Hinduism 1

Hinduism

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Hinduism is the dominant religion[2]</ref> of the Indian subcontinent, and consists of many diverse traditions. Itincludes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism[3] among numerous other traditions, and a wide spectrum of laws andprescriptions of "daily morality" based on karma, dharma, and societal norms. Hinduism is a categorisation ofdistinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid, common set of beliefs.Hinduism has been called the "oldest religion" in the world,[4]

• Gellman & Hartman: "Hinduism, the world's oldest religion"[5]

• Stevens: "Hinduism, the oldest religion in the world",[6]

• The "oldest living religion"[7]

• The "oldest living major religion" in the world.[8][9]

• Laderman: "world's oldest living civilisation and religion"[10]

• Turner: "It is also recognized as the oldest major religion in the world"[11]

Smart, on the other hand, calls it also one of the youngest religions: "Hinduism could be seen to be much morerecent, though with various ancient roots: in a sense it was formed in the late 19th Century and early 20thCentury."[12] See also:• Urreligion, Shamanism, Animism, Ancestor worship for some of the oldest forms of religion• Sarnaism and Sanamahism, Indian Tribal religions connected to the earliest migrations into India• Australian Aboriginal mythology, one of the oldest surviving religions in the world.</ref> and some practitioners

refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law" or the "eternal way"[13] beyond human origins.[13] It prescribesthe "eternal" duties all Hindus have to follow, regardless of class, caste, or sect, such as honesty, purity, andself-restraint.

Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[14] or synthesis[15][16] of various Indian cultures and traditions,[15][17][14] with diverse roots[18] and no single founder.[19][20] of the late Vedic period and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,[21] but also the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation,[18][22][23][24] the Sramana[25] or renouncer traditions[17] of north-east India,[25] and "popular or local traditions".[17]</ref> This "Hindu synthesis"

Hinduism 2

emerged around the beginning of the Common Era,[15][26][27]-200[26] BCE and c. 300 CE,[15] at the beginning of the"Epic and Puranic" c.q. "Preclassical" period.</ref> the "Hindu synthesis" emerged,[15][26] which incorporatedshramanic[26][28] and Buddhist influences[26][29] and the emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold.[30] During the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written,[31][32] they may have existed in some oral form before beingwritten down.[33]</ref> which were used to disseminate "mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate andtribal groups undergoing acculturation."[31] The resulting Puranic Hinduism differed markedly from the earlierBrahmanism of the Dharmasastras and the smritis.[31]</ref> and co-existed for several centuries with Buddhism,[34]

to finally gain the upper hand in most royal circles during the 8th century CE.[35][36] From northern India this "Hindusynthesis", and its societal divisions, spread to southern India and parts of Southeast Asia.[37][38][39][40][41] theincorporation and assimilation of popular non-Vedic gods,[42] and the process of Sanskritisation, in which "peoplefrom many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanicnorms".[43]</ref>Since the 19th century, under the dominance of western colonialism and Indology, when the term "Hinduism" cameinto broad use,[44] Hinduism has re-asserted itself as a coherent and independent tradition.[45] The popularunderstanding of Hinduism has been dominated by "Hindu modernism",[46][47][48] and neo-Hinduism.[47] The term"neo" has been critisized by Halbfass for being "simplistic"[49] and having a "polemical undertone".[50]</ref> inwhich mysticism[47][51]</ref> and the unity of Hinduism[52] have been emphasised.[53][54][55][47] During 20thcentury, Hindutva ideology, a part of the Hindu politics emerged as a political force and a source for national identityin India.Hindu practices include daily rituals such as puja (worship) and recitations, annual festivals, and occasionalpilgrimages. Select group of ascetics leave the common world and engage in lifelong ascetic practices to achievemoksha.Hindu texts are classified into Śruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered"). These texts discuss theology,philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna and agamic rituals and temple building, among other topics.[56] Major scripturesinclude the Vedas, Upanishads (both Śruti), Mahabharata, Ramayana, Bhagavad Gita, Puranas, Manusmṛti, andAgamas (all smriti).[56]

Hinduism, with about one billion followers is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.

Hinduism 3

EtymologyMain article: Hindustan

Valmiki, a contemporary of Rama, composes theRamayana.

The word Hindu is derived (through Persian) from the Sanskritword Sindhu, the historic local name for the Indus River in thenorthwestern part of the Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistanand Northern India).[57][58][59]WP:TOPIC</ref> According toGavin Flood, "The actual term 'hindu' first occurs as a Persiangeographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus(Sanskrit: Sindhu)".[57] The term 'Hindu' then was a geographicalterm and did not refer to a religion.[60]</ref>

The word Hindu was taken by European languages from theArabic term al-Hind, which referred to the people who live acrossthe River Indus.[61] This Arabic term was itself taken from thePersian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13thcentury, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name ofIndia, meaning the "land of Hindus".[62]</ref>

The term Hinduism was later used occasionally in some Sanskrittexts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, c.1450) and some 16th- to 18th-century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnavatexts including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata.It was usually used to contrast Hindus with Yavanas or Mlecchas. It was only towards the end of the 18th centurythat European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. Theterm Hinduism was introduced into the English language in the 19th century to denote the religious, philosophical,and cultural traditions native to India.

Definitions

The Triveni Sangam, or the intersection of YamunaRiver, Ganges River and mythical Saraswati river.

The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definitionof "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism andby Western notions of religion.[63][47] Since the 1990s, thoseinfluences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate amongscholars of Hinduism[63][64] , and have also been taken over bycritics of the Western view on India.[65][66]

Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by theterm, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.[57]

Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religioustradition, and a set of religious beliefs.[67]

Colonial influences

See also: OrientalismThe notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India was already noted from the 12thcentury CE on.[68][69] The notion of "Hinduism" as a "single world religious

Hinduism 4

Mangal Mahadev, 108-foot statue of Shiva at GangaTalao, Mauritius

tradition"[52] was popularised by 19th-century EuropeanIndologists who depended on the "brahmana castes"[52] for theirinformation of Indian religions.[52] This led to a "tendency toemphasise Vedic and Brahmanical texts and beliefs as the"essence" of Hindu religiosity in general, and in the modernassociation of 'Hindu doctrine' with the various Brahmanicalschools of the Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta)."[70][71]

1. The establishment by European Orientalists of a textual basisfor Hinduism, akin to the Protestant culture,[72] which wasdriven by a preference among the colonial powers for writtenauthority rather than oral authority.[72]

2. The influence of Brahmins on European conceptions ofHinduism.[72] Colonialism has been a significant factor in thereinforcement of the Brahmana castes and the"brahmanisation"[73] of Hindu society.[73] The Brahmana castespreserved the texts which were studied by Europeans andprovided access to them. The authority of those texts wasexpanded by being the focus of study by Europeans.[72]

Brahmins and Europeans scholars shared a perception of "ageneral decline from an originally pure religion".[72]

3. The identification of Vedanta, and specifically AdvaitaVedanta, as the "paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion"[72][74]</ref> and the "centralphilosophy of the Hindus".[72] Several factors led to the favouring of Advaita Vedanta:[75]

1. Fear of French influence, especially the impact of the French Revolution; the hope was that "the supposedquietist and conservative nature of Vedantic thought would prevent the development of revolutionarysentiment;[76]

2. "The predominance of Idealism in nineteenth century European philosophy";[77]

3. "The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms ofHinduism".[77]

4. The European conception of caste which dismissed former political configurations and insisted upon an"essentially religious character" of India.[78] During the colonial period, caste was defined as a religious systemand was divorced from political powers.[77] This made it possible for the colonial rulers to portray India as asociety characterised by spiritual harmony in contrast to the former Indian states which they criticised as"despotic and epiphenomenal",[77] with the colonial powers providing the necessary "benevolent, paternalisticrule by a more 'advanced' nation".[77]

5. The construction of 'Hinduism' in the image of Christianity[79] as "a systematic, confessional, all-embracingreligious entity".[79] Several forces played a role in this construction:1. The European scholarship which studied India,[79]

2. The "acts of policy of the colonial state",[79]

3. Anti-colonial Hindus[80] "looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering aprecolonial, national identity".[79][81]</ref>

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Indigenous understandingSee also: Sanātanī and Hindu reform movements

Sanātana Dharma

See also: SanātanīTo its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life. Many practitioners refer to Hinduism as Sanātana Dharma,"the eternal law" or the "eternal way".[] It refers to the "eternal" duties all Hindus have to follow, regardless of class,caste, or sect, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance,self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. This is contrasted with svadharma, one's "own duty", the duties to befollowed by members of a specific caste and stage of life.[] According to Knott, this also

... refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history, and its truths have been divinely revealed(shruti) and passed down through the ages to the present day in the most ancient of the world'sscriptures, the Veda.[13]

According to the Encyclopædia Britannica;-The term has also more recently been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer toHinduism as a unified world religion. Sanatana dharma has thus become a synonym for the "eternal"truth and teachings of Hinduism, the latter conceived of as not only transcendent of history andunchanging but also as indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian.

Hindu modernism

Rabindranath Tagore was Asia's first Nobel laureate and composer of India's national anthem

Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and USA,[82] raising interfaithawareness and making Hinduism a world religion.[83]

See also: Hindu reform movementsMajor representatives of "Hindu modernism"[46] are Vivekananda, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and MahatmaGandhi.[84]

According to Flood, "Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) is a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism."[85] Central to his philosophy is

Hinduism 6

the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity",[46]

and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.[46] According toVivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.[46] Accordingto Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-classHindus today."[86]

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was "one of India's most erudite scholars to engage with western and Indianphilosophy".[87] He sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentiallyrationalistic and humanistic religious experience."[88] According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan,

Hinduism is not just a faith. It is the union of reason and intuition that cannot be defined, but is only tobe experienced.[89]

This view has been "highly relevant and important in forming contemporary Hindu identity."[88] The emphasis onexperience as validation of a religious worldview is a modern development, which started in the 19th century, andwas introduced to Indian thought by western Unitarian missionaries.[90][91] The origins of the use of this term can bedated further back.[92] Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of "religious experience" to the Germantheologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. Thenotion of "religious experience" was used by Schleiermacher and Albert Ritschl to defend religion against thegrowing scientific and secular citique, and defend the view that human (moral and religious) experience justifiesreligious beliefs.[92]</ref>This "Global Hinduism"[93] has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries[93] and, according to Flood,"becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism",[93] both for the Hindu diasporacommunities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions.[93] It emphasizes universalspiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity."[93] It has developedpartly due to "re-enculturation",[94] or the Pizza effect,[94] in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported tothe West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India.[94] Thisglobalization of Hindu culture has been initiated by Swami Vivekanandaand and his founding of the RamakrishnaMission, and has been followed by other teachers, "bringing to the West teachings which have become an importantcultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place oforigin."[95]

Western understandingHinduism's tolerance to variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religionaccording to traditional Western conceptions.[96]

Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-definedand rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, stillremain within the category. Based on this idea Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to thedefinition of Hinduism.[97]

Diversity and inclusivism

DiversitySee also: Hindu denominationsHinduism has been described as a tradition having a "complex, organic, multileveled and sometimes internallyinconsistent nature."[98] Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or acreed",[57] but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.[99][100] Accordingto the Supreme Court of India,

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Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does notworship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one actof religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion orcreed. It is a way of life and nothing more".[101][102]

Part of the problem with a single definition of the term "Hinduism" is the fact that Hinduism does not have a singlehistorical founder.[57][19] It is a synthesis of various traditions,[14][15] the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncertraditions and popular or local traditions."[17]

Also, Hinduism does not have a single system of salvation,[57] but consists of various religions and forms ofreligiosity.[103] Some Hindu religious traditions regard particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety ofviews on this co-exist. Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, of sustenance, and of thedestruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists, they view Hinduism more as philosophy than religion.Hinduism is sometimes characterised by a belief in reincarnation (samsara) determined by the law of karma and theidea that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death.[104]</ref> Hinduism is therefore viewed asthe most complex of all the living, historical world religions.[105]

Roots of HinduismWestern scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[14][] Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis ofAryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."[22]</ref> orsynthesis[15][]</ref>[16] of various Indian cultures and traditions.[15][17][14][][106]</ref>• Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India, Princeton University Press[107]

• Tyler (1973), India: An Anthropological Perspective, Goodyear Publishing Company. In: Sjoberg1990,[108][109]</ref>

• Sjoberg, Andree F. (1990), "The Dravidian Contribution To The Development Of Indian Civilization: A Call ForA Reassesment" [110], Comparative Civilizations Review. 23:40-74[111]

• Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press[17]

• Nath, Vijay (2001), "From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition", SocialScientist 2001, pp. 19-50[41]

• Werner, karel (2005), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism [112], Routledge[113]

• Lockard, Craig A. (2007), Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume I: to 1500 [114], Cengage Learning[14]

• Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, andCulture" [115], Routledge[116]

• Hopfe, Lewis M.; Woodward, Mark R. (2008), Religions of the World [117], Pearson Education[118][119]</ref>• Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge

University Press[120]</ref>Among its roots are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India,[121][17] itself already the product of "a compositeof the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations",[122][123]

•• Richard Gombrich: "It is important to bear in mind that the Indo-Aryans did not enter an unhabitated land. Fornearly two millennia they and their culture gradually penetrated India, moving east and south from their originalseat in the Punjab. They mixed with people who spoke Munda or Dravidian languages, who have left no traces oftheir culture beyond some archaeological remains; we know as little about them as we would about theIndo-Aryans if they had left no texts. In fact we cannot even be sure whether some of the aerchaeological findsbelong to Indo-Aryans, autochthonous populations, or a mixture.

It is to be assumed - though this is not fashionable in Indian historiography - that the clash of cultures between Indo-Aryans and autochtones was responsible for many of the changes in Indo-Aryan society. We can also assume that many - perhaps most - of the indigenous population came to be assimilated into Indo-Aryan culture.[124]</ref> but also the Shramana[125] or renouncer traditions[17] of northeast India,[125] and mesolithic[126] and neolithic[127]

Hinduism 8

cultures of India, such as the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation,[18][22][23][24] Dravidiantraditions,[128][22][107][38] and the local traditions[17] and tribal religions.[128][129] See also Peopling of India for thevariety of Indian people.</ref>After the Vedic period, between 500[15]-200[26] BCE and c. 300 CE,[15] at the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic"c.q. "Preclassical" period, the "Hindu synthesis" emerged,[15][26] which incorporated shramanic[26][28] and Buddhistinfluences[26][29] and the emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the smriti literature.[30][26] Thissynthesis emerged under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism.[130] During the Gupta reign the firstPuranas were written,[131] which were used to disseminate "mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate andtribal groups undergoing acculturation."[31] The resulting Puranic Hinduism, differed markedly from the earlierBrahmanism of the Dharmasastras and the smritis.[31][] See also Halbfass (1991) p.1-2.[132]</ref> Hinduismco-existed for several centuries with Buddhism,[34] to finally gain the upperhand at al levels in the 8th centuryCE.[35][36][]

From northern India this "Hindu synthesis", and its societal divisions, spread to southern India and parts of SoutheastAsia.[37][]

Geoffrey Samuel, p.77: "[T]he Buddhist sutras describe what was in later periods a standard mechanism for theexpansion of Vedic-Brahmanical culture: the settlement of Brahmins on land granted by local rulers."[133] See alsoNath 2001.[41]

Geoffrey Samuel, p.199: "By the first and second centuries CE, the Dravidian-speaking regions of the south werealso increasingly being incorporated into the general North and Central Indian cultural pattern, as were parts at leastof Southeast Asia. The Pallava kingdom in South India was largely Brahmanical in orientation although it included asubstantial Jain and Buddhist population, while Indic states were also beginning to develop in SoutheastAsia."[134]</ref>[38][]</ref>[39][]</ref> It was aided by the settlement of Brahmins on land granted by localrulers,[133][41] the incorporation and assimilation of popular non-Vedic gods,[42][]</ref> and the process ofSanskritization, in which "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt theirreligious and social life to Brahmanic norms".[][][43] This process of assimilation explains the wide diversity of localcultures in India "half shrouded in a taddered cloak of conceptual unity."[135]

InclusivismDespite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.[136] Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacredliterature, the Vedas,[137] although there are exceptions.[138] Halbfass cites Renou, according to whom this reverenceis a mere

"tipping of the hat", a traditional gesture of saluting an "idol" without any further commitment."[139]

Halbfass does not agree with this characterization[139] and states that, although Shaivism and Vaishaism may beregarded as "self-contained religious constellations",[136] there is a degree of interaction and reference between the"theoreticians and literary representatives"[136] of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense ofidentity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".[136]

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a singlewhole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectivelyas the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy."[68] The tendency of "a blurring of philosophicaldistinctions" has also been noted by Burley.[140] Hacker called this "inclusivism"[137] and Michaels speaks of "theidentificatory habit".[56] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslimsand Hindus,[141] and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",[142] which started wellbefore 1800.[143] Michaels notes:

As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization

Hinduism 9

which preceded later nationalism [...] [S]aints and sometimes and sometimes militant sect leaders, suchas the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609-1649) and Ramdas (1608-1681), articulated ideas in which theyglorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmans also produced increasingly historical texts, especiallyeulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting andcompiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.[144]

This inclusivism[145]</ref> was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements andNeo-Vedanta,[90] and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.[137]

TypologyMain article: Hindu denominations

The Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Delhi, accordingthe Guinness World Records is the World's Largest

Comprehensive Hindu Temple

Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into anumber of major currents. Of the historical division into sixdarsanas, only two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, survive. Themain divisions of Hinduism today are Vaishnavism,Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.[146] Hinduism alsorecognises numerous divine beings subordinate to theSupreme Being or regards them as lower manifestations ofit.[147] Other notable characteristics include a belief inreincarnation and karma as well as a belief in personal duty,or dharma.

McDaniel - six generic "types"

McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic "types" ofHinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of viewson a rather complex subject:[148]

• Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and extending back to prehistoric times, or atleast prior to written Vedas.

• Shrauta or "Vedic" Hinduism as practised by traditionalist brahmins (Shrautins).• Vedantic Hinduism, including Advaita Vedanta (Smartism), based on the philosophical approach of the

Upanishads.• Yogic Hinduism, especially the sect based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.• "Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on Karma and upon societal norms such as Vivāha (Hindu

marriage customs).• Bhakti or devotionalist practices

Michaels - Hindu religions and Hindu religiosity

Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.[103]

The division into three Hindu religions corresponds with the Indian division of ritual practice into Vedic (vaidika),village and folk religions (gramya), and sectarian (agama or tantra).[149] The three Hindu religions are:1. Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism: a polytheistic, ritualistic, priestly religion that centers on extended-family

domestic and sacrificial rituals and appeals to a corpus of Vedic texts as an authority.[103] Brahmanic-SanskriticHinduism takes a central place in most treatises on Hinduism because it fulfills many criteria for a definition ofreligion and because "in many regions of India it is the dominant religion into which the non-Brahman populationgroups strive to assimilate.[103][150]

Hinduism 10

2. Folk religions and tribal religions: polytheistic, sometimes animistic, local religions with an extensive oraltradition. Often in tension with Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism.[151]

3. Founded religions: salvation religions with monastic communities, usually ascetic, often anti-Brahmanic.[103]

Three subgroups can be distinguished:1. Sectarian religions: for example Vaishnavism and Shaivism.[151]

2. Syncretically founded religions: Hindu-Islamic (Sikhism), Hindu-Buddhist (Newar-Buddhism),Hindu-Christian mixed religions like Neohinduism.[151]

3. Founded, proselytizing religions, "Guru-ism": groups like Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and TranscendentalMeditation, Satya Sai Baba and the Satya Sai Federation, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and the ISKCON,Maharaj Ji and the Divine Light Mission, Osho.[151]

The four forms of Hindu religiosity are:1. Ritualism: Vedic-Brahmanistic domestic and sacrificial ritualism, but also some forms of Tantrism.[149] This is

the classical karma-marga, the path of action.[152]

2. Spiritualism: intellectual religiosity, aimed at individual liberation, often under guidance of a guru. It ischaracteristic of Advaita Vedanta, Kashmir Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta, Neo-Vedanta, modern esoteric Guruism,and some sorts of Tantrism.[149] This is the classical jnana-marga.[152]

3. Devotionalism: mystical worship of a God, as in bhakti and Krishnaism.[149] This is the classicalbhakti-marga.[152]

4. Heroism: a polytheistic form of religiosity rooted in militaristic traditions, such as Ramaism and parts of politicalHindusim.[149] This is also called virya-marga.[152]

HistoryMain article: History of Hinduism

Timetable of Indian History

•• v•• t• e [153]

Timeline and

cultural period

Westcoast NorthwesternIndia

(Punjab-SaptaSindhu)

Indo-Gangetic Plain CentralIndia

DeccanPlateau

Southern India

WesternGangetic Plain

(Kurukshetra)

Northern India

(Central Gangetic Plain)

NortheasternIndia

(Bengal)

South Asian Stone Age (untill c. 3300 BCE) South Asian Stone Age (untill c.1100 BCE)

Culture Paleolithicum (untill c. 10,000 BCE)

Before 10,000BCE

Bhimbetka rockshelters

(30,000-15,000BCE)

SanghaoCaves

Culture Mesolithicum (c. 10,000-7,000 BCE) Mesolithicum (c.10,000-3,000

BCE)

c.10,000-7,000

BCE

Hinduism 11

Culture 'Neolithicum (c. 7000-3300 BCE) Mesolithicum (c.10,000-3000 BCE)

c. 7,000-3,300BCE

Mehrgarh

BRONZE AGE (c. 3300-1100 BCE) NEOLITHIC (c.3000-1400 BCE)

Culture Early Harappan

3300-2600BCE

Early Harappan

Culture Integration Era

2600-1900BCE

Indus ValleyCivilization

Culture LocalisationEra/Late

Harappan

OCP/Cemetery H

1900-1500BCE

Earliest known ricecultivation[154]

Culture LocalisationEra/Late

Harappan

OCP/Cemetery H

Early Vedic period

Gandhara graveculture

Megalithic

(c. 1400-1100BCE)

1500-1300BCE

Indo-Aryanmigration

1300-1100BCE

Wandering VedicAryans

IRON AGE (c. 1100-300 BCE)

Culture Middle Vedic Period

Gandhara graveculture

Black and redware culture

1100-800 BCE Vedic settlements

Gandhara

Vedicsettlements

Kuru

Culture Late Vedic Period

Gandhara graveculture

(Brahminideology)[155]

early Upanishads

Painted GreyWare culture

(Kshatriya/Shramanicculture)[156]

Northern Black PolishedWare

800-600 BCE Gandhara Kuru-Pancala Kosala-Videha

Hinduism 12

Culture Late Vedic Period

Mahajanapada

Gandhara graveculture

(Brahminideology)[157]

early Upanishads

Painted GreyWare culture

(Kshatriya/Shramanicculture)[158]

Northern Black PolishedWare

 6th centuryBCE

Gandhara Kuru-Panchala Kosala

Magadha

Anga

Adivasi(tribes)

Culture Persian-Greekinfluences

"Second Urbanisation"

LaterUpanishads

Rise of Shramanamovements

Jainism - Buddhism -Ājīvika - Yoga

Later Upanishads

 5th centuryBCE

(Persian rule) Shishunaga dynasty Adivasi(tribes)

 4th centuryBCE

(Greek conquests) Nanda empireKalinga

HISTORICAL AGE (after 300 BCE)

Culture Spread of Buddhism Pre-history Sangam period(300 BCE – 200

CE)

 3rd centuryBCE

Maurya Empire Early Cholas

Early PandyanKingdom

Satavahanadynasty

Cheras

Culture Preclassical Hinduism[159] - "Hindu Synthesis"

[160] (c. 200 BCE-300 CE)[161][162]

Epics - Puranas - Ramayana - Mahabharata - Bhagavad Gita - Brahma Sutras - Smarta TraditionMahayana Buddhism

Sangam period

(continued)(300 BCE – 200

CE)

 2nd centuryBCE

Indo-GreekKingdom

Sunga Empire Adivasi(tribes)

Early Cholas

Early PandyanKingdom

Satavahanadynasty

Cheras

 1st centuryBCE

Yona Maha-MeghavahanaDynasty

 1st centuryCE

Indo-Scythians

Indo-Parthians

Kuninda Kingdom

 2nd century Pahlava Varmandynasty

 3rd century Kushan Empire Western Satraps Kamarupakingdom

Kalabhras dynasty

Culture "Golden Age of Hinduism"(c. 320-650 CE)[163]

PuranasCo-existence of Hinduism and Buddhism

Hinduism 13

 4th century Gupta Empire Kadamba Dynasty

Western GangaDynasty

 5th century Vishnukundina

 6th century Maitraka Adivasi(tribes)

Culture Late-Classical Hinduism (c. 650-1100 CE)[164]

Advaita Vedanta - TantraDecline of Buddhism in India

 7th century Maitraka Indo-Sassanids Vakataka dynasty,Harsha

Mlechchhadynasty

Adivasi(tribes)

Pallava

 8th century KidariteKingdom

Kalachuri

 9th century Indo-Hephthalites (Huna) Gurjara-Pratihara Chalukya

10th century Pala dynasty

Kamboja-Paladynasty

Rashtrakuta

Culture Islamic rule and "Sects of Hinduism" (c. 1100-1850 CE)[165] - Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500–1500 CE)[166]

11th century (Islamicconquests)

Kabul Shahi(Islamic Empire)

Pala EmpireParamara dynasty

SolankiEastern Ganga dynasty

Sena dynasty Adivasi(tribes)

Chola Empire

Yadava dynasty

Western Chalukyas

Eastern Chalukyas

Kakatiya dynasty

Hoysala Empire

12th century Chola Empire

13th century Delhi Sultanate

14th century Delhi Sultanate VijayanagaraEmpire

15th century Delhi Sultanate

16th century Mughal Empire

17th century Mughal Empire

Culture British Colonisation - Company rule in India'

18th century

Culture British Colonisation - British Raj'

19th century

Culture British Raj - Independence struggle - Pakistan - India - Bangladesh'

20th century

21stSmall textcentury

Hinduism 14

PeriodisationJames Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British India (1817),[167] distinguished three phases in the history ofIndia, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations.[167][168] This periodisation has been criticised, for themisconceptions it has given rise to.[169] Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, mediaeval andmodern periods".[170] Smart[171] and Michaels[172] seem to follow Mill's periodisation,[173] as a source for "PrevedicReligions".[174]</ref>, while Flood[45] and Muesse[175][176] follow the "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modernperiods" periodisation.[177]

Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism":• Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It's the formative period for the Upanishads

and Brahmanism[178]</ref>, Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE,and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration ofMahayana-buddhism in India.[179]

• For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism"[180], whereas theperiod between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point betweenthe Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[181]

• Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "ClassicalPeriod". According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and"personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in thistime.[182]

Smart[171] Michaels(overall)[56]

Michaels(detailed)[56]

Muesse[176] Flood[183]

Hinduism 15

Indus Valley Civilisationand Vedic period

(c. 3000–1000 BCE)

Prevedic religions(until c. 1750

BCE)[172]

Prevedic religions(until c. 1750

BCE)[172]

Indus ValleyCivilization

(3300–1400 BCE)

Indus ValleyCivilisation

(c. 2500 to 1500BCE)

Vedic religion(c. 1750–500 BCE)

Early Vedic Period(c. 1750–1200 BCE)

Vedic Period(1600–800 BCE)

Vedic period(c. 1500–500 BCE)

Middle Vedic Period(from 1200 BCE)

Pre-classical period(c. 1000 BCE – 100 CE)

Late Vedic period(from 850 BCE)

Classical Period(800–200 BCE)

Ascetic reformism(c. 500–200 BCE)

Ascetic reformism(c. 500–200 BCE)

Epic and Puranicperiod

(c. 500 BCE to 500CE)Classical Hinduism

(c. 200 BCE – 1100CE)[181]

Preclassical Hinduism(c. 200 BCE – 300

CE)[184]

Epic and Puranicperiod

(200 BCE – 500 CE)

Classical period(c. 100 – 1000 CE)

"Golden Age" (GuptaEmpire)

(c. 320–650 CE)[185]

Late-ClassicalHinduism

(c. 650–1100 CE)[186]

Medieval and LatePuranic Period(500–1500 CE)

Medieval and LatePuranic Period(500–1500 CE)

Hindu-Islamiccivilisation

(c. 1000–1750 CE)

Islamic rule and"Sects of Hinduism"

(c. 1100–1850CE)[187]

Islamic rule and "Sectsof Hinduism"(c. 1100–1850

CE)[187]Modern Age

(1500–present)Modern period(c. 1500 CE to

present)Modern period(c. 1750 CE – present)

Modern Hinduism(from c. 1850)[188]

Modern Hinduism(from c. 1850)[188]

Hinduism 16

Prevedic religions (until c. 1750 BCE)

The so-called Shiva Pashupati seal, Indus Valley civilization.

See also: Peopling of IndiaAnatomically modern humans are thought to havearrived in South India about 73,000 - 55,000 yearsback, during Paleolithic times. These people wereAustraloids who may have been closely related toAboriginal Australians.[189] They are probablyalmost extinct or largely covered by successivewaves.[190]

After the Australoids, Caucasoids, including bothElamo-Dravidians (c. 4,000[191] to 6,000[192] BCE)and Indo-Aryans (c.2,000[193]-1,500 BCE[194]), andMongoloids (Sino-Tibetans) immigrated into India.The Elamo-Dravidians[195] possibly from Elam,present-day Iran,[191][192][196][197]

• Kumar: "The analysis of two Y chromosomevariants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data(Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellitevariation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam insouth-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages fromsouth-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001)."[192]

• Mukherjee et al: "More recently, about 15,000-10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed inthe Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was anothereastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears tohave entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp...".[196]</ref> and the Tibeto-Burmans possibly from the Himalayan and north-eastern borders of thesubcontinent.[198][199]</ref>

The earliest prehistoric religion in India that may have left its traces in Hinduism comes frommesolithic.[126][200]</ref> and neolithic[127][201]</ref> times. Several tribal religions still exist, predating thedominance of Hinduism, though "[w]e must not assume that there are many similarities between prehistoric andcontemporary tribal communities."[202]

According to anthropologist Possehl, the Indus Valley Civilization (2,600-1,900BCE) "provides a logical, ifsomewhat arbitrary, starting point for some aspects of the later Hindu tradition".[203] The religion of this periodincluded worship of a Great Male God, which some (most notably John Marshall) have compared to a proto-Shiva,and probably a Mother Goddess, that may prefigure Shakti. Other practices from the Indus religion that may havecontinued in the Vedic period include worship of water and fire. However these links of deities and practices of theIndus religion to later-day Hinduism are subject to both political contention and scholarly dispute.[204]

Hinduism 17

Vedic period (c. 1750-500 BCE)Main article: Vedic period

Origins

Indo-Aryan migration

•• v•• t• e [205]

Scheme of Indo-European migrations from ca. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to theKurgan hypothesis. The magenta area corresponds to the assumed Urheimat (Samara

culture, Sredny Stog culture). The red area corresponds to the area which may have beensettled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 2500 BCE; the orange area to 1000

BCE.[206]

Historical spread of the chariot. Dates given in image are approximate BC years.

Hinduism 18

Indo-European isoglosses, including the centum and satem languages (blue and red,respectively), augment, PIE *-tt- > -ss-, *-tt- > -st-, and m-endings.

Frequency distribution of R1a1a, also known as R-M17 and R-M198, adapted fromUnderhill et al. (2009).

The development of the Kurgan culture according to Marija Gimbutas' Kurganhypothesis.

Hinduism 19

Map of the approximate maximal extent of the Andronovo culture. Theformative Sintashta-Petrovka culture is shown in darker red. Thelocation of the earliest spoke-wheeled chariot finds is indicated in

purple. Adjacent and overlapping cultures (Afanasevo culture, Srubnaculture, BMAC) are shown in green.

Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranianmigrations (after EIEC). The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz

cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranianmigrations. The GGC, Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and PGW

cultures are candidates for cultures associated withIndo-Aryan movements.

Hinduism 20

Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of the Swat andCemetery H cultures are indicated.

Map of Vedic age.

Spread of Indo-European languages

•• v•• t• e [207]

Hinduism 21

Indo-European languages ca. 3500 BC

Indo-European languages ca. 2500 BC

Indo-European languages ca. 1500 BC

Indo-European languages ca. 500 BC

Hinduism 22

Indo-European languages ca. 500 AD

Main articles: Indo-Aryans and Indo-Aryan migrationSee also: Indo-European migrationsThe Vedic period, named after the Vedic religion of the Indo-Aryans,[208][209]</ref> lasted from c. 1750 to 500BCE.[172][210] Flood mentions 1500 BCE.[170]</ref> The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-European languagefamily, which originated in Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes.[211][196][212][213]</ref>[214][215]</ref>The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists[216] who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the Indus ValleyCivilization,[217][218][219][220][221] due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity,[217]

hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation[217] or transformation.[218] Nevertheless, linguistic andarchaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750 BCE,[217] with the linguistic and religious data clearlyshowing links with Indo-European languages and religion.[222] According to Singh, "The dominant view is that theIndo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants."[221]</ref> The Indo-Aryans were a branch of theIndo-Iranians, which originated in the Andronovo culture[223] in the Bactria-Margiana era, in present northernAfghanistan.[224] The roots of the Andronovo culture go back further to the Sintashta culture, with funeral sacrificeswhich show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the Rig Veda.[225]

The Indo-Aryans split-off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians,[226] where-after they were defeated and splitinto two groups by the Iranians,[227] who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone[228] and "chased them to theextermities of Central Eurasia."[228] One group were the Indo-Aryans who founded the Mitanni kingdom in northernSyria[224] (ca.1500-1300 BCE). The other group were the Vedic people, who were pursued by the Iranians "acrossthe Near East to the Levant (the lands of the eastern Mediterranean littoral), across Iran into India."[229]

During the Early Vedic period (c. 1500 - 1100 BCE[216]) Vedic tribes were pastoralists, wandering around innorth-west India.[230] After 1100 BCE, with the introduction of iron, the Vedic tribes moved into the western GangesPlain, adapting an agrarical lifestyle.[216][231][232] Rudimentary state-forms appeared, of which the Kuru-tribe andrealm was the most influential.[216][233] It was a tribal union, which developed into the first recorded state-levelsociety in South Asia around 1000 BCE.[216] It decisively changed the Vedic heritage of the early Vedic period,collecting the Vedic hymns into collections, and developing new rituals which gained their position in Indiancivilization as the orthodox srauta rituals,[216] which contributed to the so-called "classical synthesis"[120] or "Hindusynthesis".[15]

Hinduism 23

Vedic religion

Main article: Historical Vedic religionSee also: Proto-Indo-European religion and Proto-Indo-Iranian religionThe Indo-Aryans brought with them their language[234] and religion.[194][235] The Vedic beliefs and practices of thepre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion, and the Indo-Iranianreligion.[236] According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants inthe contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[237] It was "asyncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",[237] which borrowed "distinctive religiousbeliefs and practices"[236] from the Bactria–Margiana Culture.[236] At least 383 non-Indo-European words wereborrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[238]

The Vedic religion of the later Vedic period co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults,[120][239][240]

and was itself the product of "a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations".[122] DavidGordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion ispartially derived from the Indus Valley Civilizations. Their religion was further developed when they migrated intothe Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers,[216][241][242] further syncretising with the nativeculturs of northern India.[120]

Texts

The Vedic Samhitas are the textual artefacts from which this period derives its name. The Vedic texts were the textsof the elite, and do not necessarily represent popular ideas or practices.[243] The oldest of these Vedic texts is theRigveda, composed between c.1500-1200 BCE,[244][245][224] though a wider approximation of c.1700-1100 BCE hasalso been given.[246][247]

• Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100. Oberlies (1998:155) gives anestimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.[248]

• The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 1500–1000.• Flood and Witzel both mention c.1500-1200 BCE.[244][245]

• Anthony mentions c.1500-1300.[224]

Some writers out of the mainstream claim to trace astronomical references in the Rigveda, dating it to as early as4000 BC, a date corresponding to the Neolithic late Mehrgarh culture; summarized by Klaus Klostermaier in a 1998presentation [249]</ref> The Vedic texts were codified when the Indo-Aryans started to settle the Ganges-plain,making the transition from a pastoralist to an agricultural society, and the need for a more stratified organisation ofsociety arose. This new society had to include older habitants of the Ganges-plain, and subsumed them under theAryan varnas, delegating political and religious authority to the Brahmins and Kshatriyas.[120] The Vedas centre onthe worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. Fire-sacrifices, called yajña, areperformed by chanting Vedic mantras.[250]

The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads.:183 Upanishads form thetheoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Veda). The older Upanishadslaunched attacks of increasing intensity on the rituals. The diverse monistic speculations of the Upanishads weresynthesised into a theistic framework by the sacred Hindu scripture Bhagavad Gita.

Hinduism 24

Universal order

Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya and Rta. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in theAbsolute.[251] Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe andeverything within it.[252] Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead topunishment. Panikkar remarks:

Ṛta is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood ina static sense. [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...."[253]

The term "dharma" was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was conceived as an aspect of Rta.[254] Theterm rta is also known from the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples prior to theearliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) and Zoroastrian (Iranian) scriptures. "Asha" is the Avestan language term correspondingto Vedic language "ṛta".[255]

"Second Urbanisation" (c. 500-200 BCE)Main article: ShramanaIncreasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramanamovements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. Mahavira (c. 549–477 BCE), proponent of Jainism, andBuddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement.:184 According toHeinrich Zimmer, Jainism and Buddhism are part of the pre-Vedic heritage, which also includes Samkhya and Yoga:

[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology ofa much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India - being rooted in the same subsoil of archaicmetaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indiansystems.[256][257] and S.K. Belvakar & R.D. Ranade in History of Indian philosophy, 1974 (1927), p.81& p.303-409.[258]</ref>

The Shramana tradition in part created the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and theconcept of liberation, which became characteristic for Hinduism.[259][260]

Pratt notes that Oldenberg (1854-1920), Neumann (1865-1915) and Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) believed that theBuddhist canon had been influenced by Upanishads, while la Vallee Poussin thinks the influence was nihil, and"Eliot and several others insist that on some points the Buddha was directly antithetical to the Upanishads".[261]

which had a specific understanding of Indian religions: "The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions, socharacteristic of neo-Vedanta ideology, appears on three basic levels. First, it is apparent in the suggestion that the(Advaita) Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. eighth century CE) constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism.Second, in an Indian context, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedanticideology. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to reform it from within.Finally, at a global level, neo-Vedanta colonises the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of anon-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis underlying all cultural differences."[47]</ref>

Hinduism 25

Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE)

Sacred Mount Kailash in Tibet is regarded as the spiritual abode ofLord Shiva.

Pre-classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-300 CE)

Between 500[15]-200[26] BCE and c. 300 CE developedthe "Hindu synthesis",[15][26] which incorporatedshramanic and Buddhist influences[26][29] and theemerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold viathe smriti literature.[30][26] This synthesis emergedunder the pressure of the success of Buddhism andJainism.[130]

According to Embree, several other religious traditionshad existed side by side with the Vedic religion. Theseindigenous religions "eventually found a place underthe broad mantle of the Vedic religion".[262] WhenBrahmanism was declining[263]</ref> and had to compete with Buddhism and Jainism,[264]</ref> the popularreligions had the opportunity to assert themselves.[262] According to Embree,

[T]he Brahmanists themselves seem to have encouraged this development to some extent as a means ofmeeting the challenge of the more heterodox movements. At the same time, among the indigenousreligions, a common allegiance to the authority of the Veda provided a thin, but nonetheless significant,thread of unity amid their variety of gods and religiou practices.[262]

According to Larson, the Brahmins responded with assimilation and consolidation. This is reflected in the smritiliterature which took shape in this period.[265] The smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE-100 CE proclaim theauthority of the Vedas, and acceptance of the Vedas became a central criterium for defining Hinduism over andagainst the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas.[266] Most of the basic ideas and practices of classical Hinduismderive from the new smriti literature, which form the basic inspiration for most Hindus.[265][267]</ref>The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, which belong to the smriti, were compiled over a protractedperiod during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE. They contain mythological stories about the rulersand wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recounttales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against rakshasa. The Bhagavad Gita"seals the achievement"[268] of the "consolidation of Hinduism",[268] integrating Brahmanic and shramanic ideaswith theistic devotion.[268][269][270][271]

In early centuries CE several schools of Hindu philosophy were formally codified, including Samkhya, Yoga,Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.

"Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320-650 CE)

Main article: Gupta EmpireDuring this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance trade, standardization of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.[185] Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty,[272] who were Vaishnavas.[273] The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,[185] the first Hindu temples dedicated to the gods of the Hindu deities, emerged during the late Gupta age.[185][274] George Michell notes that earlier temples were build of timber, brick and plaster, while the first stone temples appeared during the period of Gupta rule.[275]</ref> During the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written,[31] which were used to disseminate "mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate and tribal groups undergoing acculturation."[31] The Guptas patronised the newly emerging Puranic religion, seeking legitimacy for their dynasty.[273] The resulting Puranic Hinduism, differed markedly from the earlier Brahmanism of the

Hinduism 26

Dharmasastras and the smritis.[31]

This period saw the emergence of the Bhakti movement. The Bhakti movement was a rapid growth of bhaktibeginning in Tamil Nadu in Southern India with the Saiva Nayanars (4th to 10th centuries CE) and the VaisnavaAlvars (3rd to 9th centuries CE) who spread bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India by the 12th to 18thcenturies CE.[276]

According to P.S. Sharma "the Gupta and Harsha periods form really, from the strictly intellectual standpoint, themost brilliant epocha in the development of Indian philosophy", as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies flourished sideby side. Charvaka, the atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India before the 8th century CE.

Late-Classical Hinduism - Puranic Hinduism (c. 650-1100 CE)

See also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Middle Ages.

After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India.Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".[186][277] (770–1125 CE[186]),• in the west and north the Gurjara-Pratihara[186] (7th–10th century[186]),• in the southwest the Rashtrakuta Dynasty[186] (752–973[186]),• in the Dekkhan the Chalukya dynasty[186] (7th–8th century[186]),• and in the south the Pallava dynasty[186] (7th–9th century[186]) and the Chola dynasty[186] (9th

century[186]).</ref> The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on theprotection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",[278] as reflected in theTantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.[279]

The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.[280][281]</ref>Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"[280] wasdiminished.[280] Rural and devotional movements arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra,[280]

though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".[280] Religious movements had tocompete for recognition by the local lords.[280] Buddhism lost its position after the 8th century, and began todisappear in India.[280] This was reflected in the change of puja-ceremonies at the courts in the 8th century, whereHindu gods replaced the Buddha as the "supreme, imperial deity".[282][283]</ref>The early mediaeval Puranas were composed to disseminate religious mainstream ideology among the pre-literatetribal societies undergoing acculturation.[31] With the breakdown of the Gupta empire, gifts of virgin waste-landwere heaped on brahmanas,[41][284] to ensure provitable agrarical exploitation of land owned by the kings,[41] butalso to provide status to the new ruling classes.[41] Brahmanas spread further over India, interacting with local clanswith different religions and ideologies.[41] The Brahmanas used the Puranas to incorporate those clans into theagrarical society and its accompanying religion and ideology.[41] According to Flood, "[t]he Brahmans who followedthe puranic religion became known as smarta, those whose worship was based on the smriti, or pauranika, thosebased on the Puranas."[285] Local chiefs and peasants were absorbed into the varna, which was used to keep "controlover the new kshatriyas and shudras."[286] The Brahmanic group was enlarged by incorporating local subgroups,such as local priets.[41] This also lead to a stratification within the Brahmins, with some Brahmins having a lowerstatus than other Brahmains.[41] The use of caste worked better with the new Puranic Hinduism than with theshramanic sects.[286] The Puranic texts provided extensive genealogies which gave status to the new kshatriyas.[286]

Buddhist myths pictured government as a contract between an elected ruler and the people.[286] And the Buddhistchakkavatti[287]</ref> "was a distinct concept from the models of conquest held up to the kshatriyas and theRajputs."[286]

The Brahmanism of the Dharmashastras and the smritis underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of Puranic Hinduism,[31] "which like a colossus striding across the religious firmanent soon came to overshadow all existing religions".[288] Puranic Hinduism was a "multiplex belief-system which grew and expanded as it absorbed and synthesised polaristic ideas and cultic traditions"[288] It was

Hinduism 27

distinguished from its Vedic Smarta roots by its popular base, its theological and sectarioan pluralism, its Tantricveneer, and the central place of bhakti.[288]

Many local religions and traditions were assimilated into puranic Hinduism. Vishnu and Shiva emerged as the maindeities, together with Sakti/Deva.[3] Vishnu subsumed the cults of Narayana, Jagannaths, Venkateswara "and manyothers".[3] Nath:

[S]ome incarnations of Vishnu such as Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and perhaps even Nrsimha helped toincorporate certain popular totem symbols and creation myths, specially those related to wild boar,which commonly permeate preliterate mythology, others such as Krsna and Balarama becameinstrumental in assimilating local cults and myths centering around two popular pastoral and agriculturalgods.[289]

Rama and Krsnabecame the focus of a strong bhakti tradition, which found expression particularly in the BhagavataPurana. The Krsna tradition subsumed numerous Naga, yaksa and hill and tree based cults.[290] Siva absorbed localcults by the suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, for example Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara,Chandesvara.[3] In 8th-century royal circles, the Buddha started to be replaced by Hindu gods in pujas.[]</ref> Thisalso was the same period of time the Buddha was made into an avatar of Vishnu.[291]

The non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta, which was influenced by Buddhism[292][293] and "that the nature of the world isthe four-cornered negation".[294] Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the Mandukaya Upanisad,which was further developed by Shankara".[292] Gaudapada also took over the Buddhist concept of "ajāta" fromNagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy,[295][296] which uses the term "anutpāda".[297]</ref> was reformulated byShankara who systematised the works of preceding philosophers.[298] In modern times, due to the influence ofwestern Orientalism and Perennialism on Indian Neo-Vedanta and Hindu nationalism,[47] Advaita Vedanta hasacquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.[47]

Islamic rule and sects of Hinduism (c. 1100-1850 CE)Main article: Islam in IndiaThough Islam came to Indian subcontinent in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquestof Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent. Duringthis period Buddhism declined rapidly and large number of Hindus converted to Islam. Numerous Muslim rulers ortheir army generals such as Aurangzeb and Malik Kafur destroyed Hindu temples[299][300] and persecutednon-Muslims; however some, such as Akbar, were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes, in largepart due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya. Followers of the Bhaktimovement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated afew centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible Avatars, especially Krishnaand Rama.[301] According to Nicholson, already between the 17th and the 16th century, "certain thinkers began totreat as a single whole the diverse philosophival teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools knownretrospectively as the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy."[302][303] Lorenzen locates theorigins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[141] and a proces of "mutualself-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",[142] which started well before 1800.[143] Both the Indian and theEuropean thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by thesephilosophers.[68]</ref> Michaels notes that a historicization emerged which preceded later nationalism, articulatingideas which glorified Hinduism and the past.[144]

Hinduism 28

Modern Hinduism (from c. 1850)

Russian Krishnaites celebrating Ratha Yatra. In the late 20th centuryforms of Hinduism have grown indigenous roots in parts of Russia,significantly in Altay where Hinduism is now the religion of 2% of

the population.

With the onset of the British Raj, the colonization ofIndia by the British, there also started a Hindurenaissance in the 19th century, which profoundlychanged the understanding of Hinduism in both Indiaand the west.[44] Indology as an academic discipline ofstudying Indian culture from a European perspectivewas established in the 19th century, led by scholarssuch as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They broughtVedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy toEurope and the United States.Wikipedia:Citationneeded Western orientalist searched for the "essence"of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,[304]

and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as aunified body of religious praxis[305] and the popularpicture of 'mystical India'.[305][44] This idea of a Vedicessence was taken over by Hindu reform movements as the Brahmo Samaj, which was supported for a while by theUnitarian Church,[306] together with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all religions share acommon mystic ground.[307] This "Hindu modernism", with proponents like Vivekananda, Aurobindo andRadhakrishnan, became central in the popular understanding of Hinduism.[308][53][54][55][47]

Influential 20th-century Hindus were Ramana Maharshi, B.K.S. Iyengar, Paramahansa Yogananda, Prabhupada(founder of ISKCON), Sri Chinmoy, Swami Rama and others who translated, reformulated and presentedHinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, raising the profiles of Yoga andVedanta in the West and attracting followers and attention in India and abroad.In the 20th century, Hinduism also gained prominence as a political force and a source for national identity in India.With origins traced back to the establishment of the Hindu Mahasabha in the 1910s, the movement grew with theformulation and development of the Hindutva ideology in the following decades; the establishment of RashtriyaSwayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1925; and the entry, and later success, of RSS offshoots Jana Sangha and BharatiyaJanata Party (BJP) in electoral politics in post-independence India. Hindu religiosity plays an important role in thenationalist movement.[309][310] and D.T. Suzuki, who conjuncted Zen to Japanese nationalism and militarism, indefense against both western hegemony and the pressure on Japanese Zen during the Meiji Restoration to conform toShinbutsu Bunri.[311][312]</ref>[]</ref>

Temple (Devasthana)Main article: Hindu temple

Hinduism 29

Koneswaram Temple a 6th-century BCE TamilSaivate temple in Tirukonamalai, Sri Lanka

Amarnath Temple, attraction to pilgrimages asbefore as 300 BCE.

The worship place is commonly known as Temple. Usually regarded asDevasthana (God's place) or Mandir by the followers, construction oftemple and mode of worship is governed by several Sanskrit scripturescalled agamas, which deal with individual deities. There are substantialdifferences in architecture, customs, rituals and traditions in temples indifferent parts of India.[313]

Hindus can engage in puja (worship or veneration), either at home or ata temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated totheir chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to aprimary deity along with associated subordinate deities though somecommemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory, andmany visit temples only during religious festivals. Hindus performtheir worship through icons (murtis). The icon serves as a tangible linkbetween the worshiper and God. The image is often considered amanifestation of God, since God is immanent. The Padma Puranastates that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood butas a manifest form of the Divinity. While there are Hindus who, do notbelieve in worshiping God through icons, most notably those of ĀryaSamāj.

Practices

Main articles: Puja (Hinduism), Yajna, Murti, Mandir, Hindu iconography, Japa and MantraSee also: Initiation

The sacred Tulsi plant in front of the house.

Worship

Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God andsometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore,Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help onethink of divinity in the midst of everyday life.Mantras are invocations, praise and prayers that through theirmeaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus the mindon holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Manydevotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred riverwhile chanting the Gayatri Mantra or Mahamrityunjaya mantras.The epic Mahabharata extols Japa (ritualistic chanting) as thegreatest duty in the Kali Yuga (current age, 3102 BCE- present).Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice. Yoga is aHindu discipline which trains the consciousness for tranquility,health and spiritual insight. This is done through a system ofpostures and exercises to practise control of the body andmind.[314]

Hinduism 30

Hymns (Bhajans)

Main article: BhajanA Bhajan is any type of devotional song. It has no fixed form: it may be as simple as a mantra or kirtan or assophisticated as the dhrupad or kriti with music based on classical ragas and talas.[315] It is normally lyrical,expressing love for the Divine. The name, a cognate of bhakti, meaning religious devotion, suggests its importanceto the bhakti movement that spread from the south of India throughout the entire subcontinent in the Moghul era.Anecdotes and episodes from scriptures, the teachings of saints and descriptions of gods have all been the subject ofbhajans. The Dhrupad style, Sufi qawwali[316] and the kirtan or song in the Haridasi tradition are related to bhajan.Nanak, Kabir, Meera, Narottama Dasa, Surdas and Tulsidas are notable composers. Traditions of bhajan such asNirguni, Gorakhanathi, Vallabhapanthi, Ashtachhap, Madhura-bhakti and the traditional South Indian formSampradya Bhajan each have their own repertoire and methods of singing.According to Gaṅgā Rām Garg ;-

Hindu music is as old as the Sanskrit literature itself. And as a written science, the Hindu system ofmusic is the oldest in the world.[317]

Rituals

Offerings to Agni during Vivah-homa in a Hinduwedding

The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a dailybasis. Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home. but thisvaries greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. DevoutHindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn afterbathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lightinga lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities),recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns,meditation, chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc. A notablefeature in religious ritual is the division between purity andpollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity ordefilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome orneutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usuallywith water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action. Othercharacteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice andconcept of merit, gained through the performance of charity orgood works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferingsin the next world. Vedic rites of fire-oblation (yajna) are now onlyoccasional practices, although they are highly revered in theory. In Hindu wedding and burial ceremonies, however,the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras are still the norm. The rituals, upacharas, change with time. For instance, inthe past few hundred years some rituals, such as sacred dance and music offerings in the standard Sodasa Upacharasset prescribed by the Agama Shastra, were replaced by the offerings of rice and sweets.

Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism,life-cycle rituals include Annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food), Upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony"undergone by upper-caste children at their initiation into formal education) and Śrāddha (ritual of treating people toa meal in return for prayers to 'God' to give peace to the soul of the deceased). For most people in India, the betrothalof the young couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultationwith astrologers. On death, cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra, and children underfive.[318] Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a pyre.

Hinduism 31

PilgrimageSee also: Hindu Pilgrimage sites, Pilgrimage in Hinduism, Yatra and Tirtha and Kshetra

Pilgrimage to Kedarnath

Following pilgrimage sites are most famous amongst Hindudevotees:Old Holy cities as per Puranic Texts: Varanasi formerly knownas Kashi, Allahabad formerly known as Prayag,Haridwar-Rishikesh, Mathura-Vrindavan, and Ayodhya.

Char Dham (Famous Four Pilgrimage sites): The four holy sitesPuri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath (or alternatively theHimalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, andYamunotri) compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimagecircuit.

Kumbh Mela: The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every12 years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain.

Major Temple cities: Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Katra,home to the Vaishno Devi temple; Three comparatively recent temples of fame and huge pilgrimage are Shirdi,home to Sai Baba of Shirdi, Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Sabarimala,where Swami Ayyappan is worshipped.Shakti Peethas: Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, where the Mother Goddess isworshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya.While there are different yet similar pilgrimage routes in different parts of India, all are respected equally well,according to the universality of Hinduism.Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them.[319]

SymbolismHinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture,literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. Thesyllable om (which represents the Para Brahman) and the swastika sign (which symbolises auspiciousness) havegrown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Hinduismassociates many symbols, which include the lotus (padma), chakra and veena, with particular deities.

Hinduism 32

FestivalsMain article: Hindu festivals

The festival of lights- Diwali, is celebrated by Hindus all over the world.

Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava; literally:"to lift higher") are considered as symbolicrituals that beautifully weave individual andsocial life to dharma.[320] Hinduism hasmany festivals throughout the year. TheHindu calendar usually prescribe their dates.

The festivals typically celebrate events fromHindu mythology, often coinciding withseasonal changes. There are festivals whichare primarily celebrated by specific sects orin certain regions of the Indian subcontinent.

Some widely observed Hindu festivalsinclude:•• Makar Sankranti•• Maha Shivaratri•• Pongal•• Holi•• Navaratri•• Vasant Panchami•• Thaipusam•• Ram Navami•• Krishna Janmastami•• Ganesh Chaturthi•• Shigmo•• Dussera•• Durga Puja•• Diwali•• Gudi Padwa•• Ugadi•• Bihu•• Bonalu•• Rath Yatra•• Guru Purnima•• Raksha Bandhan•• Onam•• Gowri Habba•• Chhath•• Vishu

Hinduism 33

Some widely observed Hindu festivals

Holi in Utah, UnitedStates

Official Diwalicelebrations in Mysore

Devi Shakthi atParashakthi

Temple, Pontiac,USA adorned as

GoddessesLakshmi, Durgaand Saraswathi

during Navaratri

Ram (center), withconsort Sita, brother

Lakshmana anddevotee Hanumanworshipped during

Ram Navami

The Jagannath Puri withthe three chariots of the

deities with theJaggannath Temple in the

background.

GoddessSaraswati

duringVasant

Panchamiin the

streets ofKolkata.

A procession ofAkharas marching overa makeshift bridge over

the Ganges river,Kumbh Mela at

Prayag.

Ganesh Visarjan inMumbai.

Durga idol from a DurgaPuja pandal at West

Bengal

KrishnaJanmastami

youthbreaking

Dahi handiin Mumbai

Lord shiva atBanglore Maha

Shivaratri

Colourfulkitesbeing

sold in aShop in

LucknowduringMakar

Sankranti

An officein Tamil

Nadudecorated

for thefestival of

Pongal

Thiruvathira Kaliduring Onam in

Kerala

Devotees observingChhath in Janakpur,

Nepal

Hinduism 34

Beliefs

Temple carving at Hoysaleswara temple representingthe Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.

The identification of Hinduism as an independent religion separatefrom Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the affirmationof its adherents that it is such.[321]

Hinduism grants absolute and complete freedom of belief andworship. Hinduism conceives the whole world as a single familythat deifies the one truth, and therefore it accepts all forms ofbeliefs and dismisses labels of distinct religions which wouldimply a division of identity. Hence, Hinduism is devoid of theconcepts of apostasy, heresy and blasphemy.

Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restrictedto), Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra (the continuing cycle ofbirth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequentreaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).

Concept of God

Main article: God in Hinduism

Krishna displays his Vishvarupa (Universal Form) toArjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra.

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanningmonotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism,monism, and atheism among others; and its concept of God iscomplex and depends upon each individual and the tradition andphilosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic(i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting theexistence of others), but any such term is anovergeneralization.[322]

The Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda is one ofthe earliest texts[323] which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysicalspeculation".[323] It says:[324]

Who really knows?Who will here proclaim it?Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?The gods came afterwards, with the creation of thisuniverse.Who then knows whence it has arisen?

The same hymn also speaks of "The One":Then there was neither death nor immortalitynor was there then the torch of night and day.The One breathed windlessly and self-sustaining.There was that One then, and there was no other.[325] At first there was only darkness wrapped indarkness.All this was only unillumined water.That One which came to be, enclosed in nothing,arose at last, born of the power of heat.[326][327]

Hinduism 35

Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul – the true "self" of every person, called the ātman — is eternal. Accordingto the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is ultimatelyindistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are called non-dualist. The goal of life, accordingto the Advaita school, is to realise that one's ātman is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul. The Upanishads statethat whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self realises an identity withBrahman and thereby reaches moksha (liberation or freedom).The schools of Vedanta and Nyaya states that karma itself proves the existence of God.[328] Nyaya being the schoolof logic, makes the "logical" inference that the universe is an effect and it ought to have a creator.Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality, andthey worship him or her thus, as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. The ātman is dependenton God, while moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace. When God is viewed as the supremepersonal being (rather than as the infinite principle), God is called Ishvara ("The Lord"), Bhagavan ("TheAuspicious One") or Parameshwara ("The Supreme Lord"). However interpretations of Ishvara vary, ranging fromnon-belief in Ishvara by followers of Mimamsakas, to identifying Brahman and Ishvara as one, as in Advaita. In themajority of traditions of Vaishnavism he is Vishnu, God, and the text of Vaishnava scriptures identify this Being asKrishna, sometimes referred to as svayam bhagavan. However, under Shaktism, Devi or Adi parashakti is consideredas the Supreme Being and in Shaivism Shiva is considered Supreme.The multitude of devas are viewed as avatars of the Brahman.[329]</ref> In discussing the Trimurti, Sir WilliamJones states that Hindus "worship the Supreme Being under three forms — Vishnu, Siva, Brahma...The fundamentalidea of the Hindu religion, that of metamorphoses, or transformations, is exemplified in the Avatars.In Bhagavad Gita, for example, God is the sole repository of Gunas (attributes) also as:[330]

His hands and feet are everywhere, He looks everywhere and all around, His eyes, ears and face pointto all directions, and all the three worlds are surrounded by these.

Atheistic doctrines dominate Hindu schools like Samkhya and Mimamsa. The Samkhyapravachana Sutra ofSamkhya argues that the existence of God (Ishvara) cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist.[331]

Samkhya argue that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever changing world. It says God was a necessarymetaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances. Proponents of the school of Mimamsa, which is based onrituals and orthopraxy states that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They arguethat there is no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there is no need for an author to compose the Vedasor a God to validate the rituals. Mimamsa considers the Gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from themantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of Gods.

Hinduism 36

Devas and avatarsMain articles: Deva (Hinduism) and Avatar

Detail of the Phra Prang, the central tower of the WatArun ("Temple of Dawn") in Bangkok, Thailand -

showing Indra on his three-headed elephant Erawan(Airavata)

Krishna, the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu orSvayam bhagavan, worshiped across a number of

traditions

The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (ordevī in feminine form; devatā used synonymously for Deva inHindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as"gods" or "heavenly beings".[332] The devas are an integral part ofHindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and throughicons, and mythological stories about them are related in thescriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. Theyare, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a supremepersonal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in one of itsparticular manifestations (ostensibly separate deities) as their iṣṭadevatā, or chosen ideal. The choice is a matter of individualpreference, and of regional and family traditions.

Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descentof God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma to society andto guide humans to moksha. Such an incarnation is called anAvatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and includeRama (the protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figurein the epic Mahabharata).

Karma and samsara

Main article: Karma in HinduismKarma translates literally as action, work, or deed, and can bedescribed as the "moral law of cause and effect". According to theUpanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma, developssanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental.The linga sharira, a body more subtle than the physical one butless subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them overinto the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for theindividual. Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, andnever-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well asto one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma bindstogether the notions of free will and destiny.

This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is acontinuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karmais a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states:

As a person puts on new clothes and discards old andtorn clothes,similarly an embodied soul enters new materialbodies, leaving the old bodies. (B.G. 2:22)[333]

Hinduism 37

Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures of aperishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happinessand peace.[334][335] It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmicspirit (Brahman/Paramatman).The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different ways: as therealization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unityof all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and asdetachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth. Due tobelief in the indestructibility of the soul, death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self. Thence, aperson who has no desire or ambition left and no responsibilities remaining in life or one affected by a terminaldisease may embrace death by Prayopavesa.The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, AdvaitaVedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical withBrahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, andafter attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven),[336] in the company of their chosen form ofIshvara. Thus, it is said that the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish to"become sugar".

Objectives of human life

From the Ramayana

Main article: PurusharthasSee also: Initiation, Dharma, Artha, Kāma and MokṣaClassical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of humanlife, that which is sought as human purpose, aim, or end, is knownas the purusarthas:[337]

Dharma (righteousness, ethics)

Main article: Ethics of HinduismThe Brihadaranyaka Upanishad views dharma as the universalprinciple of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang firstfrom Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of theUniverse. It is sat (truth), a major tenet of Hinduism. Thishearkens back to the conception of the Rigveda that "Ekam Sat,"(Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "Sacchidananda"(Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Dharma is not just law, or harmony,it is pure Reality. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad's own words:

Verily, that which is Dharma is truth, Therefore they say ofa man who speaks truth, "He speaks the Dharma,"or of a man who speaks the Dharma, "He speaks the Truth.", Verily, both these things are the same.

—(Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14) (2)In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh12.110.11). The word Sanātana means 'eternal', 'perennial', or 'forever'; thus, 'Sanātana Dharma' signifies that it is thedharma that has neither beginning nor end.

Hinduism 38

Artha (livelihood, wealth)

Artha is objective & virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. It is inclusive ofpolitical life, diplomacy and material well-being. The doctrine of Artha is called Arthashastra, amongst the mostfamous of which is Kautilya Arthashastra.

Kāma (sensual pleasure)

Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aestheticenjoyment of life, affection, or love. However, this is only acceptable within marriage.

Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from samsara)

Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति), literally "release" (both from a root muc "to let loose, letgo"), is the last goal of life. It is liberation from samsara and the concomitant suffering involved in being subject tothe cycle of repeated death and reincarnation.

YogaMain article: Yoga

A statue of Shiva in yogic meditation.

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are severalmethods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal.Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the YogaSutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, and, as their philosophical andhistorical basis, the Upanishads. Paths that one can follow toachieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi or nirvana)include:

• Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion)• Karma Yoga (the path of right action)• Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation)• Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom)An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others,according to his or her inclination and understanding. Somedevotional schools teach that bhakti is the only practical path toachieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the Kali Yuga (one offour epochs which are part of the Yuga cycle).[338] Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schoolsbelieve that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of jnana yoga, isthought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and vice versa.[339] Someone practicing deepmeditation (such as in raja yoga) must embody the core principles of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga,whether directly or indirectly.

ScripturesMain articles: Śruti, Smriti and List of Hindu scripturesHinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in differenttimes".[340][341] The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorisation, for many centuries beforethey were written down. Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedicand current Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached tothe ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them. Most sacred texts are in Sanskrit. The texts are classifiedinto two classes: Shruti and Smriti.

Hinduism 39

Shruti

The Rigveda is one of the oldest religious texts. This Rigveda manuscript is in DevanagariShruti (lit: that which is heard)[342] primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the Hinduscriptures. While many Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to and heard by the ancient sages(Ṛṣis),[343] some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a god or person. They are thought of as thelaws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.[344] Hindus believethat because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways.[345]

There are four Vedas (called Ṛg-, Sāma-, Yajus- and Atharva-). The Rigveda is the first and most importantVeda.[346] Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the Veda proper, being the Saṃhitā, which containssacred mantras. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believedto be slightly later in age than the Saṃhitā. These are: the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and the Upanishads. The first twoparts were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa(knowledge portion). While the Vedas focus on rituals, the Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophicalteachings, and discuss Brahman and reincarnation.A well known shloka from Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is:

Lead Us From the Unreal To the RealLead Us From Darkness To LightLead Us From Death To ImmortalityOm Let There Be Peace Peace Peace.[347][348]

Hinduism 40

Smritis

Bhagavad Gita, a 19th-century manuscript

Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called theSmritis (memory). The most notable of the smritis are the epics,which consist of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. TheBhagavad Gītā is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one ofthe most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It containsphilosophical teachings from Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu,told to the prince Arjuna on the eve of a great war. The BhagavadGītā, spoken by Krishna, is described as the essence of theVedas.[349] However Gita, sometimes called Gitopanishad, ismore often placed in the Shruti, category, being Upanishadic incontent.[350] Purāṇas, which illustrate Hindu ideas through vividnarratives come under smritis. Other texts include DevīMahātmya, the Tantras, the Yoga Sutras, Tirumantiram, ShivaSutras and the Hindu Āgamas. The Manusmriti, is a prescriptivelawbook which lays the societal codes of social stratificationwhich would later help the society to create Indian caste system.

A well known verse from Bhagavad Gita describing a concept inKarma Yoga is explained as follows[351][352]

To action alone hast thou a right and never at all toits fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive;neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction.(2.47)

Institutions

Denominations

The Mother Temple of Besakih in Bali, Indonesia.

Main article: Hindu denominationsHinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practisingHindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination.However four major denominations are recognised: Vaishnavism,Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.[353] The denominations differprimarily in the god worshipped as the Supreme One and in thetraditions that accompany worship of that god.

Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supreme God; Shaivitesworship Shiva as the supreme; Shaktas worship Shakti (power)personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, Devi;while Smartas believe in the essential oneness of five (panchadeva) or six (Shanmata[354]</ref> deities aspersonifications of the Supreme.

Vaishnavism is the sect within Hinduism that worships Vishnu, the preserver god of the Hindu Trimurti ('threeimages', the

Hinduism 41

Padmanabhaswamy Temple, the richest temple in theworld

Trinity), and his ten incarnations. It is a devotional sect, andfollowers worship many deities, including Ram and Krishna, boththought to be incarnations of Vishnu. The adherents of this sect aregenerally non-ascetic, monastic and devoted to meditative practiceand ecstatic chanting. Vaishnavites are mainly dualistic. They aredeeply devotional. Their religion is rich in saints, temples andscriptures.

Saivism is the Hindu sect that worships the god Shiva. Shiva issometimes depicted as the fierce god Bhairava. Saivists are moreattracted to asceticism than adherents of other Hindu sects, andmay be found wandering India with ashen faces performingself-purification rituals. They worship in the temple and practice yoga, striving to be one with Siva within.

Cults of goddess worship are ancient in India. The branch of Hinduism that worships the goddess, known as Devi, iscalled Shaktism. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle, and Devi isoften depicted as Parvati the consort of Shiva or as Lakshmi the consort of Vishnu. She is also depicted in otherguises, such as the fierce Kali or Durga. Shaktism is closely related with Tantric Hinduism, which teaches rituals andpractices for purification of the mind and body. The Mother Goddess has many forms. Some are gentle, some arefierce. Shaktas use chants, real magic, holy diagrams, yoga and rituals to call forth cosmic forces.Smartism, a relatively modern Hindu tradition (compared to the three older traditions ), invites the worship of morethan one god including Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha (the elephant god) and Surya (the sun god) among other godsand goddesses. It is not as overtly sectarian as either Vashnavism or Saivism and is based on the recognition thatBrahman (God) is the highest principle in the universe and pervades all of existence. Generally Smartas worship theSupreme in one of six forms: Ganesha, Siva, Sakti, Vishnu, Surya and Skanda. Because they accept all the majorHindu Gods, they are known as liberal or nonsectarian. They follow a philosophical, meditative path, emphasizingman's oneness with God through understanding.The Western conception of what Hinduism is has been defined by the Smarta view;Wikipedia:Citation needed manyHindus, who may not understand or follow Advaita philosophy, in contemporary Hinduism, invariably follow theShanmata belief worshiping many forms of God.Wikipedia:Citation needed One commentator, noting the influenceof the Smarta tradition, remarked that although many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, byadhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.[355]

Other denominations like Ganapatya (the cult of Ganesha) and Saura (Sun worship) are not as widespread.There are movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati'sArya Samaj, which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the Vedas and the Vedicfire sacrifices (yajña).The Tantric traditions have various sects, as Banerji observes:

Tantras are ... also divided as āstika or Vedic and nāstika or non-Vedic. In accordance with thepredominance of the deity the āstika works are again divided as Śākta (Shakta), Śaiva (Shaiva), Saura,Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava (Vaishnava).

Hinduism 42

VarnasMain article: Varna (Hinduism)See also: List of Shudra Hindu saints and Dalit saints of HinduismHindu society has been categorised into four classes, called varnas.They are,• the Brahmins: Vedic teachers and priests;• the Kshatriyas: warriors, nobles, and kings;• the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and• the Shudras: servants and labourers.

Goddess Adi Shakthi at the Parashakthi Temple inPontiac, US

The Bhagavad Gītā links the varna to an individual's duty(svadharma), inborn nature (svabhāva), and natural tendencies(guṇa). Gita's conception of varna allowed Aurobindo to derivehis doctrine that "functions of a man ought to be determined by hisnatural turn, gift and capacities." The Manusmṛiti categorises thedifferent castes.[356]

Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challengeallegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has beenpointed out by several sociologists, although some other scholarsdisagree. Scholars debate whether the so-called caste system ispart of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or socialcustom.[357]</ref> And various contemporary scholars haveargued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime. The religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna(1836–1886) explained that

Lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. Anda pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchablebecomes pure and elevated.

A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called Varnatita or "beyond all varnas" in Vedantic works. The bhiksu isadvised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirmthat not only is Brahman beyond all varnas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions andlimitations of caste.[358]

Hinduism 43

AshramasMain article: Ashrama

A Balmiki Ashram

Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āshramas(phases or stages; unrelated meanings include monastery). Thefirst part of one's life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, isspent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation underthe guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for spiritualknowledge. Grihastha is the householder's stage, in which onemarries and satisfies kāma and artha in one's married andprofessional life respectively (see the goals of life). The moralobligations of a Hindu householder include supporting one'sparents, children, guests and holy figures. Vānaprastha, theretirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world.This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spendingmore time in religious practices and embarking on holypilgrimages. Finally, in Sannyāsa, the stage of asceticism, onerenounces all worldly attachments to secludedly find the Divinethrough detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed thebody for Moksha.[359]

Monasticism

Main article: Sannyasa

A sadhu in Madurai, India.

Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuitof liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. Monasticscommit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachmentfrom worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God. A Hindumonk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi. A female renunciate iscalled a sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindusociety because their outward renunciation of selfishness andworldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive formental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, whileothers wander from place to place, trusting in God alone toprovide for their needs. It is considered a highly meritorious actfor a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect andcompassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure,and pain.

Ahimsa, vegetarianism and other food customsMain articles: Ahimsa, Vegetarianism and religion and Cattle in ReligionThere are a number of animal sacrifices mentioned in the Vedas such as mantras for the sacrifice of a Goat in theRig,[360] the Horse sacrifice (Ashwamedha) and the Human sacrifice (Purushamedha) in the Yajur,[361] whilst in theJyotistoma sacrifice three animal-sacrifices are performed, namely, Agnisomiya, Savaniya and Anubandhya.[362][363]

The Yajurveda is considered the Veda of sacrifices and rituals,[364][365] and consists of a number of animalsacrifices, such as mantras and procedures for the sacrifices of a white goat to Vayu,[366] a calf to Sarasvati, aspeckled Ox to Savitr, a Bull to Indra, a castrated Ox to Varuna and so on.[367][368]

Hinduism 44

A reaction against these sacrifices came from the Charvakas, who documented their criticism in the Barhaspatyasutras in the 3rd century BCE as follows:

If a beast slain in Jyotistoma rite will itself go to heaven, why then does not the sacrificer forthwith offerhis own father?[369]

The Buddha forbade drinking and Buddhist kings such as Ashoka influenced society by banning animal sacrifices.During the rule of the Buddhist king, Ashoka Maurya, an edict was passed and inscribed in a rock proclaiming:

This is the edict of the beloved of the Gods, Raja Piyadasi. The putting to death of animals is to beentirely discontinued.

From here on, social reaction with regard to the sacrificial (brahmanas) texts can be traced. Panini says there are twokinds of brahmanas, the old brahmanas and the new brahmanas. In the old brahmanas, such as the AitareyaBrahmana of the Rig, sacrifices were really offered, but in later brahmanas such as the Shatapatha Brahmana animalswere let loose after being tied to sacrificial posts. This was a reaction to the rise of the Shramanic religion, such asBuddhism and Jainism; which resulted in Ahimsa put into practice amongst practitioners of the Brahmanas.Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed topermeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.[370] The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads, theepic Mahabharata[371] and Ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's YogaSutras.[372] and the first principle for all member of Varnashrama Dharma (brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra)in Law of Manu (book 10, sutra 63 : Ahimsa, satya, asteya, shaucam and indrayanigraha, almost similar to mainprinciples of jainism).[373][374]

A goshala or cow shelter at Guntur

In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianismto respect higher forms of life. Estimates of the number of lactovegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) varybetween 20% and 42%.[375] The food habits vary with thecommunity and region: for example, some castes having fewervegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood. Someavoid meat only on specific holy days. Observant Hindus who doeat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindusociety is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternalfigure,[376] and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol ofunselfish giving.[377] Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost allstates of India.

There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. One exampleis the movement known as ISKCON (International Society for Krishna Consciousness), whose followers "not onlyabstain from meat, fish, and fowl, but also avoid certain vegetables that are thought to have negative properties, suchas onion, garlic and mushroom."[378][379] A second example is the Swaminarayan Movement. The followers of thisHindu group also staunchly adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood.[380]

Hinduism 45

Rajasthani thali.

Thus, another reason that dietary purity is so eminent withinHinduism is because of "the idea that food reflects the generalqualities of nature: purity, energy, [and] inertia." It follows that ahealthy diet should be one that promotes purity within anindividual.Based on this reasoning, Hindus should avoid or minimise theintake of foods that do not promote purity. These foods includeonion and garlic, which are regarded as rajasic (a state which ischaracterised by "tension and overbearing demeanor") foods, andmeat, which is regarded as tamasic (a state which is characterisedby "anger, greed, and jealousy").[381]

Some Hindus from certain sects - generally Shakta, certain Shudra and Kshatriya castes and certain Eastern Indianand East Asian regions; practise animal sacrifice (bali), although most Hindus, including the majority of Vaishnavaand Shaivite Hindus abhor it.

ConversionSee also: List of converts to Hinduism and Conversion to Hinduism

Spread of Hindu practicesHindu practices such as yoga, ayurvedic health, divination (astrology, palmistry, numerology), tantric sexualitythrough Neotantra and kama sutra have reached beyond Hindu communities and have been accepted by severalnon-Hindus:

"Hinduism is attracting Western adherents through the affiliated practice of yoga. Yoga centers in theWest—which generally advocate vegetarianism—attract young, well-educated Westerners who aredrawn by yoga's benefits for the physical and emotional health; there they are introduced to the Hinduphilosophical system taught by most yoga teachers, known as Vedanta."[382]

It is estimated that around 30 million Americans and 5 million Europeans regularly practice some form of HathaYoga.[383] In Australia, the number of practitioners is about 300,000.[384] In New Zealand the number is also around300,000.[385]

Demographics

Hinduism - Percentage by country

Hinduism 46

Part of a series on Hinduism by country

This box:•• view•• talk• edit [386]

Hinduism is a major religion in India. Hinduism was followed by around 80.5% of the country's population of 1.21billion (2012 estimate) (960 million adherents).[387] Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million),Bangladesh (15 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.3 million). The majority of the Vietnamese Champeople also follow Hinduism.Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus from Hinduism by country (as of 2008[388]):

1.    Nepal 81.3%[389]

2.  India 80.5%3.  Mauritius 48.5%4.  Guyana 28%[390]

5.  Fiji 27.9%[391]

6.  Bhutan 25%[392]

7.  Trinidad and Tobago 22.5%8.  Suriname 20%[393]

9.  Sri Lanka 12.6%[394]

10.  Bangladesh 9.6%11.  Qatar 7.2%12.  Réunion 6.7%13.  Malaysia 6.3%[395]

14.  Bahrain 6.25%15.  Kuwait 6%16.  Singapore 5.1%17.  United Arab Emirates 5%18.  Oman 3%19.  Belize 2.3%20.  Seychelles 2.1%[396]

Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.

Hinduism 47

Notes[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Hinduism& action=edit[2] Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic,

see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Gavin Flood 2008 (2003), pp. 1-17.<ref name="FOOTNOTEFlood20081-17">Flood 2008, p. 1-17.[3][3] Nath 2001, p. 31.[4][4] See:

•• "Oldest religion":

• Fowler: "probably the oldest religion in the world"<ref name="FOOTNOTEFowler19971">Fowler 1997, p. 1.[5][5] Gellman 2011.[6][6] Stevens 2001, p. 191.[7][7] Sarma 1953.[8][8] Merriam-Webster 2000, p. 751.[9][9] Klostermaier 2007, p. 1.[10][10] Laderman 2003, p. 119.[11][11] Turner 1996-B, p. 359.[12][12] Smart 1993, p. 1.[13][13] Knott 1998, p. 5.[14][14] Lockard 2007, p. 50.[15][15] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12.[16][16] Samuel 2010, p. 193.[17][17] Flood 1996, p. 16.[18][18] Narayanan 2009, p. 11.[19][19] Osborne 2005, p. 9.[20] Among its roots are the Vedic religion<ref name="FOOTNOTEFlood199616">Flood 1996, p. 16.[21][21] Samuel 2010, p. 48-53.[22][22] Lockard 2007, p. 52.[23][23] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 3.[24][24] Jones 2006, p. xviii.[25][25] Gomez 2013, p. 42.[26][26] Larson 2009.[27] After the Vedic period, around the beginning of the Common Era,<ref group="note">Between 500<ref

name="FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712">Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12.[28][28] Fuller 2004, p. 88.[29][29] Cousins 2010.[30][30] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 13.[31][31] Nath 2001, p. 19.[32] The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas;<ref

name="FOOTNOTEJohnson2009247">Johnson 2009, p. 247.[33][33] Johnson 2009, p. 247.[34][34] Samuel 2010, p. 193-228.[35][35] Raju 1992, p. 31.[36] University of Oslo, The Mauryan Empire, study course (http:/ / www. uio. no/ studier/ emner/ hf/ iakh/ HIS2172/ v09/

undervisningsmateriale/ HIS2172-Mauryan_Empire. pdf)[37][37] Samuel 2010, p. 193-228, 339-353, specifically p.76-79 and p.199.[38][38] Larson 1995, p. 81.[39][39] Flood 1996, p. 129.[40] It was aided by the settlement of Brahmins on land granted by local rulers,<ref name="FOOTNOTESamuel201077">Samuel 2010, p. 77.[41][41] Nath 2001.[42][42] Nath 2001, p. 31-34.[43][43] Flood 1996, p. 128, 129, 148.[44][44] King 2002.[45][45] Flood 1996.[46][46] Flood 1996, p. 258.[47][47] King 1999.[48] Also called "Hindu modernism"<ref name="FOOTNOTEFlood1996258">Flood 1996, p. 258.[49][49] Halbfass 2007, p. 307.[50][50] Halbfass 1995, p. 9,21(n33).

Hinduism 48

[51] As reflected in the emphasis on personal "religious experience" as the validation of religious truths.<refname="FOOTNOTERambachan1944">Rambachan 1944.

[52][52] King 1999, p. 171.[53][53] Muesse 2011, p. 3-4.[54][54] Doniger 2010, p. 18.[55][55] Jouhki 2006, p. 10-11.[56][56] Michaels 2004.[57][57] Flood 1996, p. 6.[58] The word Sindhu is first mentioned in the Rigveda.<ref>"India", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University

Press.[59] Rig Veda (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ hin/ rigveda/ rv10075. htm)[60] Gavin Flood adds: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards

the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' becamevirtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs andpractices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to otherreligions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism,though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenthcentury".<ref name="FOOTNOTEFlood19966">Flood 1996, p. 6.

[61] Thapar, R. 1993. Interpreting Early India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 77[62] In ancient lietrature the name Bharata or Bharata VRasa was being used.<ref name="FOOTNOTEGarg19923">Garg 1992, p. 3.[63][63] Sweetman 2004.[64][64] Sweetman mentions:

• Wilhelm Halbfass (1988), India and Europe• IXth European Conference on Modern Asian Studies in Heidelberg (1989), Hinduism Reconsidered• Ronald Inden, Imagining India• Carol Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer, Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament• Vasudha Dalmia and Heinrich von Stietencron, Representing Hinduism• S.N. Balagangadhara, The Heathen in his Blindness...• Thomas Trautmann, Aryans and British India• Richard King (1989), Orientalism and religion

[65][65] Nussbaum 2009.[66] See Rajiv Malhotra and Being Different for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia, Invading the Sacred, and Hindu

studies.[67][67] Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic,

see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Gavin Flood (2003), pp. 1-17.[68][68] Nicholson 2010, p. 2.[69][69] Lorenzen 2006, p. 1-36.[70][70] King 1999, p. 169.[71] Sweetman identifies several areas in which "there is substantial, if not universal, agreement that colonialism influenced the study of

Hinduism":<ref name="FOOTNOTESweetman200413">Sweetman 2004, p. 13.[72][72] Sweetman 2004, p. 13.[73][73] Sweetamn 2004, p. 13.[74] Sweetman cites Richard King (1999) p.128.<ref name="FOOTNOTEKing1999">King 1999.[75][75] Sweetman 2013, p. 13-14.[76][76] Sweetman 2004, p. 13-14.[77][77] Sweetman 2004, p. 14.[78][78] Sweetman 2004, p. 14-15.[79][79] Sweetman 2004, p. 15.[80][80] Sweetamn 2004, p. 15, 16.[81] Sweetman cites Viswanathan (2003), Colonialism and the Construction of Hinduism, p.26[82][82] Feuerstein 200, p. 600.[83][83] Clarke 2006, p. 209.[84][84] Flood 1996, p. 256-261.[85][85] Flood 1996, p. 257.[86][86] Flood 1996, p. 259.[87][87] Flood 1996, p. 248.[88][88] Flood 1996, p. 249.[89] Bhagavad Gita, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan[90][90] King 2001.

Hinduism 49

[91] It can be traced back to William James, who used a term called "religious experience" in his book, The Varieties of ReligiousExperience.<ref name="FOOTNOTEHori199947">Hori 1999, p. 47.

[92][92] Sharf 2000.[93][93] Flood 1996, p. 265.[94][94] Flood 1996, p. 267.[95][95] Flood 1996, p. 267-268.[96][96] Turner 1996-A, p. 275.[97] Ferro-Luzzi, (1991)The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism in G.D. Sontheimer and H. Kulke (ed.) Hinduism Reconsidered. Delhi:

Manohar. pp. 187-95[98][98] Doniger 1999, p. 434.[99][99] Smith 1962, p. 65.[100][100] Halbfass 1991, p. 1-22.[101][101] Klostermaier 1994, p. 1.[102][102] Koller 1984.[103][103] Michaels 2004, p. 21.[104] Other religions of the region, such as Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, also believe in karma, outside the scope of Hinduism.<ref

name="FOOTNOTEFlood19966">Flood 1996, p. 6.[105][105] Beversluis 2000, p. 50.[106] Ghurye: He [Hutton] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of mediterranean

inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. "The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet buit into the temple ofHinduism".<ref name="FOOTNOTEGhurye19804">Ghurye 1980, p. 4.

[107][107] Zimmer 1951, p. 218-219.[108][108] Sjoberg 1990, p. 43.[109] Tyler, in India: An Anthropological Perspective(1973), page 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian

elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient,aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with theautochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body oftheir culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contributionto Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the formof Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself.<ref name="FOOTNOTESjoberg199043">Sjoberg 1990, p. 43.

[110] https:/ / ojs. lib. byu. edu/ spc/ index. php/ CCR/ article/ download/ 13469/ 13403[111][111] Sjoberg 1990.[112] http:/ / books. google. nl/ books?id=HvuQAgAAQBAJ& dq=hinduism+ synthesis& hl=nl& source=gbs_navlinks_s[113][113] Werner 2005, p. 8-9.[114] http:/ / books. google. nl/ books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC& pg=PA50[115] http:/ / books. google. nl/ books?id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ& printsec=frontcover[116][116] Hiltebeitel 2007.[117] http:/ / books. google. nl/ books?id=BVbiMBDVrdEC& pg=PA79[118][118] Hopfe 2008, p. 79.[119] Hopfe & Woodward: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that

developed between them became classical Hinduism."<ref name="FOOTNOTEHopfe200879">Hopfe 2008, p. 79.[120][120] Samuel 2010.[121][121] Samuel 2010, p. 41-42.[122][122] White 2006, p. 28.[123][123] See:

• David Gordo White: "[T]he religion of the Vedas was already a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations."<refname="FOOTNOTEWhite200628">White 2006, p. 28.

[124][124] Gombrich 1996, p. 35-36.[125][125] Gomez 2002, p. 42.[126][126] Doniger 2010, p. 66.[127][127] Jones 2006, p. xvii.[128][128] Tiwari 2002, p. v.[129] Tiwari mentions the Austric and and Mongoloid people.<ref name="FOOTNOTETiwari2002v">Tiwari 2002, p. v.[130][130] Nath 2001, p. 21.[131][131] nath 2001, p. 19.[132][132] Halbfass 1991, p. 1-2.[133][133] Samuel 2010, p. 77.[134][134] Samuel 2010, p. 199.[135][135] Gombrich 2006, p. 36.

Hinduism 50

[136][136] Halbfass 1991, p. 15.[137][137] Nicholson 2010.[138][138] Flood 1996, p. 35.[139][139] Halbfass 1991, p. 1.[140][140] Burley 2007, p. 34.[141][141] Lorenzen 2006, p. 24-33.[142][142] Lorenzen 2006, p. 27.[143][143] Lorenzen 2006, p. 26-27.[144][144] Micaels 2004, p. 44.[145] Hackel, in Nicholson 2010<ref name="FOOTNOTENicholson2010">Nicholson 2010.[146] Adherents.com (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ Na/ Na_659. html), which itself references many sources; The World Almanac & Book of

Facts 1998 being especially relevant.[147][147] Flood, Gavin. D. 1996. An introduction to Hinduism. 1996. P.14[148] J. McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp.

52-53 ISBN 0-19-517021-0[149][149] Michaels 2004, p. 23.[150] See also Sanskritization, Indo-Aryanization and Vedantification.[151][151] Michaels 2004, p. 22.[152][152] Michaels 2004, p. 24.[153] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Indian_History& action=edit[154][154] Samuel (2010) p.49[155][155] Samuel[156][156] Samuel[157][157] Samuel[158][158] Samuel[159][159] Michaels (2004) p.39[160][160] Hiltebeitel (2002)[161][161] Michaels (2004) p.39[162][162] Hiltebeitel (2002)[163][163] Micheals (2004) p.40[164][164] Michaels (2004) p.41[165][165] Michaels (2004) p.43[166][166] Flood (1996) p.21-22[167][167] Khanna 2007, p. xvii.[168][168] Misra 2004, p. 194.[169][169] Kulke 2004, p. 7.[170][170] Flood 1996, p. 21.[171][171] Smart 2003, p. 52-53.[172][172] Michaels 2004, p. 32.[173] Michaels mentions Flood 1996<ref name="FOOTNOTEFlood1996">Flood 1996.[174][174] Michaels 2004, p. 31, 348.[175][175] Muesse 2003.[176][176] Muesse 2011.[177][177] Muesse 2011, p. 16.[178] Smart distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads.<ref

name="FOOTNOTESmart200352, 83-86">Smart 2003, p. 52, 83-86.[179][179] Smart 2003, p. 52.[180][180] Michaels 2004, p. 36.[181][181] Michaels 2004, p. 38.[182][182] Muesse 2003, p. 14.[183] Flood & 1996 21-22.[184][184] Michaels 2004, p. 39.[185][185] Michaels 2004, p. 40.[186][186] Michaels 2004, p. 41.[187][187] Michaels 2004, p. 43.[188][188] Michaels 2004, p. 45.[189] Nicky Phillips (2009), DNA confirms coastal trek to Australia, ABC Science (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ articles/ 2009/ 07/ 24/

2635149. htm)[190][190] Cavalli-Sforza 1994, p. 241.

Hinduism 51

[191][191] Thani Nayagam 1963.[192][192] Kumar 2004.[193][193] Flood 1996, p. 34.[194][194] Flood 1996, p. 30.[195] Called such, so as to distinguish them from the modern Dravidian populations of India, which are of predominantly Australoid racial stock[196][196] Mukherjee 2001.

• Thani Nayagam: "... together with the evidence of archaeology would seem to suggest that the original Dravidian-speakers entered Indiafrom Iran in the fourth millennium BC ...".<ref name="FOOTNOTEThani Nayagam1963">Thani Nayagam 1963.

[198][198] Cordaux 2004.[199] Cordaux et al: "Our coalescence analysis suggests that the expansion of Tibeto-Burman speakers to northeast India most likely took place

within the past 4,200 years."<ref name="FOOTNOTECordaux2004">Cordaux 2004.[200] Doniger: "Much of what we now call Hinduism may have had roots in cultures that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual

evidence that we can decipher with any confidence. Remarkable cave paintings have been preserved from Mesolithic sites dating from c.30,000 BCE in Bhimbetka, near present-day Bhopal, in the Vindhya Mountains in the province of Madhya Pradesh."<refname="FOOTNOTEDoniger201066">Doniger 2010, p. 66.

[201] Jones & Ryan: "Some practices of Hinduism must have originated in Neolithic times (c. 4,000 BCE). The worship of certain plants andanimals as sacred, for instance, could very likely have very great antiquity. The worship of goddesses, too, a part of Hinduism today, may be afeature that originated in the Neolithic."<ref name="FOOTNOTEJones2006xvii">Jones 2006, p. xvii.

[202] PHILTAR, Division of Religion and Philosophy, University of Cumbria, Tribal Religions of India (http:/ / www. philtar. ac. uk/encyclopedia/ india/ tribal. html)

[203][203] Possehl 2002, p. 154.[204] Possehl 2002, p. 141–156.[205] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Indo-Aryan_migration& action=edit[206] Christopher I. Beckwith (2009), Empires of the Silk Road, Oxford University Press, p.30[207] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Spread_of_IE-languages& action=edit[208][208] Singh 2008, p. 185.[209] Michaels: "They called themselves arya ("Aryans," literally "the hospitable," from the Vedic arya, "homey, the hospitable") but even in the

Rgveda, arya denotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one."<ref name="FOOTNOTEMichaels200433">Michaels2004, p. 33.

[210] There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.<refname="FOOTNOTEWitzel19953-4">Witzel 1995, p. 3-4.

[211][211] Anthony 2007.[212][212] Allchin 1995.[213] Allchin: "There has also been a fairly general agreement that the Proto-Indoaryan speakers at one time lived on the steppes of Central Asia

and that at a certain time they moved southwards through Bactria and Afghanistan, and perhaps the Caucasus, into Iran and India-Pakistan(Burrow 1973; Harmatta 1992)."<ref name="FOOTNOTEAllchin1995">Allchin 1995.

[214][214] Kulke 1998.[215] Kulke: "During the last decades intensive archaeological research in Russia and the Central Asian Republics of the former Soviet Union as

well as in Pakistan and northern India has considerably enlarged our knowledge about the potential ancestors of the Indo-Aryans and theirrelationship with cultures in west, central and south Asia. Previous excavations in southern Russia and Central Asia could not confirm that theEurasian steppes had once been the original home of the speakers of Indo-European language."<ref name="FOOTNOTEKulke1998">Kulke1998.

[216][216] Witzel 1995.[217][217] Michaels 2004, p. 33.[218][218] Flood 1996, p. 30-35.[219][219] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 5.[220] The Aryan migration theory has been challenged by some researchers,<ref name="FOOTNOTEMichaels200433">Michaels 2004, p. 33.[221][221] Singh 2008, p. 186.[222][222] Flood 1996, p. 33.[223][223] Anthony 2007, p. 410-411.[224][224] Anthony 2007, p. 454.[225][225] Anthony 2007, p. 375, 408-411.[226][226] Anthony 2007, p. 408.[227] Beckwith & 2009 33, 35.[228] Beckwith & 2009 33.[229] Beckwith & 2009 34.[230][230] Samuel 2010, p. 41-48.[231][231] Samuel 2010, p. 41-93.[232][232] Stein 2010, p. 48-49.

Hinduism 52

[233][233] Samuel 2010, p. 61-93.[234][234] Samuel 2010, p. 53-56.[235][235] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 5-7.[236] Beckwith & 2009 32.[237][237] Anthony 2007, p. 462.[238][238] Anthony 2007, p. 454-455.[239][239] Basham 1989, p. 74-75.[240] Encyclopedia Britannica, yaksha (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 651312/ yaksha)[241][241] Samuel 2010, p. 48-51, 61-93.[242][242] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 8-10.[243][243] Singh 2008, p. 184.[244][244] Flood 1996, p. 37.[245][245] Witzel 1995, p. 4.[246][246] Oberlies 1998 p.158[247] It is certain that the hymns post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BCE and probably that of the Indo-Aryan Mitanni documents of c.

1400 BC. The oldest mention of Rigveda in other sources dates from 600 BCE, and the oldest available text from 1,200 CE. Philologicalestimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium:

• Max Müller: "the hymns men of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."<ref>('Veda and Vedanta'), 7th lecture in India: What CanIt Teach Us: A Course of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge, World Treasures of the Library of Congress Beginningsby Irene U. Chambers, Michael S. Roth.

[248][248] Oberlies 1998 p.155[249] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110815231734/ http:/ / content. iskcon. org/ icj/ 6_1/ 6_1klostermaier. html[250][250] Singh 2008, p. 195.[251][251] Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 21[252][252] Holdrege (2004:215)[253][253] Panikkar (2001) 350-351[254] Day, Terence P. (1982). The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. P. 42-45.

ISBN 0-919812-15-5.[255][255] Duchesne-Guillemin 1963, p. 46.[256][256] Zimmer 1989, p. 217.[257] Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart, in Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy, 1964,

p.27-32 & p.76,<ref name="FOOTNOTECrangle19947">Crangle 1994, p. 7.[258][258] Crangle 1994, p. 7.[259] Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden: Blackwell. pg. 273-4[260][260] Flood: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that

characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history [...]Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were inpart the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara - the belief that life in this world is oneof suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana - the goal of human existence."Nath 2001, p. 31.

[261] Richard King notes that Radhakrishnan was a representative of Neo-Vedanta,<ref name="FOOTNOTEKing1999">King 1999.[262][262] Embree 1988, p. 277.[263] Michaels: "At the time of upheaval [500-200 BCE], many elements of the Vedic religion were lost".<ref

name="FOOTNOTEMichaels200438">Michaels 2004, p. 38.[264] Hiltebeitel: "The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions

(Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period, and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks; Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, orParthians; and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas].<refname="FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200713">Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 13.

[265][265] Larson 2009, p. 185.[266][266] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 14.[267] Larson: "[I]n contrast to the sruti, which "Hindus for the most part pay little more than lip service to."<ref

name="FOOTNOTELarson2009185">Larson 2009, p. 185.[268][268] Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 20.[269][269] Scheepers 2000.[270][270] Raju 1992, p. 211.[271] Arthur Llewellyn Basham, Hinduism - The Bhagavad Gita, Encyclopædia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/

266312/ Hinduism/ 59830/ The-Bhagavadgita)[272][272] Nakamura 2004, p. 687.[273][273] Thapar 2003, p. 325.

Hinduism 53

[274] Axel Michaels mentions the Durga temple in Aihole and the Visnu Temple in Deogarh.<refname="FOOTNOTEMichaels200440">Michaels 2004, p. 40.

[275][275] Michell 1977, p. 18.[276][276] Flood 1996, p. 131.[277] *In the east the Pala Empire<ref name="FOOTNOTEMichaels200441">Michaels 2004, p. 41.[278][278] michaels 2004, p. 41.[279][279] White 2000, p. 25-28.[280][280] Michaels 2004, p. 42.[281] This resembles the development of Chinese Chán during the An Lu-shan rebellion and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period

(907–960/979), during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMcRae2003">McRae2003.

[282][282] Inden 1998, p. 67.[283] "Before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies by which a king attained to imperial

status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa [...] Thispattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under thePalas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland) [...] Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of theHindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu godcomes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship."<refname="FOOTNOTEInden199867">Inden 1998, p. 67.

[284][284] Thapar 2003, p. 325, 487.[285][285] Flood 1996, p. 113.[286][286] Thapar 2003, p. 487.[287] The king who ruled not by conquest but by setting in motion the wheel of law.<ref name="FOOTNOTEThapar2003325">Thapar 2003,

p. 325.[288][288] Nath 2001, p. 20.[289][289] Nath 2001, p. 31-32.[290][290] Nath 2001, p. 32.[291] Holt, John. The Buddhist Visnu. Columbia University Press, 2004, p.12,15 "The replacement of the Buddha as the "cosmic person" within

the mythic ideology of Indian kingship, as we shall see shortly, occurred at about the same time the Buddha was incorporated andsubordinated within the Brahmanical cult of Visnu."

[292][292] Raju 1992, p. 177-178.[293] Gaudapada, the teacher of Shankara's teacher Govinda Bhagavatpada, took over the Buddhist doctrines that ultimate reality is pure

consciousness (vijñapti-mātra)<ref name="FOOTNOTERaju1992177">Raju 1992, p. 177.[294][294] Raju 1992, p. 177.[295][295] Renard 2010, p. 157.[296][296] Comans 2000, p. 35-36.[297][297] Bhattacharya 1943, p. 49.[298][298] Nakamura 2004, p. 680.[299][299] Studies in Islamic History and Civilisation, David Ayalon, BRILL, 1986, p.271; ISBN 965-264-014-X[300] See also "Aurangzeb, as he was according to Mughal Records" (http:/ / www. aurangzeb. info); more links at the bottom of that page[301][301] J.T.F. Jordens, "Medieval Hindu Devotionalism" in[302][302] Ncholson 2010, p. 2.[303] The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.<ref name="FOOTNOTEBurley200734">Burley

2007, p. 34.[304] King & 2002 118.[305][305] King 1999-B.[306][306] Jones 2006, p. 114.[307][307] King 2002, p. =119-120.[308][308] King 2002, p. 123.[309][309] Rinehart 2004, p. 196-197.[310] This conjunction of nationalism and religion is not unique to India. The complexities of Asian nationalism are to be seen and understood in

the context of colonialism, modernization and nation-building. See, for example, Anagarika Dharmapala, for the role of Theravada Buddhismin Sri Lankese struggle for independence,<ref name="FOOTNOTEMcMahan2008">McMahan 2008.

[311][311] Sharf 1993.[312][312] Sharf 1995-A.[313] Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple. University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1946.[314][314] Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses - Page 178, Suresh Chandra - 1998[315] David Courtney: http:/ / www. chandrakantha. com/ articles/ indian_music/ bhajan. html[316] Anna King, John Brockington, The Intimate Other: Love Divine in Indic Religions, Orient Longman 2005, p 359.

Hinduism 54

[317] Page 86 Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World: A-Aj - Volume 1 By Gaṅgā Rām Garg[318][318] Garces-Foley 30[319][319] The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback], Fuller 2004[320] Hindu culture, custom, and ceremony (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?ei=NfLTTerKOcnVrQel9smeCQ& ct=result&

id=s2dDAAAAYAAJ& dq=Hindus+ observe+ sacred+ occasions+ by+ festive+ observances& q=Festivals#search_anchor), p195, BrojendraNath Banerjee, Agam, 1978, 26 May 2009

[321][321] "It is Hindu self-awareness and self-identity that affirm Hinduism to be one single religious universe, no matter how richly varied itscontents, and make it a significant and potent force alongside the other religions of the world."

[322][322] See and[323][323] Flood 1996, p. 226.[324][324] Kramer 1986, p. 34.[325] न मृत्युरासीदमृतं न तर्हि न रात्र्या।आन्ह।आसीत् प्रकॆत: ।

आनीदवातं स्वधया तदॆकं तस्माद्धान्यन्नपर: किंचनास ॥२॥[326] तम।आअसीत्तमसा गूह्ळमग्रॆ प्रकॆतं सलिलं सर्वमा।इदम् ।

तुच्छॆनाभ्वपिहितं यदासीत्तपसस्तन्महिना जायतैकम् ॥३॥[327] Avinash Sathaye, Translation of Nasadiya Sukta (http:/ / sanskritdocuments. org/ all_pdf/ naasadiiya. pdf)[328] See Theistic Explanations of Karma, pg. 146 of Causation and Divine Intervention by BR Reichenbach, citing Uddyotakara,

Nyaayavaarttika, IV, 1, 21, at http:/ / ccbs. ntu. edu. tw/ FULLTEXT/ JR-PHIL/ reiche2. htm[329] Toropov and Buckles: The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in

honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of thesame unchanging reality. The panoply of deities are understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality.<refname="FOOTNOTEToropov2011">Toropov 2011.

[330] The Lord'S Song Gita (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=9ClOmR1Q37YC& pg=PA33& dq=gOD+ Gita& hl=en&ei=YXwVTu3bFsjVrQf8hcDCDw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=book-preview-link& resnum=8& ved=0CFcQuwUwBw#v=onepage&q=sole repository of attributes& f=false), Dr. Sant K. Bhatnagar, Pustak Mahal, 2009, ISBN 978-81-223-1032-0

[331] Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra (https:/ / archive. org/ stream/ thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft/ thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft_djvu. txt) I.92.[332] For translation of deva in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see:

Monier-Williams 2001, p. 492. In fact, there are different ranks among the devas. The highest are the immortal Mahadevas, such as Shiva,Vishnu, etc. The second-rank devas, such as Ganesha, are described as their offspring: they are "born", and their "lifespan" is quite limited. InISKCON the word is translated as "demigods", although it can also denote such heavenly denizens as gandharvas. See: "Vedic cosmology"(http:/ / www. veda. harekrsna. cz/ planetarium/ index. htm). Vedic Knowledge Online. VEDA - Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved 25 June2007.. For translation of devatā as "godhead, divinity", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 495.

[333][333] Bhagavad Gita 2.22[334][334] See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20[335][335] See 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)[336] The Christian concepts of Heaven and Hell do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as Vaikunta (the abode of Vishnu)

or loka are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God.[337] as discussed in Mahābhārata 12.161; Bilimoria et al. (eds.), Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (2007), p.

103; see also ,[338][338] For example, see the following translation of B-Gita 11.54: "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I

am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding." ()[339][339] "One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees

analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are." ()[340][340] Vol I[341][341] Vol III[342][342] Rinehart 2004, p. 68.[343][343] Flood 2008, p. 4.[344][344] Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, not eternal.[345][345] Vol II[346] Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest Indo-European texts.[347][347] Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.28[348] ॐ असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय

मृत्योर्मामृतं गमय[349] gāvo, etc. (Gītā Māhātmya 6). Gītā Dhyānam, cited in Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It Is (http:/ / www. bhagavadgitaasitis. com/

introduction/ en).[350] Thomas B. Coburn, Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life, Journal of the American Academy of Religion,

Vol. 52, No. 3 (September, 1984), pp. 435-459[351][351] , p. 119

Hinduism 55

[352] The Bhagavad Gita (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=a-Oh_-rK5SQC& printsec=frontcover& dq=The+ Bhagavadgīt�& hl=en&ei=ba8UTrSDIcasrAf0q7GHBA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=book-preview-link& resnum=1& ved=0CDQQuwUwAA#v=snippet&q="(karma-phala):" you have& f=false), Eknath Easwaran, Edition 2, Nilgiri Press, 2007, ISBN 978-1-58638-019-9

[353] iskcon.org, The Heart of Hinduism: The Four Main Denominations (http:/ / hinduism. iskcon. org/ tradition/ 1200. htm)[354] Tamil Hindus add Skanda)<ref group=web> Hindu Way of Life (http:/ / www. mailerindia. com/ god/ hindu/ index. php?skanda)[355] iskcon.org, The Heart of Hinduism: The Smarta Tradition (http:/ / hinduism. iskcon. org/ tradition/ 1204. htm)[356] Manu Smriti Laws of Manu (http:/ / www. bergen. edu/ phr/ 121/ ManuGC. pdf) 1.87-1.91[357] Venkataraman and Deshpande: "Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.... Caste-based discrimination

fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of Hindu sacred texts that divinity is inherent in all beings."<ref group=web>[358] P. 143 Aspects of Hindu Morality By Saral Jhingran[359][359] S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", in[360] Rig 1.162.2 (http:/ / www. intratext. com/ IXT/ ENG0039/ __P4I. HTM)[361] Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith (2003). The Vedas: With Illustrative Extracts, p.56-66. Book Tree. ISBN 1585092231 (http:/ / books.

google. com/ books?id=BtpcpsZEiYMC& pg=PA56& dq=animal+ sacrifice+ veda& hl=en& sa=X& ei=31afUu34AbPUsATP8oC4DQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=animal sacrifice veda& f=false)

[362] A. B. Gajendragadkar and R. D. Karmarkar (editors). The Arthasamgraha of Laugaksi Bhaskara, p.34 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=ySoGJJDSFeEC& pg=PA34& dq=animal+ sacrifice+ jyotistoma& hl=en& sa=X& ei=klafUq-aNuHksATPnoJY&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=animal sacrifice jyotistoma& f=false)

[363] AB Keith. The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, p.324-326 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=p9zCbRMQbyEC& pg=PA324& dq=animal+ sacrifice+ veda& hl=en& sa=X& ei=31afUu34AbPUsATP8oC4DQ&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=animal sacrifice veda& f=false)

[364] Ramanuj Prasad. Vedas A Way Of Life, p.32 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=q1KDTh3Vtn0C& pg=PA32& dq=animal+ sacrifice+yajur& hl=en& sa=X& ei=T0yfUru7MqfKsASZ9IDoDg& ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=animal sacrifice yajur& f=false)

[365] Arthur Berriedale Keith and Ralph T.H. Griffith. The Yajur Veda, iii.2.2 - iii.2.3 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=0Z19AAAAQBAJ& pg=PT294& dq=animal+ sacrifice+ yajur& hl=en& sa=X& ei=T0yfUru7MqfKsASZ9IDoDg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=snippet& q=sacrifice & f=false)

[366] Wout Jac. van Bekkum, Jan Houben, Ineke Sluiter and Kees Versteegh, (1997). The Emergence of Semantics in Four LinguisticTraditions: Hebrew, Sanskrit, Greek, Arabic, p.77 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uU9IAAAAQBAJ& pg=PA77& dq=white+ goat+vayu& hl=en& sa=X& ei=GFGfUrW8AsbesATL7YGoAg& ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=white goat vayu& f=false)

[367] The texts of the White Yajurveda, p.212-223 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=HAHqvUGHO6cC& pg=PA218& lpg=PA218&dq=white+ goat+ to+ vayu& source=bl& ots=FtpFtuappT& sig=rVBpciGqdYb-X9oRzg8NfrgCRh4& hl=en& sa=X&ei=21CfUue_C63lsATwrYCQAQ& ved=0CEEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q=animals that are tied to stakes& f=false)

[368] Arthur Berriedale Keith and Ralph T.H. Griffith. The Yajur Veda, i.8.17 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0Z19AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1035& dq=white+ goat+ vayu& hl=en& sa=X& ei=GFGfUrW8AsbesATL7YGoAg& ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=castrated& f=false)

[369] Dale McGowan (editor), (2012). Voices of Unbelief: Documents from Atheists and Agnostics, p.10 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=wWWU32YNq4UC& pg=PA10& dq=animal+ sacrifice+ jyotistoma& hl=en& sa=X& ei=klafUq-aNuHksATPnoJY&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=animal sacrifice jyotistoma& f=false) ISBN 1598849786

[370] Monier-Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India (New Delhi, 1974 edition)[371] For ' as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the see: Brockington, John, "The Sanskrit Epics", in Flood (2003), p.

125.[372] For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of ' as "vow of self-restraint", see:[373] अहिंसा सत्यमस्तेयं शौचमिन्द्रियनिग्रहः। एतं सामासिकं धर्मं चातुर्वर्ण्येऽब्रवीन् मनु, ahimsâ satyamstenam shaucmindrayanigrahah, etam sâmâsikam dharmam

câturvanaryabravîn manu (http:/ / wikisource. org/ wiki/ मनà¥�सà¥�मà¥�ति_10)[374] The Laws of Manu X (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ hin/ manu/ manu10. htm)[375] Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: "Diary and poultry sector growth in India" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ WAIRDOCS/ LEAD/

X6170E/ x6170e09. htm#TopOfPage), "Indian consumer patterns" (http:/ / www. fas. usda. gov/ htp/ highlights/ 2001/ india. pdf) and "Agrireform in India" (http:/ / www. ers. usda. gov/ amberwaves/ February04/ Features/ ElephantJogs. htm). Results indicate that Indians who eatmeat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical.

[376][376] Walker 1968:257[377][377] Richman 1988:272[378][378] Narayanan, Vasudha. "The Hindu Tradition". In A Concise Introduction to World Religions, ed. Willard G. Oxtoby and Alan F. Segal.

New York: Oxford University Press, 2007[379] Culture - Food (http:/ / content. iskcon. org/ culture/ food/ )[380][380] Williams, Raymond. An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. 1st. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. 159[381][381] Rosen, Steven. Essential Hinduism. 1st. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2006. Page 188[382] Changing the Game: Why the Battle for Animal Liberation Is So Hard and How We Can Win It By Norm Phelps[383] P. 250 Educational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine: The a to Z Healing Arts Guide and Professional Resource Directory By

Douglas A. Wengell

Hinduism 56

[384] "Yoga Therapy in Australia" by Leigh Blashki, M.H.Sc. (http:/ / www. iayt. org/ site_vx2/ publications/ articles/ yogaaus. aspx)[385] "The Growing Global Interest In Yoga" (http:/ / www. wellpark. co. nz/ blog/ 2012/ 4/ the-growing-global-interest-in-yoga) Monday 16

April 2012[386] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Hinduism_by_country& action=edit[387] CIA-The world factbook (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ in. html)[388] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Hinduism& action=edit[389] 2011 Nepal Census Report (http:/ / cbs. gov. np/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2012/ 11/ National Report. pdf)[390] CIA - The World Factbook (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ gy. html)[391] CIA - The World Factbook (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ fj. html)[392] Bhutan (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2009/ 127364. htm)[393] Suriname (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2009/ 127405. htm)[394] Department of Census and Statistics, The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011 (http:/ / www. statistics. gov. lk/

PopHouSat/ CPH2011/ index. php?fileName=pop43& gp=Activities& tpl=3)[395] CIA - The World Factbook (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ my. html)[396] CIA - The World Factbook (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ se. html)

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• Tiwari, Shiv Kumar (2002), Tribal Roots Of Hinduism, Sarup & Sons• Toropov, Brandon; Buckles, Luke (2011), The Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions, Penguin• Turner, Bryan S. (1996a), For Weber: Essays on the Sociology of Fate (http:/ / books. google. nl/

books?id=YDwRcguxbGwC& dq=Essays+ on+ the+ Sociology+ of+ Fate& hl=nl& source=gbs_navlinks_s)• Turner, Jeffrey S. (1996b), Encyclopedia of relationships across the lifespan, Greenwood Press• Vasu, Srisa Chandra (1919), The Catechism Of Hindu Dharma, New York: Kessinger Publishing, LLC• Vivekananda, Swami (1987), Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama,

ISBN 81-85301-75-1• Walker, Benjamin (1968), The Hindu world: an encyclopedic survey of Hinduism * White, David Gordon (2000),

Introduction. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Tantra in Practice", Princeton University Press * White, DavidGordon (2006), Kiss of the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in its South Asian Contexts (http:/ / books. google. nl/books?id=5RwARVMg2_4C& dq=Kiss+ of+ the+ Yogin& hl=nl& source=gbs_navlinks_s), University ofChicago Press * Witzel, Michael (1995), "Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state"(http:/ / www. ejvs. laurasianacademy. com/ ejvs0104/ ejvs0104article. pdf), EJVS vol. 1 no. 4 (1995), Praeger

• Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India, Princeton University Press

Web-sources

Further reading• Dowson, John (1888), A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, and

Literature (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ aclassicaldictio00dowsuoft#page/ n27/ mode/ 2up), Trubner & Co.,London

• Bowes, Pratima (1976), The Hindu Religious Tradition: A Philosophical Approach, Allied Pub,ISBN 0-7100-8668-7

• Flood, Gavin (Ed) (2003), Blackwell companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-21535-2• Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism (http:/ / books. google. nl/

books?id=hZET2sSUVsgC), New York City: Infobase Publishing, ISBN 0-8160-5458-4• Klostermaier, Klaus (1994), A Survey of Hinduism (http:/ / www. oneworld-publications. com/ books/ texts/

hinduism-a-short-history-ch1. htm) (3rd (2007) ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-7082-2• Lipner, Julius (1998), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (http:/ / www. google. co. in/

books?id=HDMLYkIOoWYC& printsec=frontcover& dq=sindhu+ hindu& as_brr=3), Routledge,ISBN 0-415-05181-9, retrieved 12 July 2007

Hinduism 62

• Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PD-flQMc1ocC) (5thed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-08953-1

• Monier-Williams, Monier (1974), Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Basedon the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C&dq=isbn:1421265311), Elibron Classics, Adamant Media Corporation, ISBN 1-4212-6531-1, retrieved 8 July2007

• Morgan, Kenneth W., ed. (1987), The Religion of the Hindus (New ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas,ISBN 81-208-0387-6

• Renou, Louis (1964), The Nature of Hinduism, Walker• Richards, Glyn, ed. (1985). A Sourcebook of Modern Hinduism. London: Curzon Press. x, 212 p. ISBN

0-7007-0173-7• Rinehart, Robin (Ed.) (2004), Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice, ABC-Clio,

ISBN 1-57607-905-8• Weightman, Simon (1998), "Hinduism", in Hinnells, John (Ed.), The new Penguin handbook of living religions,

Penguin books, ISBN 0-14-051480-5• Werner, Karel (1994), "Hinduism", in Hinnells, John (Ed.), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Richmond,

Surrey: Curzon Press, ISBN 0-7007-0279-2

External links• Hinduism (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Society/ Religion_and_Spirituality/ Hinduism/ ) at DMOZ• Resources for Scholars and Students (http:/ / www. ochs. org. uk/ )• Encyclopædia Britannica, Hinduism (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 266312/ Hinduism/ 8985/

Early-Hinduism-2nd-century-bce-4th-century-ce)• All About Hinduism by Swami Sivananda (pdf) (http:/ / www. dlshq. org/ download/ hinduismbk. pdf)• Heart of Hinduism: An overview of Hindu traditions (http:/ / hinduism. iskcon. com/ )• Information on Hinduism or Santana dharma (http:/ / dharma. indviews. com/ )• Ethical Democracy Journal - Notes on Hinduism (http:/ / www. ethical-democracy. org/ Hinduism. htm)• Religious Tolerance page on Hinduism (http:/ / www. religioustolerance. org/ hinduism. htm)Audio• Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda (http:/ / www. theuniversalwisdom. org/ hinduism/

paper-on-hinduism-vivekananda/ ) - Presented at World Parliament of Religion in 1893 (Text + Audio Version)• Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies (http:/ / ochs. org. uk/ lectures/ previous-lectures) Lectures and seminars in MP3

audio format by the OCHS as reference material for scholars and students.

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SpacemanSpiff, Spartian, SpeedyGonsales, Spiritualindia, Spirituality, Spock of Vulcan, Spoonboy42, Sppopuri, Sptata, SriniG, Sriramwins, Srisharmaa, Sritri, Srsingh75, Steelhead, SteinbDJ,Stephen Day, Stephenb, Stepheno, Sterio, Steve Newport, Steve3849, Stevertigo, Stizz, Storkk, StuffOfInterest, Subramanian, Sudeep.sakalle, Sudhirkbhargava, Sukh, Sumit2709, Sun Creator,Sunborn, Sundar, Sunilshamnur, Sunsang, SupaStarGirl, Superdudemarkheckman, Susurrus, Suuperturtle, Suyog 11, Swadhyayee, Sweckform2, Syrthiss, Szajci, T-Money, T3gah, THDju, TPK,TRUTHSEEKER, TShilo12, TaborL, Tachyon01, Tail, Tamilan101, Tamisrahan, Tapuu, Tarakananda, Tassedethe, Tastemyhouse, Taxman, Tek022, Tellyaddict, Terence, Texas12345,Tgeorgescu, Thaejas, ThambeEeE, Thaurisil, The Anome, The Behnam, The Enslaver, The Man in Question, The Mummy, The Profesor, The Rahul Jain, The Rambling Man, The SanctuarySparrow, The Singing Badger, The Transhumanist, The chosen one fire, TheChrisD, TheJC, TheMandarin, TheParanoidOne, TheRingess, TheTruthiness, Themusicking, Thesilverbail, Thigle,Thiseye, Thisthat2011, Thomas Mills Hinkle, Thor Waldsen, Thunderboltz, Tides of Chaos, TigerShark, Tilakman, Tillwe, Tim1988, TimBentley, Timeroom, Tinucherian, Tiptoety, Tirdun,Tiresais, Tltltetd, Tobby72, Toddy1, Tom harrison, Tookery, Torquemama007, Townblight, Tpth, TravisTX, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Treexchopper, Trevdna, Trevor MacInnis, Trinanjon,TriniMuñoz, Triona, Tripping Nambiar, Trusilver, Truthlover, Tuncrypt, Turkishbob, Tux the penguin, TwoHorned, Tyc22, Tydaj, Tzaquiel, Uber nemo, UberScienceNerd, Unibond, Upparna,User2004, Usingha, Utcursch, UtherSRG, Uwo222, VAIBHAV AKSH, VNNS, Vaikunda Raja, Vamooom, Van Nooz, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Vanished user kjn lsr35kjhwertsek4,Vanished user zm34pq51mz, Varanwal, Varlaam, Varundala, Vary, Vector Potential, VeeereshBT, Vegaswikian, Venu62, Victor, VictoriaGrayson, VigilancePrime, Vigneswar, Vijaykum,Viking17, Vinay Jha, Viscious81, Vishalvibhu, Voldemortuet, Volkdahl, VonBismarck, Vpatel, Vrite2me, Vrixmaster, Vs.agc, Vudujava, Vvitor, W Tanoto, Wafaashohdy, Wafulz, Waris Guud,WarthogDemon, Water Fish, Wavelength, Wdgwdgwdg, Webankur, Websurfer11, WereSpielChequers, Werieth, Wetman, Whoami, Wiglaf, Wik, Wiki alf, Wiki-uk, WikiSSMN, Wikiality123,Wikibangla, Wikicrusader, Wikid77, Wikidas, Wikifect, WikipedianMarlith, Will Beback, Will Beback Auto, Will-B, Willardo, William Avery, William Vroman, Wimt, Wiqi55, Wknight94,Wmahan, Wobwana, Womenman69, WoodElf, Woohookitty, Wookipedian, World, Worthadonkey, WpZurp, Wrathjtr, XJaM, Xasf, Xdenizen, Xezbeth, Xiaopo, Xorkl000, Xterms, YahelGuhan, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yamla, Yankee Rajput, Yann, Yansa, Yavoh, YellowMonkey, Yelyos, Yertsams, Yngwin, Yo8088, Yogacharya, Yogeesh, Yogesh Khandke, Yom, Yoonadue,Youonlylivetwice, Yupik, Yuppie15, Yworo, ZZyXx, Zachorious, Zack Holly Venturi, Zafarnamah, Zagalejo, Zain engineer, Zavatter, Zazaban, Zeddicus Zu'l Zorander, Zero555, Zerokitsune,Zfr, Zigger, Zizzybaluba, Zoicon5, Zondor, Zoney, Zsinj, Zunaid, Zwilson14, Zzedar, Zzuuzz, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Écrivain, 3659 ,ماني anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Om.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Om.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Ashkan P., BRUTE, Bdk, Davin7, Dbachmann, Editor at Large,Exact, Gregory Orme, Herbythyme, Jafeluv, JurgenNL, Marshie, Michaeldsuarez, Mystical Sadhu, Nilfanion, Nishkid64, Om.sukanta, Rugby471, Sahaguru, Tangopaso, The Evil IP address,Toyboy84, Túrelio, Wutsje, Xhienne, 67 anonymous editsFile:Aum red.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aum_red.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: DoSiDoFile:Valmiki Ramayana.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Valmiki_Ramayana.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chaoborus, Copydays, Intelligent 1000, Mu,Redtigerxyz, RenebetoFile:NorthIndiaCircuit 250.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NorthIndiaCircuit_250.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader wasL1CENSET0K1LL at en.wikipediaFile:Shiva statue, Mauritius.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shiva_statue,_Mauritius.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: FlickreviewR,Kingroyos, Materialscientistfile:Tagore3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tagore3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ansumang, Badmachine, Ctg4Rahat, Materialscientist, Nagy,Otterathome, Ragib, Roland zh, Saravask, Túrelio, Yann, 9 anonymous editsfile:Swami Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Swami_Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Originaluploader was Dziewa at en.wikipediaFile:New Delhi Temple.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_Delhi_Temple.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Swaminarayan SansthaFile:Shiva Pashupati.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shiva_Pashupati.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown Indus Valley Civilization sealmaker fromMohenjodaro archaeological siteFile:IE expansion.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IE_expansion.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dbachmann, Eleassar,Esteban.barahona, Man vyi, Mdd, Mvangeest, Ricordisamoa, 1 anonymous editsFile:Chariot spread.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chariot_spread.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Christophe cagé, Dbachmann,Firespeaker, Hibernian, JMCC1, Luis Fernández García, Mmcannis, Petri Krohn, Silar, Thib Phil, 1 anonymous editsFile:Indo-European isoglosses.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indo-European_isoglosses.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Deadstar, Xiaopo, 5 anonymous editsFile:R1a1a distribution.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:R1a1a_distribution.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Magog the Ogre, Maulucioni, Sanya3File:Kurgan map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kurgan_map.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Endorf, MPF, PANONIAN, SallemanFile:Andronovo culture.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andronovo_culture.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Berillium, Christophecagé, Dbachmann, Firespeaker, Maximaximax, TommyBeeFile:Indo-Iranian origins.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indo-Iranian_origins.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:AnonMoos, Bender235, Dbachmann, Дмитрий КошелевFile:Rigvedic geography.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rigvedic_geography.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AnonMoos,Dbachmann, Roland zh, Rémih, SoranochFile:Map of Vedic India.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_Vedic_India.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Abhishekjoshi,AnonMoos, Dbachmann, Fast track, LX, Roland zh, Rosarino, 2 anonymous editsFile:IE5500BP.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IE5500BP.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AnonMoos, Dbachmann, Floris V, Glenn,JMCC1, Jssfrk, Koryakov Yuri, QuartierLatin1968, ZykasaaFile:IE4500BP.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IE4500BP.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dbachmann, Floris V, Glenn, JMCC1,Jssfrk, Koryakov Yuri, QuartierLatin1968, ZykasaaFile:IE3500BP.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IE3500BP.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dbachmann, Glenn, Jssfrk, Koryakov Yuri,QuartierLatin1968File:IE2500BP.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IE2500BP.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dbachmann, F. F. Fjodor, GiW, Glenn,Jssfrk, Koryakov Yuri, QuartierLatin1968File:IE1500BP.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IE1500BP.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dbachmann, F. F. 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 65

File:Diwali fireworks and lighting celebrations India 2012.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diwali_fireworks_and_lighting_celebrations_India_2012.jpg  License:Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: UrbanUrban_ruFile:Navarathri at Parashakthi Temple.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Navarathri_at_Parashakthi_Temple.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0  Contributors: Rashkesh, RedtigerxyzFile:Srisita ram laxman hanuman manor.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Srisita_ram_laxman_hanuman_manor.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Matheesha at en.wikipediaFile:Rath Yatra Puri 07-11027.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rath_Yatra_Puri_07-11027.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: G.-U.TolkiehnFile:Saraswati f. 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Original uploaderwas Jainrajat11 at en.wikipediaFile:Office Pongal celebration.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Office_Pongal_celebration.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Lotje,Meno25, Vadakkan, 3 anonymous editsFile:Thiruvathira Kali During Onam.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thiruvathira_Kali_During_Onam.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arunanand T AFile:JanakpurChhathParvaFestival.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JanakpurChhathParvaFestival.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Steffen GaugerFile:Halebid3.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Halebid3.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: AnRo0002,Calvinkrishy, Ranveig, Roland zhFile:Vishnuvishvarupa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vishnuvishvarupa.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: RedtigerxyzFile:Bangkok Wat Arun Phra Prang Indra Erawan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bangkok_Wat_Arun_Phra_Prang_Indra_Erawan.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: User:TsuiFile:Krishna holding flute.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Krishna_holding_flute.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Joe M500File:Ravivarmapress Rama family.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ravivarmapress_Rama_family.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ravi Varma PressFile:Shiva Bangalore .jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shiva_Bangalore_.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -file:Rigveda MS2097.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rigveda_MS2097.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknownFile:Bhagavad Gita, a 19th century manuscript.jpg  Source: 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Greentubing, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Krun, Lokal Profil, Ludger1961, Marcus Cyron, Mattes, Multichill, Neq00, Nightstallion, ReconditeRodent,Ricordisamoa, Sam916, Suzuki Auto, Urhixidur, Vzb83, 8 anonymous editsFile:Flag of Bhutan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (original uploader), the author of xrmap (improvedversion)File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos,Boricuaeddie, Duduziq, Enbéká, Erlenmeyer, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Illegitimate Barrister, Klemen Kocjancic, Madden, Mattes, Nagy, Neq00, Nightstallion, Pumbaa80, S KTT, SKopp, SiBr4,Tomia, 12 anonymous editsFile:Flag of Suriname.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Suriname.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ALE!, Alkari, Anime Addict AA, Antemister,Bouwe 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Piccadilly Circus, Pmsyyz, RamzyAbueita, Ricordisamoa, Zscout370, 5 anonymous editsFile:Flag of Oman.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Oman.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: *drew, Alkari, Bast64, Cycn, Duduziq, Fry1989,Happenstance, Homo lupus, Ittihadawi, Jetijones, Klemen Kocjancic, Liftarn, Mattes, Neq00, Nightstallion, NikNaks, OAlexander, Orange Tuesday, Pumbaa80, Rfc1394, Ricordisamoa,ThomasPusch, Zscout370File:Flag of Belize.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Belize.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Caleb MooreFile:Flag of the Seychelles.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Seychelles.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: -

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