwasalsoincreasinglyapparent.GraduallycertainessentialelementsofMarxisttheorywereerodedbythepracticaltradeunionnegotiators.Inthehandsofthetradeunionleaderstheconceptofclassstruggleexperiencedagradualtransformation,sothatlittleofitsoriginalcontentremained.Underthesameinfluences,theattitudeofthetradeunionleaderstothestatealsochanged.Theypointedoutthebenefitstheysawfortheworkingclassinthestateinstitutionsofsocialinsurance,asystemtheyhopedtobeabletoexpandfurther.ThusthesecirclesfeltcompelledtorevisetheideaspreviouslyinheritedfromMarx(revisionism).Duringtheninetiesandaftertheturnofthecentury,thequestionwasoftenraisedofwhetheraspecialtradeuniontheorythatwouldjustifyreformismtheperspectiveofagradual

socialisation,dropbydropwithintheexistingorderoughttobecompiledforthesocialistinclinedtradeunions.Butitnevercametosuchatradeuniontheory.Allthefriendlierwasthetradeunionwelcomeforeffortsemergingwithinthepoliticalpartythataccommodatedtheirdesires.

RevisionismisinseparablylinkedwiththenameEduardBernstein(born1850).HewasthefirsttosystematicallydemandarevisionofMarxstheory,arguingthatitdidnotcorrespondwiththeactualdevelopmentofcapitalism,eventhoughtheformerradicalGeorgvonVollmarhadearlierdevelopedsimilarideas,inhisfamousEldoradospeechesinMunich(1891)andinthepamphletStatesocialism(1892),andadvocatedreformisttactics.8EduardBernstein,whoseemedtobeatruediscipleofthetheorywhileEngelswasstillalive,emergedasacriticonlyafterthedeathofthemaster,inhisNeueZeitarticlesof18967,onProblemsofsocialism

(publishedinbookformasThepreconditionsofsocialism).OtherwritingsbyBernsteinarerelevant:Howisscientificsocialismpossible?;Guidingprinciplesforasocialdemocraticprogram;Onthetheoryandhistoryofsocialism.9

BernsteinneveropenlydescribedMarxisttheoryasawholeasfalse.ItisanessentialfeatureofrevisionismthatitneitherhadtheintentionofnorsucceededinconstructingacompletetheoreticaledificetoreplaceMarxs.Itshistoricalsignificanceliesprimarilyinitsinfluenceontradeunionandpoliticalpractice.Theorywasonlyofconcerntotheextentthatitwasanobstacletothispracticalreformism.Thiswastobedisposedofthroughtherevisionistcritiquethatadaptedtheorytopracticesothatinconsistencybetweeninheritedrevolutionarytheoryandreformistactivitycouldbeovercome.Forthispurpose,inhiscritiqueofMarxstheoreticaledifice,Bernsteinusedtheconvenientprocedureofseparatingtheenduring,generallyvalid

[8 GeorgvonVollmar,18501922,wasarevolutionaryuntilthemid1880s.ProminentintheGermanfederalparliamentandstateparliaments,headvocatedaprogramofreformandallianceswithbourgeoisparties,intwospeechesinMunichsEldoradopub,UeberdienchstenAufgabenderDeutschenSozialdemokratie:zweiReden,gehaltenam1.Juniund6Juli1891imEldoradozu

Mnchen,Ernst,Mnchen,1891;UeberStaatssozialismus,Wrlein,Nrnberg,1892.]

9 EduardBernstein,Thepreconditionsofsocialism,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,1993[1899];WieistwissenschaftlicherSocialismusmglich?EinVortrag,VerlagderSocialistischenMonatshefte,Berlin,1901,Berlin1901;DerRevisionismusinderSozialdemocratie:einVortraggehalteninAmsterdamvorAkademikernundArbeitern:MiteinemAnhang:Leitstzefrein

sozialdemocratischesProgramm,Cohen,Amsterdam,1909;ZurGeschichteundTheoriedesSocialismus:gesammelteAbhandlungen,Edelheim,Berlin,1901.


5/43

243

elementsofthetheoryfundamentaltheoreticalpropositionssharplyfromvariableelements,thatarepropositionsarisingfromappliedscience.Underthecoverofthisdistinction,however,thefundamentalpropositionsofthetheorywerealsoencompassed,albeitonthepretextthattheywerenowreinterpretedasnotfundamental.Thegoalof

revisionismwasneverdeclaredtobethedefeatofMarxism;ratheritwassupposedtobeamatterofrejectingcertainremnantsofutopianismthatMarxismstillallegedlycarriedinitsbaggage.

BernsteinsactofpurificationwasanattempttoliberatesocialismfromMarxstheoryofvalueandsurplusvalue.Valueisatheoreticalconstructandnota[surface]appearance.WhetherMarxstheoryofvaluewascorrectornot,Bernsteinargued,wassuperfluousforthedemonstrationofsurpluslabour,assurpluslabourisanempiricalfactwhichsufficesaloneasarationaleforsocialism.Bernsteinneverofferedsucharationale,apositivetheoryofcapitalism,builtonthefactofsurpluslabour,forsocialism.Hehasremainednegative.

BernsteinconcedestheaccuracyofMarxspredictionsaboutincreasingcentralisationandconcentrationofcapital,increasingconcentrationofenterprises,arisingrateofsurplusvalue

(exploitation)andthefallintheprofitratebutmaintainsthatthefullpictureofcapitalisminMarxisonesidedlydistorted.Marxsupposedlyneglectsthecountertendenciesintheprinciplematter.Divisionsamongalreadyconcentratedcapitalscounteractthetendencytoconcentration.Incomestatisticsshowgrowthinthenumberofshareholdersandaveragemagnitudeoftheirshareholdings.Undeniablythenumberofpropertyownersisgrowingbothabsolutelyandrelatively.Andtheemploymentstatistics,fortheirpart,provethatthemiddleclassesisexpanding.Finallyenterprisestatisticsirreproachablydemonstratethatinawholeseriesofbranchesofindustrysmallandmediumsizedfirmsarequiteviablealongsidelargeconcerns.Thisappliesnotonlytoindustrybutalsotocommerce.Totheextentthatlargeconcernsareconsidered,developmentsinagriculturedemonstrateeithernochangeatalloradeclineinthescaleofoperations.AfterBernstein,EduardDavidattemptedtoshowthatin

agricultureadevelopmentinthesizeofoperationshadbegunthatwasdiametricallyopposedtoMarxsprediction.Histhesescontendedthatthatsmallscaleoperationswerenotonlyviablebutwereevenasuperiorformofproduction.10

BernsteinregardstheMarxisttheoryofcrisisandbreakdownasanaprioriconstructioninaccordancewithHegelsschemeofdevelopment.Invariousways,actualdevelopmentshavetakenadifferencecoursethantheywouldhaveifbreakdownwasinevitableforpurelyeconomicreasons.Bernsteinconcedesthepossibilityoflocalorparticularcrisesbutthehugeterritorialexpansionoftheworldmarket,thereductionofthetimerequiredforcommunicationsandthetransportofgoods,combinedwiththeelasticityofthemoderncreditsystemandtheemergenceofcartelshavecreatedthepossibilitythatlocaldisturbanceswillcanceleachotherout.Theoccurrenceofgeneralcrisesshould,therefore,beconsidered

unlikely.Bernsteindoesnottreatbreakdownfromtheperspectiveofwhetheritwasthenecessaryresultoftheimmanentdevelopmentofcapitalism;whetherwiththeexistinglevelofeconomicdevelopmentandthedegreeofmaturityoftheworkingclassasuddencatastrophemightbetotheadvantageofsocialdemocracy.Bernsteinanswersthesequestionsinthenegativebecausethereisagreaterguaranteeofenduringsuccessesinsteadyforwardsmarchthaninthepossibilitiesofferedbyacatastrophe.ItispreciselyinthetheoryofbreakdownthatBernsteinseesthequintessenceofutopianisminMarxism,becausethis

10 EduardDavid,18631930,SocialismusundLandwirtschaft.Berlin,VerlagderSocialistischenMonatshefte,1903.


6/43

244

makesthevictoryofsocialismdependentonitsimmanenteconomicnecessity.11Bernsteincombatstheironnecessityofhistory12andthematerialistconceptionofhistoryasatheoryhistoricalnecessityandemphasisestheincreasingeffectivenessofideologicalandethicalfactors.AgainstMarxheappealstoKant.Thevictoryofsocialismdoesnotdependon

economicnecessitybutonthemoralmaturityoftheworkingclass,i.e.itsrealisationthatsocialismisdesirable.

UltimatelyBernsteinconjuresawaythefinalgoalofsocialism.([T]hefinalgoalwhateveritmaybe,isnothingtome,themovementeverything.)13Thefinalobjectiveissubordinate;instead,theattentionandenergyoftheworkingclassshouldbeconcentratedonimmediategoals,ondaily,detailedworkwhichwillleadtoadvanceinculturaldevelopment,highermoralityandlegalconceptions.Itisapparentthatsuchaformulationofthetasksoftheworkersmovementhasnothingatalltodowithsocialismandcoincideswiththeconceptionsofbourgeoisliberalism.Thegeneralperspectivethatinallindividualgoalsthereisalwaysapointertoafurthergoal,yettobeachievedthathastobepursuedlateronlyleadstoprogressiontoinfinityandthatisdiametricallycounterposedtotheessenceofsocialism,

whichataparticularstageofdevelopment,wantstoandshouldreplaceonedefinitesystemwithanother(Brauer).14

HewasonlybeingconsistentwhenBernsteingaveupthefinalgoalhesimultaneouslyabandonedtherevolutionarytacticsnecessarytoachieveit.IncontrasttoMarxstheoryofclassstruggleandhisconceptionthatforceisthemidwifeofeverysocietythatiscomingintobeing,Bernsteinemphasisesparliamentaryactivityasthemeansforemancipatingtheworkingclass.TheideaofconqueringpoliticalpowerthroughrevolutionaryactionissupposedlyaforeignbodyinMarxism,aremnantofBlanquismfromwhichEngelspartedtowardstheendofhislife.

Fromhiscritique,Bernsteindrewtheconclusionthatitwasfalseanddisastroustocountongreatsocialcatastrophesandtofocusthepartystacticsonthem.Theutopiaofacoming

revolutionhadtobegivenup.Developmentbluntsclassantagonismsanddemocratisessociety.Itisappropriatetopromotethisdevelopment.Inordertogaininfluencesocialdemocracyhastofindthecouragetomakeupitsmindtoappearwhatitisinrealitytoday:ademocraticsocialistpartyofreform.15

Fromallthisitisapparent,asBrauercorrectlyemphasises,thatBernsteinisnosocialistintheMarxistsense,becauseheiscaughtupinpoliticalcategories.ForMarx,theproletarianrevolutionisnotjustapoliticalactthatreplacestheoldpower,basedonparliament,withanewone,butissimultaneouslyasocialrevolutioninsofarasitabolishesthewholeofthepreviousformofsocietytoreplaceitwithanewone.Classstrugglejustlikeitshighestform,civilwarisnot,forMarx,theproductofthegoodorbadwillofthepeopleandcannotbereplacedatdiscretionbyparliamentaryactivity.Onthecontrary,classstruggleandrevolutionareinevitableconcomitantsoftheimmanenteconomicnecessitywithwhichdevelopmentdrivestowardssocialism.

11 Bernstein,Thepreconditionsofsocialism,pp.199200.

12 Bernstein,Thepreconditionsofsocialism,p.20.

13 EduardBernsteinDerKampfderSozialdemokratieunddieRevolutionderGesellschaft,part2,NeueZeit,16(18),1898,p.556;BernsteinmakesaverysimilarstatementinThepreconditionsofsocialism,p.190.

14 TheodorBrauer,DermodernedeutscheSozialismus,Herder,FreiburgimBreisgau,1929,p.142.

15 Bernstein,Thepreconditionsofsocialism,p.186.


7/43

245

TheconsiderableinfluenceBernsteinexercisedonintellectualscanbeexplainedbythefactthattheboldnessofhisapproachwasinitiallycaptivatingbecause,incontrasttothefearthatMarxismwasbeingpetrified,itinseemedtopavethewayforthefurtherdevelopment.Atthesametime,hewonoverthosewho,foropportunistreasons,didnotwishtocommit

themselvesandfoundinBernsteinsconditionaldeterminationsandqualificationstheboltholestheydesiredfortheirownindecision.

AmongthecriticsoftheMarxisttheoryofcrisisandbreakdownwho,likeBernstein,proceedfromanethicalperspective,theRussianprofessorMikhaelTuganBaranovskiiparticularlyexcelled,withargumentsthatwerelaterusedextensivelybyrevisionists(StudiesonthetheoryandhistoryofcommercialcrisesinEngland,TheoreticalfoundationsofMarxism,Modernsocialisminitshistoricaldevelopment).16AccordingtoTuganBaranovskiicrisesandtheultimatebreakdownofcapitalismcannotbeduetoalackofmarketssince,inthecourseoftheexpansionofproductiontheindividualspheresofproductionreciprocallycreatenewmarketopportunities.TuganBaranovskiiseekstoprovethis,usingareproductionschemabasedonMarxs.Norneedthereductionofsocialconsumptionasaresultoftheprogressoftechnology

andthereplacementofhumanlabourbymachinesleadtooverproduction.Withtheexpansionofproduction,humanconsumptionisreplacedbyproductiveconsumption,i.e.strongerdemandformeansofproduction.AccordingtoTuganBaranovskii,theseresultsofabstracttheoreticalanalysisareconfirmedbytheempiricalfacts.Recentcapitalistdevelopmentshowsastrongexpansionoftheindustriesproducingmeansofproduction,suchsectorsascoalandsteel,mechanicalengineering,chemicalsetc,whoseproductsdonotflowintohumanconsumption,whilethosesectorsdirectlyservinghumanconsumption,suchastextiles(cotton)havealmostreachedastandstill.

Theabsolutelimitfortheexpansionofproductionisconstitutedbytheproductiveforcesthatsocietyhasatitscommand.Capitalcanneverreachthislimittotheextentthatthisexpansionofproductionoccursproportionatelyinallbranchesofproduction.Capitalistcrisesarethus

exclusivelytheresultofdisproportionalinvestmentinindividualspheres.Withproportionalinvestmenttheproductiveforcesofcapitalismcandevelopwithoutlimit.Thecapitalisteconomycannotbreakdownforeconomicreasons.17Marxstheoryofvalueissuperfluousforthedemonstrationofsurpluslabour.Surplusproductisnottheproductofthewagelaboureremployedandexploitedinproductionalonebutistheproduceofthewholeofsocietyasaunit.Capitalistsocietysdefectisthatthepropertiedclassappropriatesthissurplusproduct.Theendofthisunjustsystemcanthusonlyresultfromethicalcauses.Thereis,therefore,nooccasiontosupposethatcapitalismwillsomedaydieanaturaldeath;itwillbedestroyedbytheconsciouswillingeffortsofman,bythatsocialclasswhichhasbeentheforemostobjectofcapitalisticexploitationtheproletariat.18ForthisreasonTuganBaranovskiipraisessocalledutopiansocialism,whichwasfarmorescientificthanMarxism,totheextentthatitdidnot

attempttoprovideuntenableobjectivejustificationsforthereorganisationoftheexistingeconomicorder.

16 MikhailIvanovichTuganBaranovskii[(18651919)wasforaperiodalegalMarxistintheRussianempire],StudienzurTheorieundGeschichtederHandelskriseninEngland,Fischer,Jena,1901,[1894];TheoretischeGrundlagendesMarxismus,Duncker&Humblot,Leipzig,1905;ModernSocialisminitshistoricaldevelopment,Sonnenschein,London,1910[1908].

17 TuganBaranovskii,DerZusammenbruchderkapitalistischenWirschaftsordnungimLichtedernationalkonomischenTheorie,ArchivfrSozialwissenschaftundSozialpolitik,19,1904,p.304etseq.

18 TuganBaranovskii,Modernsocialism,p.96.


8/43

246

Inadditiontothosecited,ConradSchmidt,theauthorofavaluablebookonTheaveragerateofprofitonthebasisofMarxslawofvaluewhichwaspraisedbyEngels,oughttobementioned.YethesoonbecameoneofthefiercestopponentsofMarxstheoryofvalueandsurplusvalue.Hewasnot,however,contenttocriticiseandrejectMarxsconception,but

himselfundertookasystematicanalysisofthecapitalisteconomyanditslaws(cf.hisarticlesonthetheoryofvalueandcrisesinSozialistischeMonatshefteand,inparticular,Onthemethodoftheoreticalpoliticaleconomy).19HereSchmidtreachedthesameconclusionthatMarxdeducedforthecapitalisteconomy:withthepurchasingpowerintheformofwages,towhichheisentitled,theworkercanonlybuyaportionofvalueforwhoseproductiononlyafractionofthelabourthathehimselfperformedwasnecessary.Inotherwords,ifthecommoditiesheproducedaretobeprofitablefortheentrepreneur,hemustalwaysperformsurpluslabour.But,accordingtoSchmidt,thisbasicresultwasachievedwithouthavingtouseMarxsuntenablelawofvalue,wherebyonecanavoidmanycontradictionsassociatedwiththislawofvalue.

b)TheNeoKantians

Inadditiontotherevisionistmovement,whichsoughttounderminetheeconomicandpoliticalfoundationsofMarxism,towardstheendofthelastcentury,inthefieldofphilosophyastrongerrevisionistcurrentalsoarosewithinsocialdemocracy.Theentryofbroadintellectuallayersintotheworkersmovementsoonledtoadiscussionaboutthemeaningandvalidityofthematerialistconceptionofhistory.Engelsalreadymadecertainmodifications,inletterstosocialistuniversitygraduateswhoaskedhimforinformation(see,inparticulartheletterof21September1890toJosephBloch).Intheseletters,Engelswarnedagainstexaggerationsandobservedthatsomeyoungerwritersattributemoreimportancetotheeconomicaspectthanisduetoit20andthattheeconomicsituationwasnottheonlybutmerelythedeterminingmomentofsociohistoricaldevelopmentinthelastinstance.Theseintellectualsimportsecondaryidealisticcurrentsintotheworkersmovement,thatwanttoabandonthematerialistconceptionofhistoryorcombineitwithidealism.ParticularlyinFrance,whereJeanJaursinhisLatindissertationof189121developedtheidealistconceptionofhistoryaccordingtowhichhistorywastheproductofthehumanspiritaconceptionthathealsoretainedlaterasasocialist.Theidealistcurrentisassistedbysomesupportersofthematerialistconceptionofhistorysuchas,forexample,PaulLafargue(18421911)whosecrudeinterpretationshelpeddiscreditit.22InGermanyacurrentinitiallydevelopsinphilosophyatuniversitiesthatseekstojustifysocialismidealisticallyandtolinkitwithKant.Itoriginates

19 ConradSchmidt,[18631932,wasaGerman,socialdemocraticeconomistandjournalist,andtheolderbrotherofthesocialistartistKtheKollwitz]DieDurchschnittsprofitrateaufGrundlagedesMarxschenWerthgesetzes,Dietz,Stuttgart,1889;NachtrglicheBemerkungenzurBernsteinDiskussion,SozialistischeMonatshefte,3(10),October1899,pp.4939;ZurTheoriederHandelskrisenundderUeberproduction,SocialistischeMonatshefte,5(9),September1901,pp.66982;PositiveKritikdesMarxschenWertgesetzes,SozialistischeMonatshefte,16(10),19May1910,pp.60418;ZurMethodedertheoretischenNationalkonomie,SozialistischeMonatshefte,21(10),27May1915,pp.492502.

[20 FriedrichEngelslettertoJosephBloch,21September1890,MECW49,p.36.[wholeletterpp.336]

[21 JeanJaurs,DeprimissocialismigermanicilineamentisapudLutherum,Kant,FichteetHegel,Chauvin,Toulouse,1891.]

22 Cf.PaulLafargue,LedterminismeconomiquedeKarlMarx:recherchessurlorigineetlvolutiondesidesdeJustice,duBien,delAmeetdeDieu,V.GiardetE.Brire,Paris,1909.


9/43

247

withHermannCohen(18421918),thefounderofNeoKantianism,thesocalledMarburgSchoolwho,inhisIntroductiontoFriedrichAlbertLangesHistoryofmaterialism,23attemptedtoprovethatsocialismwasbasedonthesocialismofethicsandtothisextentKantwasthetrueandgenuineinitiatorofGermansocialism.InhisbookEconomicsandlaw

accordingtothematerialistconceptionofhistoryRudolfStammler(ofHalle)recognisedthisasthebestandmostconsistentmethodforcausalresearchintoeconomicdevelopment,butdemandedthatitbesupplementedbygoalsetting(teleological)considerations.Onlybymeansofthelatterisitpossibletoachievethehighest,socialgoal,whichStammlerregardsasthecommunityofpeoplewhowanttobefree,inwhicheverybodymakestheobjectivelyjustifiedpurposesoftheotherhisown.24FranzStaudinger(18491921)attemptedevenmore,inhiswritings(Ethicsandpolitics:economicfoundationsofmorality):25toreconciletheMarxiststandpointwithKantsepistemologicalcritiqueandethics.EachKantianhadtocometoMarxbylogicallydevelopinghisownbasicideas.Andviceversa:AssoonasMarxismnolongermerelypursuessocialbecomingscientificallyinaccordancewiththecausalviewpointbutmakesconsciousandplannedtransformationofthegivenintoitsgoal,itarrivesatKant,asa

resultofconsistentpursuitofitsownprinciple.

26

AlongsimilarlinestoStaudinger,KarlVorlnderinhiswritings(Kantandsocialism,FromMachiavellitoLenin)27advocatedacombinationofMarxandKant,i.e.acombinationofaneconomic,historicalwithanepistemologicallycritical,ethicaljustificationforsocialism.

Thiscurrent,whichinitiallyaroseoutsidethesocialistmovement,soonalsocreatedanechowithinit,particularlyintheranksoftherevisionists:EduardBernstein,ConradSchmidtandLudwigWoltmann(Historicalmaterialism),whoattemptedtoundermineMarxismthroughphilosophytoo,butalsointheranksofyounger,radicalVienneseMarxistsatthetime,suchasMaxAdler(CausalityandTheologyintheDisputeabouttheEconomy,MarxasThinker,MarxistProblems)andOttoBauer(Marxismandethics,directedagainstKautsky),whoultimatelydeviatedintothecampofreformism.28Theyalldemandedastrongerconsiderationof

ideologicalaspects,epistemologicalcritiqueandethicsinsocialisttheory.SimilarattemptsbyRussianrevisionisminthefieldofphilosophyevokedtheresoluteresistanceofPlekhanovand

23 HermannCohen,EinleitungmitkritischemNachtrag,inFriedrichAlbertLange,GeschichtedesMaterialismusseitKant,HermannCohenBaedeker,Leipzig,5thedition,1896.

24 RudolfStammler,WirtschaftundRechtnachdermaterialistischenGeschichtsauffassung:einesozialphilosophischeUntersuchung,Veit,Leipzig,1896,p.5756.

25 FranzStaudinger,EthikundPolitik,Dmmler,Berlin,1899;WirtschaftlicheGrundlagenderMoral,Roether,Darmstadt,1907.

26 Staudinger,EthikundPolitik,p.159.

27 KarlVorlnder,KantundderSozialismusunterbesondererBercksichtigungderneuestentheoretischenBewegunginnerhalbdesMarxismus,Reuther&Reichard,Berlin1900;KantundMarx:EinBeitragzurPhilosophiedesSozialismus,Mohr,Tbingen,2ndedition,1926;VonMachiavellibisLenin:NeuzeitlicheStaats undGesellschaftstheorien,Quelle&Meyer,Leipzig,1926.

28 LudwigWoltmann,DerhistorischeMaterialismus:DarstellungundKritikdermarxistischenWeltanschauung,Michels,Dsseldorf,1900;MaxAdler,KausalittundTeleologieimStreiteumdieWissenschaft,VerlagderWienerVolksbuchhandlungBrand,Wien,1904,pp.195433;MarxalsDenker:zum25.TodesjahrevonKarlMarx,VerlagBuchhandlungVorwrts,Berlin1908,KantandMarxism,Berlin1925;MarxistischeProbleme;BeitrgezurTheoriedermaterialistischenGeschichtsauffsungundDialektik,Dietz,Stuttgart1913;OttoBauer,MarxismusundEthik,Neue

Zeit,24,2(41),1906,pp.48599;KarlKautsky,EthikundmaterialistischeGeschichtsauffassung,Dietz,Stuttgart,1906.


10/43

248

Lenin(Materialismandempiriocriticism).29Onthewholerevisionismremainednegativephilosophicallyandproveditselftobejustasinfertilehereasinthefieldofeconomics.However,withthevictoryofreformisminGermanSocialDemocracyduringandaftertheWar,thesecurrentssucceededincomingintotheirown.Itischaracteristicofthecompletely

alteredattitudeofsocialisminthisperiodthatthearticleonthephilosophicalfoundationsofsocialisminTheprogramofSocialDemocracy:suggestionforitsrenewal,whichappearedbeforetheGrlitzPartyCongress,waswrittenattherequestofauthoritativepartycirclesbytheabovementionedKantianKarlVorlnder.30

Asfarasrevisionismasawholeisconcerned,itisnotonlythecircumstancethatbothBernsteinandTuganBaranovskiisubscribetothetheoryofmarginalutilitythatlendsitanindividualisticaspectbut,aswasshown,alsoitsattempttoreplacetheMarxistmaterialistdialecticwithKantianethicsandepistemologicalcritique.For,incontrasttosocialismthatitisafundamentalsocialism,Kantsstartingpoint,itmustbeinsisted,istheautonomouspersonality.Here,however,thereisafundamentalcontradictionwithsocialismingeneralandMarxistsocialisminparticular,whichonlyknowsandexplainstheindividualasconditionedby

thesocialenvironment.RevisionismasawholehasnotbeenabletoreplaceMarxisttheorywithoneofitsownthatinanyrespectcapturedtheeconomicmechanismwithitssocialinterconnections.Itremainedstuckincritiqueandthereforethequestionwhetherrevisionismshouldbeaddressedassocialisminprinciplehastobeansweredinthenegative.Butalsoasapurecritiquethestandpointofrevisionismhasprovedtobefalse.OneonlyneedstocompareitscritiqueoftheMarxistaccountofthepronenessofartisanalproductionandthemiddleclassestocrisesandconcentration,andfinallyitsconceptionofthesuperiorityofthesmallscaleoperationsinagriculturewiththeexperienceofthepostwarperiod(seeFritzPollockSocialismandagriculture,andJulianGumperzTheagrariancrisisintheUnitedStates),31inordertoseethathistoryhasprovednotrevisionismbutMarxiscorrect.AnybodywhodelvesintoCapitaltoday,

aftersevendecades,hastoconcedewithastonishmenthowcorrectly,indeedpropheticallyMarxunderstoodthelargescaletendenciesofcapitalistdevelopment.

OverthetwodecadesbeforetheWorldWar,reformismbecameaninternationalphenomenon.MuchearlierthaninGermany,itappearedinEngland.There,thefirstmassmovementoftheproletariat,theChartistmovement,wasdefeatedinthethirtiesandforties.ButitsstrugglehadshowntheEnglishbourgeoisiethedangerthatthreatenedit.Subsequently,itknewhowtocalmthedissatisfactionoftheworkingclassbymeansofconcessionsandthetimelygrantofrealbenefitstoitsupperlayer,whichitssupremacyontheworldmarketallowedittodo.Inthismanneroveralongperiod,itsuccessfullypreventedtheEnglishproletariatfromcombiningtocreateanindependentpoliticalparty.Thewholeenergyoftheworkingclassturnedtodevelopingtradeunions,mutualfundsandcooperatives.The

greatreorganisationoflocalgovernmentgaveworkerstheopportunitytorepresenttheirinterestsinthefieldofthemunicipalpromotionoftheeconomyandwelfarethroughautonomouslocalauthorities.Thetradeunionsdevelopedapurelyreformistpractice.The

29 VladimirIlychLenin,Materialismandempiriocriticism,inVladimirIlychLeninCollectedworks.Volume14,Progress,Moscow,19608(LCW),[1909],pp.17362.

30 KarlVorlnder,ZudenphilosophischenGrundlagenunseresParteiprogramms,inSozialdemokratischeParteiDeutschlands,DasProgrammderSozialdemokratie,VorschlgefrseineErneuerung,BuchhandlungVorwrts,Berlin,1920,pp.1017.

31 FriedrichPollock,SozialismusundLandwirtschaft,inMaxAdleretal.,FestschriftfrCarlGrnberg,

Hirschfeld,Leipzig1932,pp.397431;andJulianGumperz,DieAgrarkriseIndenVereinigtenStaaten,Buske,Leipzig1931.


11/43

249

revolutionarytraditionsofChartismwereforgotten.ThereformistsocialistFabianSociety,foundedin1883/84andconsistingofafewhundredintellectuals,gainedconsiderableinfluenceinbourgeoiscirclesandthetradeunionbureaucracy,undertheleadershipofSidneyWebb(born1859)andGeorgeBernardShaw.ThereporttheywrotefortheInternational

SocialistCongressinLondon(1896)providesaclearinsightintotheessenceoftheFabians.32

TheFabiansdonotwanttobeaparty,rathertheywanttopermeateallexistingorganisationsandmovementswithFabianideas.ThetacticofpermeationisoneofthespecificcharacteristicsoftheFabians.TheFabianSocietyendeavourstorousesocialcompunctionbymakingthepublicconsciousoftheevilconditionofsocietyunderthepresentsystem..33ApartfromtheFabianSocietysnumerouspamphlets(tracts),Englishreformismfounditstheologicalexpressionaboveallintheworksofthecouple,SidneyandBeatriceWebb(HistoryofBritishTradeunionism,withanafterwordbyEduardBernstein;ThePreventionofdestitution;AconstitutionforthesocialistcommonwealthofGreatBritain;Thedecayofcapitalistcivilisation)andofJamesRamsayMacDonald(Socialismandgovernment).34TheLabourParty,whichwasfinallyfoundedin1900,immediatelyadoptedthereformistprinciplesandpracticeofthe

Fabiansandthetradeunions.InFranceonealreadyfindsreformisminthepamphletsthatPaulBroussepublishedinParisin18812.BroussewasthefounderofthepartyofthesocalledPossibilists,whichexisteduntil1899.Subsequently,reformistideasweremoststronglypromotedbytheactivityofJeanJaurs,whoalsoadvocatedparticipationinabourgeoisgovernment(ministerialism)in1899.IntheSocialistPartyofItalytoodespitetheweakindustrialdevelopmentofthecountrystrongreformistcurrentsappeared,essentiallyrepresentedbypettybourgeoisintellectualswhoparticipatedinallthetheoreticalcontroversiesaboutthetheoriesofimpoverishmentandconcentrationthatwerefoughtoutfromtimetotimeinthepartystheoreticalorganCriticasocialeintheperiod18951905,afterthepublicationofvolume3ofCapital.ThesyndicalistArturoLabriola,inhisStudyofMarx,wastheforemostcriticofthetheoryofimpoverishment

andbreakdown.35InEconomicspeculationandThedictatorshipofthebourgeoisie,36hedealtwiththeproblemofimperialism.Withthestrongerindustrialdevelopmentofthecountryafter1905,therelatedintensificationofclassstrugglesandtheadvanceofreactionwithinthebourgeoisie,numerousintellectualsabandonedsocialism.EmileVanderveldeinBelgiumworkedwiththesameorientationasJaursinFrance(WorkersBelgium;Collectivismandindustrialevolution;Agrariansocialismandagriculturalcollectivism;Essaysontheagrarian

32 GeorgeBernardShaw,ReportonFabianpolicyandresolutionspresentedbytheFabianSocietytotheInternationalSocialistWorkersandTradeUnionCongress,London,1896,FabianSociety,London,Fabiantract,70,1896.

33 Shaw,ReportonFabianpolicy,p.7.34 DieGeschichtedesBritischenTradeUnionismus,afterwordbyEduardBernstein,Stuttgart1895,

originaleditionHistoryoftradeunionism,Longmans,GreenandCompany,1894;Industrialdemocracy,2volumes,Longmans,GreenandCompany,London,1897;Thepreventionofdestitution,Longmans,GreenandCompany,London1911;AconstitutionforthesocialistcommonwealthofGreatBritain,Longmans,GreenandCompany,London,1920;Thedecayofcapitalistcivilisation,FabianSociety,London,1923;JamesRamsayMacDonald,SozialismusundRegierung,Diederichs,Jena,1912,withaforewordbyEduardBernstein,originaledition,Socialismandsociety,IndependentLabourParty,London,1905.

35 ArturoLabriola,Marxnelleconomiaecometeoricodelsocialismo,SocietEditriceAvanguardia,Lugano,1908;secondedition,StudiosuMarx,Morano,Napoli,1926.

36 ArturoLabriola,Laspeculazioneeconomica,SocietEditricePartenopea,Napoli1907;Ladittaturadellaborghesiaeladecadenzadellasocietcapitalistica,Morano,Napoli,1924.


12/43

250

questioninBelgium;TheWorkersPartyofBelgium18851925).37ReformismtookaspecificforminRussia.ItsmostnotabletheoreticalrepresentativeswereTuganBaranovskiiandPetrBerngardovichStruvewho,however,soonswungovertoliberalism.ItachievedmasspoliticalinfluenceintheworkersmovementinMenshevism.

c)Theradicalsonthedefensive

TheeffortsofrevisionismweresooncounteredbythesocalledradicalsororthodoxMarxists,KarlKautsky,FranzMehring,HeinrichCunow,ParvusbutaboveallRosaLuxemburg,inNeueZeitandinspecificpolemicalwritings,whiletherevisionistsusedthenewlyfoundedSozialistischeMonatshefte.38

KautskysAgrarianquestionistargetedagainsttherevisionistcritiqueoftheMarxspresentationofdevelopmentaltrendsinagriculture.39ThisisKautskysmostsignificantandindependenteconomicwork,althoughevenherethehistoricaldescriptiveelementcrowds

outthepurelytheoreticalaspect.InhisanticritiquedirectedagainstBernsteinscritique(BernsteinandtheSocialDemocraticprogram),40Kautskydealswiththequestionsofmethod,programandtactics,particularlythetenetsdisputedbyBernstein:thetheoryofbreakdown,developmentaltrendswithregardtoenterprisesize(largeandsmallenterprises),theincreaseinthenumberofpropertyownersandthemiddleclass,thetheoryofimpoverishmentandcrisis.HereKautskyseekstorefutetheBernsteinclaimsaboutthealleviationcapitalistcontradictions,bymeansofphilologicalinterpretationofMarxstextsandcomprehensivecompany,taxandotherstatistics,andtodefendthethesisoftheintensificationofclasscontradictions.Inthecourseofdoingso,herelaxesorcompletelyrelinquishesimportantprinciplesofMarxisttheory.EventheErfurtProgramme(1891),whichwasdrawnupby

37 EmileVandervelde,WorkersBelgium,Paris1906;Collectivismandindustrialevolution,Kerr,Chicago,1901[1900];Lesocialismeagraireoulecollectivismeetlvolutionagricole,Giard&Brire,Paris,1908;EssaissurlaquestionagraireenBelgique,ditionsduMouvementsocialiste,Paris,1902;LePartiOuvrierBelge,18851925,MaisonNationaledditionlglantine,Bruxelles,1925.

[38 KarlKautsky,BernsteinunddasSozialdemokratischeProgramm:EineAntikritik,Dietz,Stuttgart,1899;Parvus,thenameforpoliticalpurposesofAlexanderIsraelLazarovichHelphand,18671924,wasaprominentMarxistrevolutionaryandjournalistintheRussianandGermansocialdemocraticmovements,whoparticularlyadvancedthedevelopmentofthetheoryofpermanentrevolutionwithLeonTrotsky.WheneditorofthedailySchsigerArbeiterZeitung,hewroteaseriesofarticles,mostheadedBernsteinsUmwlzungdesSozialismusinhisnewspaper:27,28January;8,9,12,

18,22,24,26February;9,11,24,26March1898.FranzMehringsarticlesappearedinanotherdailypartynewspaper,9,10February,10March,1898,LeipzigerVolkszeitung;HeinrichCunow,ZurZusammenbruchstheorie,NeueZeit,17,1(12,13,14),7,14,21December1898,pp.35664,396403,42430;RosaLuxemburg,Socialreformorrevolution,inRosaLuxemburg,TheessentialRosaLuxemburg:ReformorrevolutionandThemassstrike,Haymarket,Chicago,2008[1899,1908],pp.41104.[Forwritingsbymajorcontributorstothedebateandanintroductoryoverview,seeHenryTudorandJosephineM.Tudor(eds)Marxismandsocialdemocracy:therevisionistdebate189698CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,1988.ThecontentsofNeueZeitandSozialistischeMonatsheftefortheperiodareaccessibleonlinefromhttp://library.fes.de/inhalt/digital/zeitschriften.htm,accessed20June2013.]

39 KarlKautsky,Theagrarianquestion,Zwan,London,1988[1899].

40 KarlKautsky,BernsteinunddassozialdemokratischeProgramm:EineAntikritik,Dietz,Stuttgart,1899.


13/43

251

KautskyandsignifiedthehighpointintheMarxistdevelopmentofGermanSocialDemocracy,portraysthedecisivepointofthepoliticalprogramveryvaguely.Theprocessofcapitalistdevelopmentseemstobetheresultofblindsocialforces.Theconquestofpoweriswrappedintotaldarkness.Thedictatorshipoftheproletariatisnotevenmentioned.Asaresult,the

politicalaspectofMarxismwasvirtuallydecapitated,untilitwasreconstructedagainbyLeninafteraquarterofacentury.Engelsscritiqueofthedraftprogrammeof1891wasdisregardedandineffective,justasMarxscritiqueofthedraftGothaprogrammehadbeenin1875.41InthedisputewithBernstein,KautskyintensifiedthereinterpretationofMarxsoriginaltheoryevenfurther.ComparedwithBernsteinsdemandthatthePartyshouldbecomeademocraticsocialistpartyofreform,emphasisedthatSocialDemocracyhadtobecomeapartyofsocialrevolution.42Here,however,headdedthatitwasnotamattertheconceptofrevolutioninthesenseofanarmeduprisingbutofeverylargescalepoliticalconvulsionthatspeededupthepoliticallifeofthenationandmadeitpulsatemostenergetically.Admittedlyextralegaluseofviolencecouldformanepisodeinsuchaconvulsionbutcouldneverbetherevolutionitself.Inthisreinterpretationoftheconceptofpoliticalrevolution,itsrealcontentthe

transferofpowerintothehandsofanewclasswasclearlylost.Atthetime,Engelsspoliticaltestament,hisfamousintroductiontoTheclassstrugglesinFrance,writtenin1895,playedanotunimportantroleinthedebateovertactics.Heallegedlyrevisedthetacticsoftheworkersmovementandsupposedlycounterposedbarricadestrugglesviolentrevolutiontopurelylegalstruggle,parliamentarism.Asitturnedout30yearslater,thankstoRyazanovsuncoveringofthefulltext,theIntroductionwaspublishedbythePartyexecutiveinanabridgedformthatsignificantlydistorteditsmeaning.43

KautskyalsoreinterpretedtheeconomicsideofMarxisminimportantpoints,byinterpretinghisownconceptionsintoMarxstext.Initially,thiswasnotsufficientlyrecognisedbythesocialistpublic,sinceheappearedintheroleofdefenderofMarxstheoryagainstBernsteinandadheredtoMarxstraditionalterminology.ThiswasparticularlythecaseforMarxstheory

ofbreakdownandcrisis.InsteadofmaintainingMarxstheoryofbreakdown,thetheoryoftheobjectivenecessityofthedemiseofcapitalism,initsrealformagainstitsdistortionbytherevisionistcritique,thatthebreakdowncouldhappenautomaticallywithouttheactiveinterventionoftheproletariat,KautskydeniedthisdecisivepositionofMarxssystemaltogetherandportrayedthetheoryofbreakdownasBernsteinsinvention.Atthesametimeandincontradictiontothis,hemaintainedinrelationtocrisesthat,whiletheexpansionofproductionwaspracticallylimitless,externalandinternalmarketshadtheirlimits.Consequently,fromaspecifichistoricmomentonwardsthecapitalistmodeofproductionwouldbecomeanimpossibility.Notonlyatemporarycrisisbutincurablechronicoverproductionwouldthensetin,asthefinallimitonthemaintenanceofthecapitalistregime.Thesignificanceofthisutmostlimitoftheviabilityoftodayssocietywasthat

socialism[wouldemerge]fromthesphereofnebulousideastobecomeanecessarygoalofpracticalpolitics.44

ThatthisunclearandcontradictoryattitudeofKautskystoimportantelementsofMarxstheorywasunsatisfactoryisclearandallthemoresowhenKautskystheoreticalconfusionincreasedinhislaterwritings.Threeyearslaterinaseriesofarticles,onCrisistheory,

41 FrederickEngels,AcritiqueofthedraftSocialDemocraticProgrammeof1891,MECW27,pp.217233.

42 KarlKautsky,BernsteinunddassozialdemokratischeProgramm,pp.1813.

[43 FrederickEngels,IntroductiontoKarlMarxTheclassstrugglesinFrance,MECW27,pp.50624,(1895).ThiseditionindicatestheabridgementsmadewhentheIntroductionwasfirstpublished.]

[44 Kautsky,BernsteinunddassozialdemokratischeProgramm,pp.142,145.]


14/43

252

directedagainstTuganBaranovskiiscritiquehecombatsTuganBaranovskiisviewthatcrisesarisefromlackofproportionalityinproductionandarguesagainsttheassertionoftheunlimitedexpansionofcapitalism:thecapitalistmodeofproductionhasitslimitswhichitcannottranscend.Yet,afterquarterofacentury,inhisPrefacetothepopulareditionof

volume2ofCapitalheembracedTuganBananovskiistheoryofdisproportionalityasthecauseofcrises,whichhehadearliercombated,withoutanyreservations.45Inhislastlargework(Thematerialistconceptionofhistory),intheautumnofhislife,KautskyfinallyabandonedtheMarxisttheoryoftheimpassablelimitsofcapitalistdevelopmentandbasedhimselfonTuganBaranovskiistheoryofthepossibilityoftheunlimitedexpansionofcapitalism,whichhehadcriticised25yearsearlier,andwiththatdisownedhislifework.Thepatternthateverymodeofproductionultimatelysurvivestobecomeafetteronproductionduringitsdeclinedoesnotapplytocapitalism.Industrialcapitalismdoesnotleadtodecline,buttoanevermorerapiddevelopmentoftheproductiveforces.Kautskyclaimsthatpostwarcapitalismhasdemonstratedinpracticeinthemostimpressivefashionitsabilitytosurviveandtoadapttothemostdiverse,eventhemostdesperatesituations.Therearenoarguments

ofeconomictheorythatcouldcallitsvitalityintoquestion.AlthoughheKautskyhadanticipatedachroniccrisisofcapitalismthreedecadesearlier,thisprovedtobefalse.Capitalismistoday,consideredfromthepurelyeconomicstandpoint,moresolidlyestablishedthanever.46

IfonebearsinmindKautskyslaterdevelopment,alreadypresentinnascentformatthetimeofhisdisputeswithBernsteininhisunclearandvacillatingpositiononimportantpointsoftheoreticalprinciple,itiscomprehensiblethatthecontroversybetweenthesetwotheoreticiansdidnotandcouldnotresultintheclarificationoffundamentalquestionsofMarxisttheory.BothhadabandonedMarxisttheoryindecisivepointsandconductedthestruggleonlyoveralessimportantpoints,inpartmerelyaboutwords.Atthetimethiswasonlynoticedbyafew(RosaLuxemburg).HowevergreatKautskysservicewasinpopularising

Marxism,therealrevolutionarycharacterofMarxismremainedalientohim.InKautskysstrugglewithBernstein,ultimatelyBernsteinwasthevictor.

TheargumentsthatParvus(IsraelLazarevichHelphand),anenthusiasticsocialpatriotduringtheWar,advancedinaseriesofwritingsagainstrevisionismweremoreeffective(Commercialcrisisandtradeunions,Thetradeunionstruggle,Socialismandsocialrevolution,Colonialpolicyandbreakdown).47

MostimpressiveandenduringwereRosaLuxemburgsessays,thehighpointofwhich,onthetheoreticalside,isherSocialreformorrevolution,publishedagainstBernsteinsPreconditions.

IfBernsteinwasexpectingthetransitiontosocialism[toresult]fromtheprogressivedevelopmentofthebourgeoislegalsystem,fromstatutorysocialreform,RosaLuxemburgexplains,thenhewascommittingafundamentalerrorwithregardtotheessenceofcapitalistclassrule.Thisrests,incontrasttoearlierclasssocieties,notonlegallyanchoredacquired

45 KarlKautsky,Krisentheorien,NeueZeit,202(25),1902,pp.3747,7681,1108,13343;Vorwort,inKarlMarx,DasKapital:Kritikderpolitischenkonomie.2.DerZirkulationsprozedesKapitals,Dietz,Berlin,1926.

46 Thematerialistconceptionofhistory,(1927),pp.421,42456.

47 Parvus,DieHandelskrisisunddieGewerkschaften,Ernst,Mnchen,1901;DergewerkschaftlicheKampf,BuchhandlungVorwrts,Berlin,1908;DerSozialismusunddiesozialeRevolution,BuchhandlungVorwrts,Berlin,1910;DieKolonialpolitikundderZusammenbruch,LeipzigerbuchdruckereiAktiengesellschaft,Leipzig,1907.[Later,havingbecomeasuccessfulbusinessman,

heconcludedthataGermanyvictoryinWorldWar1wasdesirableandwouldleadtorevolutioninRussianandthereforecollaboratedwiththeGermanauthoritiestounderminetheRussianEmpire]


15/43

253

rightsbutonrealeconomicforces.Inourjuridicalsystemthereisnotasinglelegalformulafortheclassdominationoftoday.Nolawobligestheproletariattosubmititselftotheyokeofcapitalism.Poverty,thelackofmeansofproduction,whicharetakenfromitnotbylawbutbyeconomicdevelopment,obligestheproletariattosubmititselftotheyokeofcapitalism.

Theexploitationoftheworkingclassasaneconomicprocesscannot,therefore,beabolishedormoderatedbylegalprovisionswithintheframeworkofbourgeoissociety.Socialreform,factorylaws,healthandsafetyregulations,donotindicateanelementofsocialcontrolintheinterestsoftheworkingclass,theydonotconstituteathreattocapitalistexploitationbutsimplytheregulationofexploitationintheinterestsofcapitalistsocietyitself.Infactdevelopmentleadstoanaccentuationandintensificationofthecontradictionsofcapitalism.Fromthestandpointofindividualcapitalists,credit,businessassociationsandothermeansthatallegedlyservetoovercomethesecontradictionsandtoregulateproductionareonlysuited,toadjusttheirinsufficientmeanstothedemandsofthemarket,toraisethefallingratesofprofitinthecartelisedsectorofindustryattheexpenseoftheothers.Cartelscancelouttheirowneffectivenesswhentheyextendtoallthemoreimportantsectorsofproduction.

Fromthestandpointoftheeconomyasawhole,credithelpsincreaseproductionbeyondthelimitsofthemarketandpromotesthemostrecklessspeculation.Farfrombeingmeanstomoderatethecontradictionsofcapitalism,businessassociationsandcredit,onthecontrary,powerfullyaggravateandpromotecrisesandmustaccelerateitsdownfall.ThebreakdownofbourgeoissocietysaysRosaLuxemburgnotjustagainstBernsteinbutevidentlyagainstKautskytooisthecornerstoneofscientificsocialism.ThehistoricalnecessityofsocialisttransformationisbasedFirst,onthegrowinganarchyofcapitalisteconomy,leadinginevitablytoitsruin.If,however,oneassumestheprogressivemoderationofcontradictions,ifoneassumesthatcapitalistdevelopmentdoesnotmoveinthedirectionofitsownruin,thensocialismceasestobeobjectivelynecessary.Thenitsjustificationisonlypossiblebymeansofpurereason,thatisanidealistexplanation,whiletheobjectivenecessityofsocialism,the

explanationofsocialismastheresultofthematerialdevelopmentofsociety,fallstotheground.48

Withthesameacuity,RosaLuxemburgalsodevelopsherprincipaltacticalideasabouttheclassstruggle.RadicalMarxismtoodesireseverydaysocialreformwork,thetacticalorientationoncurrentquestionsthetradeunionstruggleoverwages,thestruggleforsocialreformandthedemocratisationofpoliticalinstitutionsjustasmuchasreformism.Thedifferenceisnotinthewhat,butinthehow.Becauseitstartsfromtheassumptionthatthepoliticalseizureofpowerisimpossiblereformismwants,throughthetradeunionandparliamentaryactivitygraduallyreducecapitalistexploitationitself.Theyremovefromcapitalistsocietyitscapitalistcharacter.Theyrealiseobjectivelythedesiredsocialchange.Bycontrast,forMarxismtradeunionandpoliticalstruggleissignificantonlyasnecessary

preparationofthesubjectivefactorinthesocialisttransformationtheworkingclassforthedecisiverevolutionarybattle,firstorganisingtheworkersasaclassandeffectingtheemergenceofunderstanding,ofunitedproletarianclassconsciousness.Thesocialisttransitionwillnotcomeofitsownaccordbyfatalisticallywaitingforittohappen.Itresults,rather,fromunderstanding,wonintheeverydaystruggleoftheworkingclass,thatthesupersessionofcapitalismsobjectivelyintensifyingcontradictionsthroughsocialrevolutionisindispensible.ThusforRosaLuxemburg,aslaterforLenin,reformsareonlybyproductsofclassstruggleorientedonrevolution.Revisionism,bycontrast,makeseverydayworkindependentofthefinalsocialistgoal.Itseparatesreformfromrevolutionand,byraisingthemovementtoanendinitself,changesitscharacter.Itisnolongerameanstoachievethatgoalsocial

48 Luxemburg,Socialreformorrevolution,pp.457,61,902[Luxemburgsemphasis].


16/43

254

transformationbutinsteadofthistransformationhasitselfbecomethegoal.Thisundialecticalattitudeseesonlymutuallyexclusivecontradictionseither/or,reformorrevolutionbutnotthesubsumptionofthesecontradictionsinthetotalityofthesocialprocess.49

Aswesee,onlywiththeseexplanationsistheconceptofthefinalgoal,neglectedintheErfurtprogram,defined.RosaLuxemburgdoesnotunderstandthefinalgoalastheidealstateofthefuture,tobeerectedafterthesocialistrevolution,buttheconquestofpoliticalpower,therevolutionitself.Ifyouunderstandthefinalgoalasthefuturestate,thenyoucanconsidereverydemocraticoreconomicachievementasasteponthispathtothisgoal.Butifoneregardstheconquestofpoliticalpowerthroughtherevolutionasthefinalgoal,asharpboundaryisdrawnwithreformism,whichreplacesthestrategictaskofdevelopingpeoplesrevolutionarycapacitywithcurrent,opportunistworkorthepropagationofamoreorlessvaguefinalgoaltobeawaitedfatalistically.SoRosaLuxemburgsinterpretationofMarxismassignsthedecisiveroletoworkingclasspoliticalactivism,throughtheorientationofcurrentworkonthefinalrevolutionarygoal,eventhoughtheseizureofstatepowerisdependenton

theobjectivecourseofmaterialsocialdevelopmentandassumesacertaindegreeofripenessofeconomicandpoliticalrelations.Marxismisthereforesharplydistinguishedfrombothfatalismandpurevoluntarism.

Forthefateofthedisputebetweenreformistsandradicals,werefertothearticleInternationals.50Reformismwasdefeatedinalltheoreticalskirmishes,condemnedbyresolutionsofpartyconferencesandinternationalcongresses,refutedagainandagainanewbytheprevailingintensificationofclasscontradictionsinthecourseofactualdevelopment.Butmaturingonthebasisofanaristocracyoflabour,itneverthelessmadeatriumphalprocessionthroughthedailypracticeoftheworkersmovement.ThegrowingpowerofMarxismwas,however,demonstratedbythefactsthatofallthesocialisttendenciesinallEuropeancountriesduringthefirsthalfofthe19thcenturyStSimonism,Proudhonism,later

Blanquismetc.Butitalonedominatedthemassesintellectuallyandthatreformism,inordertobeabletowinoverthemasses,hadtosailundertheflagofMarxism.

d)ReformisminMarxistdisguise(theneoharmonists)

HerewereferprimarilytoAustroMarxism,agroupofVienneseintellectualsRudolfHilferding,OttoBauer,MaxAdlerandKarlRennergroupedaroundthenewlyestablishedtheoreticalreviewDerKampf(from1908).Theyattemptedtoprovidetheoreticalformulationsforreformistpractice.Themostimportantbookfromthistendency,onethatstronglyinfluencedlatertheoreticaldevelopment,isRudolfHilferdingsFinancecapital.Twoofits

componentshavetobedistinguished.Ontheonehand,Hilferdingstrivestointegratethelatestphenomenaofeconomiclifetrusts,cartels,exportofcapital,imperialistexpansionisminshortmonopolycapitalism,whichhasreplacedcompetitivecapitalism,intothesystemofMarxseconomics.Ontheotherhand,followingTuganBaranovskiistheoryofcrisisandrenouncingtheMarxisttheoryofbreakdown,HilferdingendeavourstoreinterprettheMarxisttheoryofbreakdownintheharmonisticsenseofthelimitlesspossibilitiesfor

49 Luxemburg,Socialreformorrevolution,pp.669[Luxemburgsemphasis].

50 HenrykGrossmann,Internationale:DieZweiteInternationale(International:theSecondInternational);andInternationale:DiedritteInternationale(International:theThird

International),inLudwigElster(ed.),WrterbuchderVolkswirtschaft,ZweiterBand,fourthedition,Fischer,Jena,1932,pp.432439and439449.


17/43

255

capitalistexpansion.RevivingJeanBaptisteSaysoldtheory,whichMarxalwayscombated,thatprimarilygeneraloverproductionisimpossiblebecauseindividualspheresofproductioncreatemarketsforeachother,Hilferdingreachestheconclusionthatcrisesarenotnecessarilyassociatedwiththeessenceofcapitalism.Theyarisesimplyfromdisproportioninthegrowth

intheindividualspheres,i.e.onlyfromunregulatedproduction.Ifthedistributionofcapitalamongindividualbranchesofindustryisproportional,thenthereisnolimitonproduction,productioncanbeexpandedindefinitelywithoutleadingtotheoverproductionofcommodities.Inshort,ifproduction,evenonacapitalistbasis,canberegulated,crisescanbeavoided.51

ThefoundationoftheworkisHilferdingstheoryofmoneyandcredit,whichdepartsfromMarxstheoryofmoneyanddistortsitinthesenseofKnappschartalism.52Certainly,forthispurpose,HilferdinghastobreachthegeneralvalidityofMarxslawofvalueforthemoneycommodity,whichKarlKautskycorrectlyassertedmeantthesuicideofMarxism.53Thetheoryoffinancecapitalisbuiltonthefoundationofthistheoryofmoney.Thecharacteristicfeatureoflatestdevelopmentsisthedominantroleofbankcapitalcomparedwithindustry.With

capitalistdevelopment,thetotalsumofmoneymadeavailabletothebanksbythenonproductiveclassesandthroughthebankstotheindustrialists,i.e.theroleofbankcapitalintheformofmoneythatistransformedintoindustrialcapital,constantlygrows.Aparticularrolefallsheretothetypeofenterpriseknownasajointstockcompany.Withshareswhatiscalledfictitiouscapital,detachedfromproductivecapitalfunctioninginfactories,arises.Itenablesbankstorapidlyconcentrateownership,independentlyoftheconcentrationoffactoriesandisacceleratedbyspeculationonthestockexchangeandtheaccumulationofpromotersprofitbythebanks.Bymeansofthismobilisationofcapital;anevergrowingportionofcapitalinindustrybecomesfinancecapital,i.e.itnolongerbelongstotheindustrialistsworkingwithit.Thedirectionofcapitalinvestedinindustryfallsmoreandmoretobanks.[T]heybecomefoundersandeventuallyrulersofindustry.Thetendencytowards

concentrationinbanking,towardsprogressiveeliminationofcompetitionamongbanks,wouldfinallyresultinasinglebankoragroupofbanksestablishingcontrolovertheentiremoneycapital.Suchacentralbankwouldthenexercisecontroloversocialproductionasawhole.54

Aparalleltendencytowardscombinationisalsoatworkinproduction.InasectiononThehistoricaltendencyoffinancecapital,probablyintendedtobeacounterparttoMarxsfamouschapteronThehistoricaltendenciesofcapitalistaccumulation,HilferdingpresentsthecourseofhistoricaldevelopmentquitedifferentlyfromMarx.55Thelatterdepictedthelimitsofcapitalistaccumulationthat,inadialecticalshiftatadefinitestageofdevelopment,ultimatelyleadstotheexpropriationoftheexpropriators.56Hilferdingwantstodemonstratethepeacefulandgradualgrowthofcapitalismintoaregulatedeconomy.Thecartelisationof

industry,inordertoraisepricesandprofits,lowerstherateofprofitinthenoncartelised

51 RudolfHilferding,Financecapital:astudyofthelatestphaseofcapitalistdevelopment,Routledge&KeganPaul,London,1981[1910],p.241.

[52 Chartalismisatheoryoffiatmoney,issuedandbackedbylawratherthanpreciousmetals,elaboratedbyGeorgFriedrichKnapp,Thestatetheoryofmoney,Macmillan,London,1924[1895].]

53 KarlKautsky,Financecapitalandcrises,MarxistInternetArchive,www.marxists.org/archive/kautsky/1911/xx/finance.htm,accessed4February2012(1911).

54 Hilferding,Financecapital,pp.105etseq.,226,180.

55 Hilferding,Financecapital,pp.22735;Marx,Capital1,pp.927930.

56 KarlMarx,ThecivilwarinFrance,MECW22,[1871],p.335.


18/43

256

industries,intensifiescompetitioninthemandthusthetendencytowardsconcentration.Thisleadstofurthercartelisation,intheseindustriestoo.Soatendencytowardsthecontinuousextensionofcartelisationemerges.Theresultofthisconcentrationmovement,itsideal,theoreticalendpoint,willbethecompletecartelisationofallbranchesofindustrynotonlyin

thenationalbutalsotheworldeconomy,auniversalorgeneralcartelwhichconsciouslyregulatestheentiretyofcapitalistproductioninallitsspheres,setspricesandalsoundertakesthedistributionofproducts.Withtheadvanceoftheconcentrationmovementinindustry,productionisincreasinglyplanned(organisedcapitalism)andfinallyreachesitshighestexpressioninthegeneralcartel.Theanarchyofproductiondisappears,crisesareeliminatedandreplacedbyproductionregulatedbythegeneralcartel,evenifstillonthebasisofwagelabour.Thetendenciestowardstheestablishmentofageneralcartelandtowardstheformationofacentralbankareconverging,57henceapeacefulandpainlesstransitionfromcapitalismtosocialismbecomespossible.Thesocializingfunctionoffinancecapitalfacilitatesenormouslythetaskofovercomingcapitalism.Oncefinancecapitalhasbroughtthemostimportancebranchesofproductionunderitscontrol,itisenoughforsociety,throughits

consciousexecutiveorganthestateconqueredbytheworkingclasstoseizefinancecapitalinordertogainimmediatecontrolofthesebranchesofproduction.Eventoday,takingpossessionofsixlargeBerlinbankswouldmeantakingpossessionofthemostimportantspheresoflargescaleindustry.58

Afterthewar(1927),Hilferdingdeclaredthathehadalwaysrepudiatedeverytheoryofeconomicbreakdown,whichMarxhadalsoconsideredfalse.Theoverthrowofthecapitalistsystemwouldnothappenbecauseofinternallawsofthissystembuthadinsteadtobetheconsciousactofthewilloftheworkingclass.59

Duringthepostwarperiod,otherneoharmonists,suchasOttoBauer,KarlKautsky,alsoderivecrisessimplyfromthedisproportionalityofthedistributionofcapitalamongtheindividualbranchesofindustry.Theyconsidercrisestobeavoidable,ifthedistributionof

capitalisregulated,evenundercapitalism,andthelimitlessdevelopmentofcapitalismtobepossible.BauersassertionthatthemechanismofcapitalismautomaticallyenforcesthisproportionaldistributionofcapitalevenifthisismediatedbyperiodiccrisesgiveshisharmonisticinterpretationofMarxstheoryofcrisisaspecificcolouration.[T]hemechanismofcapitalistproductionautomatically[cancelsout]overaccumulationandunderaccumulation.WhereasMarxhadmaintainedthenecessityoftheprogressivegrowthoftheindustrialreservearmyoflabour,Bauertriestoprovetheopposite:Thereexistsinthecapitalistmodeofproductionatendencyfortheadjustmentofcapitalaccumulationtothegrowthofpopulation.60

57 Hilferding,Financecapital,p.234.

58 Hilferding,Financecapital,pp.367,368.

59 RudolfHilferding,DieAufgabenderSozialdemokratieinderRepublik,VorstandderSozialdemokratischenParteiDeutschlands,Berlin,1927,p.2,http://library.fes.de/prodok/fa59843.pdf,accessed4February2012.

60 OttoBauer,Theaccumulationofcapital,Historyofpoliticaleconomy,18(1),Spring1986,pp.106,107,(1913).[Thistranslationhasbeenmodified,asindicatedbythesquarebrackets.Initsoriginal

formthetranslationseriouslydistortedthemeaningofBauersGermantextbyrenderingaufhebtasgenerates,seeOttoBauer,DieAkkumulationdesKapitals,NeueZeit,311(24),p.872.]


19/43

257

CTheresurgenceofrevolutionaryMarxisma)Thedecayofrevisionisttheory

Asalreadyshown,reformismwastheresultoftherelativelypeacefulperiodofcapitalistdevelopmentbetween1872and1894.RevolutionaryMarxisttheory,itselftheproductoftherevolutionaryperiodof1848,nolongerseemedtosuitthispeacefulperiod.ThereformistattempttodivestMarxismofitsrevolutionarycharacter,inordertoadaptittothereformistpracticeofthepeacefulworkofconstruction,wasultimatelydoomedtotheoreticalfailure.Economicdevelopmentattheendofthepreviouscenturyexperiencedadecisiveshift,oncemoredemonstratingthatthepracticeofthepeacefulworkofconstructionwasentirelyquestionable.

Thepolicyofimperialistexpansion,whichinthemostadvancedcountrieswastemporarily

abletosecureadvantagesfortheupperlayeroftheworkingclass,attheturnofthecentury,ledtoasharpeningofallantagonismsinbothdomesticandforeignpolicy.Theimperialisteraofheightenedcolonialpolicy,offeverishmilitaryandnavalarmsbuildups,andfinallyofbellicosecollisionsthatledtotheoutbreakoftheworldwarbegan.

Asharpeningofdomesticclassantagonismsinallcapitalistcountrieswentinparallelwiththegrowingtensionsinforeignpolicy.Thegreatadvancesofthesocialistworkersmovementacceleratedtheprocessofcombinationofemployersintopowerfulassociationsforstruggle,whichforcedworkersontothedefensiveinalleconomicstruggles.Kautskydemonstratedin1908thatthefactorswhichhadresultedinincreasedrealwagesoverpreviousdecadeswereallalreadygoingintoreverse.Theperiodofrisingrealwageswasreplacedbyfallingwagesandcertainlynotsimplyduringperiodsoftransientdepressionbuteveninperiodsof

prosperity.61Thefactofdeterioratingconditionsoflifeforworkingclassoverthisperiodhasbeendemonstratedbyprivateandpublicinvestigationsinaseriesofadvancedcapitalistcountries.Stateprotectionsforworkersalsocametoahaltunderthepressureofemployerassociations.Moreandmore,inthiscontext,thetradeunionsoldmethodsofstruggleprovedtobeinsufficient.Theperiodofisolatedstrikesinindividualenterpriseswaspast.Developmentdroveontolargemasseconomicstrugglesinwholebranchesofacountrysindustry.Ontheotherhandthebourgeoisiebecameprotectionistandreactionary.Politicalliberalismbegantodieout.Therecouldnolongerbetalkofextendingdemocracyfurther,whichhadbeenpromotedearlierbyacertain[degreeof]cooperationbetweentheliberalbourgeoisieandtheworkingclass.ThisentiredevelopmentwasstrengthenedandacceleratedevenmorebytheimpactoftheRussianRevolutionof1905.Thedevelopment,predictedby

thereformists,ofprogressiveimprovementintheconditionoftheworkingclassandtheweakeningoftheofclassstrugglesdidnotoccur.Therewas,rather,asharpeningofclassstruggles.Asitwasapparentthattheoldtradeunionandparliamentarymethodswerenolongercapableofachievingfurthergains,theworkingclasswasforcedtoconsidernewmethodsofstruggle,thattookintoaccounttherisingeconomicandpoliticalpressurefromthebourgeoisie.Thiswasthesignificanceofthediscussionaboutthepoliticalmassstrike.62

[61 KarlKautsky,VerelendungundZusammenbruch:DieneustePhasedesRevisionismusNeueZeit26,2,42,pp.546,549.][wholearticle:NeueZeit26,2,42and43,17and24July1908,pp.54051and60712]

[62 SeeRosaLuxemburg,Themassstrike,inRosaLuxemburg,TheessentialRosaLuxemburg:ReformorrevolutionandThemassstrike,Haymarket,Chicago2008[1907],pp.11181.]


20/43

258

Insuchcircumstances,duringtheeraofbellicoseimperialismandcolonialexpansionaswellasreactionarydomesticpolicies,reformismoftheoldkindwasatypicalproductofepigones:repetitionofdatedchainsofthought,diametricallycounterposedtoreality.Anexampleofthisoversimplifiedpopularisationofsocialismthatspreadouteverywhereintheworkers

movementatthebeginningofthe20th

Centuryand,despiteitsMarxistphraseology,retainingnothingofthegenuinecontentofMarxssocialism,mentionshouldbemadeofabookbyMorrisHillquit,thecurrentleaderoftheAmericanSocialistParty,Socialismintheoryandpractice,63shouldbementioned.InthechapteronSocialismandthestateHillquitsettlesaccountswithtwodozendefinitionsofthestate,startingwithAristotleandCicero,throughTurgotandBenthamtoLeroyBeaulieuandAntonMenger,accordingtowhomthestateistheorganisedhumanityofagiventerritory.Tothisdefinition,designatedasfaulty,Hillquitcounterposestheentirelycorrectsocialistdefinitionofthestate,accordingtoMarxandEngels,andshowsthatthestate,asaproductofclass[divisions]aroseatthesametimeastheinstitutionofprivatepropertyandhasatalltimesbeentheinstrumentofthepropertiedclassesand,asanorganisationoftherulingclasses,necessarilykeepstheexploitedclasses

inaconditionofdependency.Fromthisentirelycorrectdefinition,however,Hillquitdrawsnoconclusionsforworkingclasspolicy.Inrelationtothepresentday,modernstate,Hillquitneverthelessallowsthevalidityofthebourgeoisdefinitionandassertsthatithasexperienceddeepinroadsmadeinitssubstanceandfunctionsbytherisingclassofwageworkers.Underthepressureofthe[socialistand]labourmovement,thestatehasacquirednewsignificanceasaninstrumentofsocialandeconomicreforms.Thestatewhichcameintobeingsolelyasaninstrumentofclassrepression,hasgradually,andespeciallywithinthelastcenturiesassumedotherimportantsocialfunctions,functionsinwhichitlargelyrepresentssocietyasawhole,andnotanyparticularclassinit.Itsexploitativefunctionintheinterestsoftherulingclassesarecurbedmoreandmore,whileitsgenerallyusefulfunctionsclaimitsattentionmoreandmore,asitprotectsworkersfromexcessiveexploitation,soitisgraduallycomingtobe

recognisedbythe[workers]asamostpotentinstrumentforthemodificationandultimateabolitionofthecapitalistclassrule.Therulingcapitalistclasswill,indeed,nevervoluntarilygiveupitspropertyandthesupremacythatresults.Hillquitdrawstheconclusionnotthatithastobeexpropriatedeconomicallyandpoliticallybutratherthattheprocessoftransformationwillcometopassgraduallythroughaseriesofeconomicandsocialreformsandlegislativemeasurestendingtodivesttherulingclassesoftheirmonopolies,privilegesandadvantages,stepbystep.Violencedoesnot,consequently,havetobeemployed.Thatwouldbebutanaccidentofthesocialrevolution[violence]hasnoplaceinthesocialistprogram.Throughthesereforms,aperiodoftransitionwillbeentered,inwhichthestate,althoughnotyetsocialist,isnolongeranorganofthecapitalistclassbutratheratransitionalstate.Definitelinesofdemarcation,whereitbeginsandwhereitendscannotbespecifiedbuttoday[a]numberofmunicipalitiesandstatesarealreadywhollyorpartlyundersocialistcontrol.Manyofthepoliticalorsocialtransitionalreformsofsocialismhave,toacertaindegree,beenrealisedincountriesinEurope,AmericaandAustraliaandtheconcededtendencyofallmodernlawmakingisitdirectedtowardstheextensionofsuchreforms.Inthissense,itmaywellbesaidthatweareinthemidstorinanycaseatthestartofthetransitionalstate.Hillquitrecommends,inturn,tacticsthatareconfinedtoelectoraltacticsandpositiveworkofparliament,withoutviolatingtheprincipleoftheclassstruggle.64

63 MorrisHillquit,Socialismintheoryandpractice,Macmillan,NewYork1909.

[64 Hillquit,Socialismintheoryandpractice,pp.97105,174,181,189.Grossmanwroteclass

struggleswheretheoriginalhadclassdivisions;andleftoutsocialistandfromthequotationstartingUnderthepressure;Hillquittookthequotationwithoutviolatingtheprincipleofthe


21/43

259

IfsuchtheorieswerestronglyutopianduringtheperiodbeforetheWartheycompletelylostanyconnectionwithrealityaftertheoutbreakoftheWorldWar.Inordertoavoidshipwreckonthiscontrastwithreality,reformisttheorywasforcedtoadapttoit.Inpurelogic,thiscorrectionwaspossibleoncourses.Fromtheproletarianstandpoint:throughareturnto

revolutionaryMarxism.Inafurther,consistentdevelopmentofitsnature,reformismchosetheothercourseandplaceditselfentirelyonthegroundofbourgeoissocietyandthecapitaliststate.KarlRenneralreadydrewthisconclusion,containedinembryoinHilferdingsbook,withgreatclarityinarticlespublishedintheVienneseKampfandArbeiterzeitung(whichappearedinbookformasMarxism,warandtheinternational).65ExtendingtheresultsofHilferdingsbook,heseekstoportraythetransformationsinceMarxsdeaththathastakenplaceinthefabricoftheeconomy,stateandsociety,inthemutualrelationsofclassesinthencharacterofownershipandinthetasksoftodaysproletariat.AlthoughhepositsdifferentdevelopmentaltendenciestoMarxinalltheseareas,althoughheabandonsallthefundamentalcomponentsofMarxstheoreticalstructureandfinallyidentifiesdifferentgoalsandtasksfortheworkersmovementtoMarx,hedidnotforegoMarxistdisguiseforhistheory.Heclaimedtobea

proponentofgenuineMarxismwhostruggledagainstthereactionarymisconstrualofMarxsthoughtagainstthevulgartendencyofMarxism,againsttheossificationandoversimplificationofthe(Marxist)theoryofclassstruggle.NothebutratherthesupposedMarxistshaddistortedthetheoryofthemaster.IntheshortperiodsinceMarxwasactive,classrelationshaveoften,almosteverydecadeandahalf,beentransformed.InsteadofluggingalongtheoldcatechisticpropositionsofMarxssystemasoldgoods,itisnecessarytorevisethetheoreticalbaggageinallareas.SohisbookwasaMarxistexaminationofthenewmaterialofsocialdevelopment,adraftofastudyprogramforMarxists.66Marxsentireperiodofactivitywas,accordingtoRenner,duringtheliberalsocialera,withitsindividualisticanarchisticeconomicmode,forwhichthepowerofthestatewasabogyman.MarxresearchedthisepochanddescribeditinCapital.Inordertoexposeitslawsintheir

pure,logicalform,everystateinterventionhadtobedisregarded.Thiscapitalistsociety,whichMarxexperiencedanddescribed,doesnotexistanymore,somethingthatMarxistshavesofaroverlooked.Theessentialfeatureofthefundamentalchangesinthestructureofsociety,whichwerecompletedfrom1878to1914consistsofthestatificationofthepreviouslystatelesseconomy,thatis,preciselywhatKarlMarxssystemlogicallyandpracticallyexcluded,whatMarxdidnotexperienceordescribe.Thereareimportantconsequencesofthisstatificationbecausetheeconomymoreandmoreexclusivelyservesthecapitalistclass,thestatemoreandmorepredominantlytheproletariat.Consequently,thestateisthetool,withthehelpofwhichthehistoricaloverthrowfromcapitalismtosocialismwillbecarriedout.Butitisacrazyconceptiontothinkthattheconquestofpoliticalpowerbytheproletariatcanbecarriedoutthroughasuddenoverthrowofthe

system,throughapoliticalsurpriseattack.Thoseareconceptionsthathavebeensmuggledfromthepoliticalhistoryofthebourgeoisieintotheworldofsocialistideas.Thestatewill,rather,beconqueredstepbystepindailystruggles.Itstransformationiscarriedoutthroughthegradualsocialisationofalleconomicfunctions.Marxwasfarfrombeingcondemningand

classstrugglefromKarlKautsky,DersozialistischenKongresseunddersozialistischeMinister,NeueZeit,19(1),p.37[wholearticlepp.3644],whointurnquotedhisownletterinPetiteRepublique,28September1899.]

65 KarlRenner,Marxismus,KriegundInternationale,Dietz,Stuttgart,1918[1917].[Renner(18701950)wasaleadingsocialdemocraticparliamentarian andtheoreticianinAustriabeforeandduringWorldWar1.HewasthefirstchancelloroftheAustrianrepublicfrom1918until1920.]

[66 Renner,Marxismus,pp.612,70,90,97.]


22/43

260

negatingthestate,fromstatenihilism,withwhichcontemporaryMarxismcoquettes.Throughthestatealleconomiccategoriesarefundamentallytransformed.Thecompetitivepriceoftheprivateeconomychangeintocartelprice,finallytariffpricedevelopsintonationalprice,whoseformandextentdiffersfromstatetostate,duringtheperiodofhighprotection

andundertheinfluenceofthestate.Itisonlyonestepfurthertostatelegislationdirectlyprescribingtheprice:taxpriceorpoliticalprice.Theeconomyisnotsufficienttoexplainsuchpricing,overalldeviationfromthenaturallawsoftheeconomyisdeterminedbytheprocessofstatification.Anextraeconomiclawimposeditselfoverthebasiceconomiclaw.AndthatisnowthenewproblemofMarxism,asthedeliberateallocationofgoods,thatistheexclusivemodeofcirculationofasocialistsociety,istodayalreadymergedintothesystemofautomaticcommoditycirculation.67

Whatcanbesaidofcommoditypricescanalsobesaidofthecategoryofwages.Thewagessystemisbeingfundamentallyreorganisedbythestate.Todaytheworkerswageisalreadycomprisedofanindividualandacollectivewage.Thestatesocialisesvariablecapital,i.e.capitalspentonwages,throughcompulsorycontributionsbyworkersandemployersfor

health,accidentandoldageinsurance,afterindividualsarepaid.Basically,thestatehasalreadylongdonethisthroughcertainpublicoutlays,e.g.publicschools,thatcontributetothemaintenanceandrenewaloftheworkingclass.Theworkingclass,consequently,alreadyreceivesapartofitswagescollectively.Thedevelopmentistowardsthecollectivisationofaneverlargerpartofwages.Toanincreasingextent,theworkerbecomesthesubjectandobjectofpublicinstitutions.Theprocessofsocialisationintegrateshimasanelementintothestate.68

ThisprocessofsocialisingtheworkerswagehasnotyetbeenanalysedbyMarxists.Butlargetransformationsoftheindividualcomponentsofthewagealsotakeplace.Theindividualwageisreplacedbythetradeunionwageandfinallybytheregulatedwage[Tariflohn]CHANGEABOVE.Theseinstitutions...transformtheworkerfromaserfintoaneconomiccitizen.The

leapfromthefreewagecontracttotheregulatedsystemisofthesamesignificanceasthatfrommanorialsubjectionandpatrimonialjusticetothebourgeoiscourt.Buttheregulatedwageisstillnotthehighestpointofdevelopment.Giantcapitalistenterprisesconstructserviceprogramsfortheirwhitecollaremployeesand,toanextent,theirworkers,withawagescalethatiscalculatedovertheirwholelives,includingtheirdeaths,inshort,formsofwagepaymentthatRennercallsthepragmaticwage.Fromthisitisonlyasteptothedirectsettingofwagesbythestate,toataxwage[Lohntaxe].Throughstatification,todaytheworkingclassesfindthemselvesinadifferentsocialsituationfromMarxsperiod.Ownershipbecomesapublicinstitution,workapublicjob.Aregroupingofclassestakesplace.Industrialismisnolongerthepredominantformofenrichmentincontemporarysociety.Thefactoryowneroftheoldkindisnolongercounterposedtotheproletariat.Ratherthe

dominantpowerswithinthecapitalistclasshavebecomeagrarianismandfinancecapital.Atransformationoftheeconomicfunctionoflandownershipoccurs.Whiletheprocessofstatificationandsocialisationisveryextensiveinagriculture,landownership,encompassedeconomicallyasgroundrent,hasbecomemoreandmoreparasitic.Thequestionofgroundrentwillbecometheprincipalsocialquestionoverthenextfiveyearsanddecades.69

Loancapitalhasalsoexperiencemassivetransformations.Loancapitaloftheoldkindwas

[67 Renner,Marxismus,pp.712.28,413.AccordingtoRenner,thetariffpricewasaconsequenceoftheinteractionofcartelsandprotectivetariffs.]

[68 Renner,Marxismus,pp.467.]

[69 Renner,Marxismus,pp.4755,61,645,67.]


23/43

261

usury,amereparasiticeconomicfunction.Theusurerswere,however,displaced.Creditcapitalofthenewkindisnotparasiticandisgenerallyfelttobeablessing.70

ThepurposeofRennersarbitraryconstruction,whichcannotbefullitemisedhere,isthejustificationsproducedbytheconclusionstowhichhecomes:theworkingclasshastoaffirm

thecontemporarystateand,thoughthepolicyofchangingallianceswithindividualbourgeoisclasses,painstakingly,stepbystepworkitswayupandtakepoweroverbourgeoissocietyintellectually[geistig],positionitselfeverywhereonthebasisofthestateandbourgeoissociety.Suchanalliancepolicyisnotawateringdownofclassprinciplebutitsfulfilment.Astheproletariataffirmsthestateitmustalsoaffirmstatepolicy.Thereisnoamorphousinternationalitybutinternationalityisfirsttheresultoftheeffectofgroupsofnationstateswhichisspecificallynewinourperiod.Capitalisnotinternationalbutnational.Nationalcapitalorganisedbythestatehasbecometheeffectiveagentonthetribuneoftheworld.Marxscategoriesareuniversal,Marxistsstartwiththecategoryofthestatelessworldeconomybutforthetimebeingthisisstillnotasinglestate,forthetiebeingdevelopmenthasachievedthelevelofnationalpolitical,territorialstates.Hencethereisalsonoworld

proletariat,whichisonlyamysticalunit;inrealityonlynationalproletariatswithinstateterritoriesexist.Theworldeconomyisonlycomingintobeing,promotedbythetendencyofindividualstatestoextendtheireconomicterritories.Intermsofspecificstates,theexpansionisttendenciesappearascolonialpolicyandcolonialexploitation,dominationandservitude.ButthismoralisticstandpointliesdeepbelowMarxsmodeofthought,asbehindthesemundanecomplaintsaboutcolonialpolicyoneshouldnotoverlooktheseculargreatnessoftheeconomisationoftheworld.71

Inthiswaytobeanopponentofthecolonialsystemmeansbeinganopponentofworldhistory.Solongascapitalismpersistsintheeconomyandtheanarchisticantagonismofstatesinpolitics,warsareunavoidable,becausecompetitivestrugglesamongeconomicterritoriestakeplaceintwoways:peacefullythroughstatestradeagreementsandaggressivelythrough

conquest.Theimperialistwarshouldnotbejudgedethicallybutshouldbeassessedasafact,justliketradepolicy.Itisnothingotherthantheturningofpricecompetitionintoarmscompetition.Atmost,thereshouldbeeffortstocivilisewarandtheextensionoftheorganisationoftheworldintoapeacefulassociationofnations,throughinternationallaw.Solong,however,assuchafuture,supranationalorganisationoftheworldhasnotbeenachieved,warremainspossibleand,incertaincircumstances,necessary,becauseitconcernstheexistenceofastateanditseconomy.Astradeunionworksmethodsofstrugglerestonthebasisofthiscapitalistorder,itmustactpositivelyinthestruggle.Notradeuniondesiresthedestructionofindustry.Theexistence,continuationandfutureofthiscapitalalsoaffecttheworkingclasspositively.Inbellicoseperiodstheworkingclassstruggleswithandalsooverthatcontinuation.Oncethereiswar,theproletariatalsohastotakethepathofwar:thispath

isalsoapathofhistoryand,astheproletariatcannotabsenteeitselffromhistory,ithastotravelthispath.Fromthemomentoftheoutbreakofwar,ithasnootherpossibleattitudethanaffiliationwithitsownstate.Thestandoftheproletarianpartieson4August1914wasjustified.72

ObviouslyRennerstheoremscannotbereconciledwithproletariansocialism.Theyshouldberegardedasanattempttodiverttheproletariatfromitstasksasaclassandtobringitintoallegiancewiththeimperialistbourgeoisie.Withhisproducts,reformismsankfromthelevelof

[70 Renner,Marxismus,pp.823.]

[71 Renner,Marxismus,pp.63,6566,101,106,1123,123.]

[72 Renner,Marxismus,pp.28122,331,3601,3289,353.]


24/43

262

socialcriticismtoapologeticsforbourgeoissociety.Itwasthereforeunavoidablethatreformism,havingcometopowerafterthewarandtheoutbreakofrevolutioninthedefeatedstates,wasincapableoffulfillingevenoneofthetasksposedbyproletariansocialism.

EclecticismandthetendencytoturnawayfromMarxismwascharacteristicofreformist

theoryduringthepostwarperiod.EmilLedererrestrictstheapplicabilityofMarxslabourtheoryofvalueintwoways.InhisOutlinesofeconomictheory,73herestrictsittotheterrainofcompetitivecapitalism.Heregardsitasinsufficienttoexplainmonopolyprices,andhencetriestoconstructafusionofthelabourtheoryofvaluewithmarginalutilitytheory.HeregardsMarxslabourtheoryofvalue,secondly,assuitedtotheexplanationonlyofstaticeconomicprocessesbutnotdynamicconjunctualcycles.74Lederersexplanationofcrisesisinessenceanunderconsumptionisttheoryonadetourthroughmonetarytheoriesofcrisis(extensionofthelabourprocessonlythroughadditionalcredit75withallitsattendantdeficiencies.

AlfredBraunthalsThecontemporaryeconomyanditslawsisintendedtobeasocialisteconomicstextbook,faithfultotheideaofMarxism.Actually,BraunthalcombatsMarxstheorywithargumentsborrowedfrombourgeoiscriticismofMarx:itprovidesnoinformation

aboutthelawsaccordingtowhichthesocialproduct,infact,isdividedintowagesandtheearningsofcapital.The(bourgeois)theoryofproductivityis,inthisrespect,withoutdoubtsuperiortoMarxisttheory.Herefersfurthertothesecureresultsofmarginalutilitytheory.HisaccountofthecontemporaryeconomyisisessentiallyasimplifiedcompilationofHilferdingsthoughtsabouttheprogressiveorganisationoftheeconomyandRennersideasaboutstatificationandtheeverstrongerinfluenceofthestatewhichisbeingproletarianised.Throughitsgrowingregulationoftheorganisationofthewholeeconomy,finallythroughcoldsocialisationi.e.throughtheencroachmentofthepubliceconomy,thefreeeconomywithitsmarketmechanismismoreandmoresuperseded.Forthisreason,Braunthalthinks,wearestandingatthestartofasocialrevolution,asocietywhichischangingfromcapitalismintosocialism.76

WiththetransitionintheleadershipoftheworldeconomyfromEuropetotheUnitedStatesofAmericaandimpressedbyAmericanprosperityaftertheWorldWar,aflushofuncriticaladmirationofAmericanmethodsoforganisationandwork(rationalisation)aroseinbourgeoisEurope.TheemulationofthesemethodsbyGermancapitalistsfoundthefullestapprovalamongtheproponentsoftradeuniontheoryandpractice.AtypicalproductofthiscurrentistheworkofthechairpersonoftheGermanWoodworkersAssociation,FritzTarnow,Whybepoor?Theoldeconomictheoriesaboutthesocialquestion,TarnowthinksoriginatedprimarilyinEngland...ThenewtheorieswillbeformedinAmerica.Americahasshowthatpovertyisnoeconomicnecessitybutasocialillness,whosecureability,evenwithintheframeworkofthecapitalisteconomy,isundoubted.Wages,asacostfactor,havedeclinedinsignificancebutasafactorinpurchasingpowertheyhavegainedimportance.

Increasingconsumptionand,aboveall,massconsumptionisthekeytothedevelopmentofproduction.Inviewoftheenormousdevelopmentoftheproductiveforces,fromnowonwasteisablessingandrestraintacurse.Notonlyislabourdependentoncapitalbutcapitalis

73 EmilLederer,GrundzgenderkonomischenTheorie,J.C.B.Mohr(P.Siebeck),Tbingen,1922.Lederer(18821938)wasasocialdemocraticprofessorofsociologyandeconomics.

74 EmilLederer,KonjunkturundKrisen,GrundriderSozialkonomie,IV,i,1925,J.C.B.Mohr(P.Siebeck),Tbingen,pp.pp.355413.

75 Lederer,KonjunkturundKrisen,p.387.

76 AlfredBraunthalWirtschaftderGegenwartundihreGesetze:EinsozialistischesLehrbuchder

Nationalkonomie,LaubscheVerlagsbuchhandlung,Berlin,1930,pp.623,241,???,???,???.[HarvardDepositoryEcon1435.2.5,Regularloan(depository)]


25/43

263

alsodependentonthepurchasingpowerofworkerconsumers.Highwagesareinthewellunderstoodinterestsoftheemployersthemselves.Countrieswithhighwageshaveaccumulatedmoststronglyandcancompetemostsuccessfully.Americanemployersareadvancingalongthetrackofthisknowledgewhichisthebasisofthesecretofthecontinuing

boomintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.HenryFordsbook,Mylifeandworkiscertainlythemostrevolutionarytextofalleconomicliteraturetothepresent.77

Inaddition,thevarioussubspeciesandcurrentsofreformismastheyappearinindividualcountriesorinternationallyshouldalsobementionedbriefly.Firstmunicipalsocialism,whichisconcernedwithreformistactivityintheareaoflocalpoliticsamongstotherthings,alsotheefforttothemunicipalisewater,gasandelectricityservicesfortheurbanpopulationinthegeneraleconomicinterest,withoutreferencetotheirprivatesectorprofitability(seeHugoC,i.e.HugoLindemann,CityadministrationandmunicipalsocialisminEnglandandGermanycityadministration.78

AcurrentintheEnglishworkersmovementisknownasguildsocialism.Itaspirestothecontrolofproductionandthesupersessionofthewagessystemthroughtheorganisational

unificationofallmanualandintellectualworkers,notaccordingtoprofessionortradeuniongroups,butinassociations(guilds)ofwholeindustries.Itseekstoachievethisgoal,possiblythroughageneralstrike.Guildsocialismdiffersfromsyndicalismi

henryk grossman 'fifty years of struggle over marxism', appendix to r. kuhn - 'marxist crisis theory...

Documents