Acquisition of Relative Clauses and Wh-questions in English by

Japanese Speakers: The Application of the Latent Rank Theory

Hiromasa Ohba, Joetsu University of Education, Japan Naoki Sugino, Ritsumeikan University, Japan Kojiro Shojima, The National Center for University Entrance Examinations, JapanKenichi Yamakawa, Yasuda Women’s University, Japan Yuko Shimizu, Ritsumeikan University, Japan Michiko Nakano, Waseda University, Japan

2nd Combined Conference of the ALAA-ALANZ, December 2, 2011, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.

- One of the interesting topics in second language (L2) acquisition research has been to account for how syntactic knowledge develops over time (Hawkins, 2001).

- Why some grammatical properties are acquired earlier than others and why some grammatical properties remain difficult even for advanced L2 learners?

INTRODUCTION

This study investigates: (1) the acquisition of relative clause and wh-question constructions in English by native speakers of Japanese. (2) whether Japanese EFL learners are sensitive to the constraints on wh-movement which are not involved in their native language, Japanese, when they construct relative clauses and wh-questions in English which are both generated utilising overt wh-movement.

INTRODUCTION

- One of the biggest problems in the field of L2 acquisition is what kind of test and data analysis can tell us a real L2 developmental process.

- We analyse the data obtained from a grammaticality judgement test on how adult Japanese EFL learners interpret English relative clause and wh-question constructions, using a new test theory, Latent Rank Theory (LRT) (Shojima, 2008, 2009).

INTRODUCTION

- Within the syntactic theory (Chomsky, 1995,1998), overt movement is only allowed when it is motivated by the presence of a strong formal feature to check.

- In wh-question and relative clause formation, it is assumed that English and Japanese vary in the feature specifications of functional category C (Complementiser) which determine how their properties are realised.

Syntactic Background

Relative clause formationEnglish: the strong feature [+R] in C drives relative-operator movement, as in (3). Japanese: an adjunct/predication type relation with no operator, and no feature-driven movement is required due to the lack of the operator and the feature [+R], as in (4) (see Takeda, 1999 for details). (3) The book [whichi [John bought ti]] was interesting.

(4) [[John-ga katta] hon]-wa omosirokattaJohn-Nom bought book-Top interesting was‘The book which John bought was interesting.’

Syntactic Background

Wh-question formationEnglish: the strong features [+wh, +Q] in C force wh- operator movement and subject- auxiliary inversion, as in (5). Japanese: a [wh] feature in Japanese is not strong, so that it does not drive wh-operator movement, as in (6), although a [Q] feature has the same property as in English. (5) [What]i arej [you tj reading ti]?

(6) Anata-wa nani-o yonde imasu ka? You-Top what-Acc reading are Q ‘What are you reading?’

Syntactic Background

Constraints on wh-movement (the Subjacency condition)(7) The Complex Noun Phrase (NP) Island Constraint (weak island) *This is the car whichi we heard [the news that Toru bought ti]. *Whati does James believe [the fact that Alison saw ti at work]?(8) The Embedded Question Island, Wh-island, Constraint (weak island)

*This is the CD whichi Peter knows [where Tom bought ti].*Whichi book did she ask John [when he read ti]?

(9) The Relative Clause Island Constraint (strong island) *This is the bicycle whichi the police caught [the man who stole ti]. *Whati does Jane visit [the architect who designed ti for her friend]?(10) The Subject Island Constraint (strong island)

*This is the ghost whichi [a picture of ti] frightened the children. *Whoi does the teacher believe [a story by ti] amuses the children?(11) The Adjunct Island Constraint (strong island)

*This is the homework whichi Ann went to school [before she did ti]. *Whoi did Alison go to work [after she took ti to school]?

Syntactic Background

Latent Rank Theory (LRT)

Tests do not have sufficient “resolution” to continuously evaluate human ability on a continuous scale.

62 pts

61pts

30pts

Test scores

Ordinal scale based on LRT

Latent Rank 1

Latent Rank 2

Latent Rank 5

Test scores

Tests are at best capable of ranking test takers into 5 to 20 ranks.

Ability to do X1

Ability to do X2

Ability to do X3

Ability to do X4

Ability to do X5

Participants: 740 university-level Japanese EFL learnersMaterials: grammaticality judgment tests Relative clause constructions The boy whom I kicked yesterday broke the window. (wh-operator: 9 items) The picture that you are looking at was painted by Picasso. (complementiser that: 4 items) The friend they lent money to bought a very big house. (null operator: 3 items) *The woman who that is singing on the stage is my wife. (doubly-filled complementiser: 4 items) *The classmate that you don’t like him is very unkind. (resumptive pronoun: 4 items)

The Study

What did your girlfriend want to talk about? (8 items) *Whose house Sandy’s father is going to build? (no subject-auxiliary inversion: 8 item)

Relative cluase and wh-question constructions violating the subjacency condition (12) Extraction from complex NP a. *This is the car which we heard the news that Toru bought. b. *Which car did he believe the claim that John stole? (13) Extraction from embedded question, wh-island a. *This is the CD which Peter knows where Tom bought. b. *Which book did she ask John when he read?

Wh-question constructions

(14) Extraction from relative clause a. *This is the bicycle which the police caught the man who stole. b. *What did he interview the teacher who wrote? (15) Extraction from sentential subject a. *This is the ghost which a picture of frightened the children. b. *What did a discussion of occur during the meeting? (16) Extraction from adjunct a. *This is the homework which Ann went to school before she did. b. *Who did the earthquake occur while you were talking with?

Relative cluase and wh-question constructions violating the subjacency condition

Procedure: judgments made on a 5-point scale (1-5) converted into 1-4 points

if ungrammatical if grammatical Converted score Raw score Converted score 0 point ← 5 (definitely possible) → 4 points 1 point ← 4 (probably possible) → 3 points 2 points ← 3 (not sure) → 2 points 3 points ← 2 (probably impossible) → 1 point 4 points ← 1 (definitely impossible) → 0 point

The Study

- The learners were categorised into 10 latent ranks.- With scores above 2.50

RESULTS

　 　 　 　 　 Item Reference Profile (IRP)No Types of RC or WH Sentences used Mean SD Rank 1 Rank 2 Rank 3 Rank 4 Rank 5 Rank 6 Rank 7 Rank 8 Rank 9 Rank 10H24 WH (question) What did your mother want to talk about? 3.288 1.184 3.022 3.109 3.228 3.333 3.385 3.387 3.377 3.383 3.406 3.428H14 WH (question) What did you do for your son last week? 3.168 1.254 2.922 2.972 3.053 3.141 3.202 3.228 3.244 3.286 3.344 3.387H28 WH (question) When did he go to London to study English? 3.085 1.337 2.888 2.940 2.999 3.051 3.089 3.121 3.161 3.206 3.244 3.269O43 RC (null) The house you can see on the corner was built ten years ago. 3.128 1.313 2.685 2.751 2.857 2.996 3.143 3.267 3.349 3.398 3.430 3.458O37 RC (wh-operator) The job which I wanted to apply for was very popular. 3.124 1.227 2.664 2.722 2.822 2.953 3.088 3.211 3.319 3.409 3.484 3.545H10 *WH (sentential subject) Who(m) did that she went out with make him sad? 2.807 1.137 2.522 2.566 2.617 2.665 2.706 2.761 2.858 3.003 3.156 3.263H21 *WH (sub-aux inversion) Who your favorite movie stars are? 2.767 1.431 2.600 2.626 2.683 2.756 2.812 2.833 2.829 2.828 2.850 2.886H33 *WH (relative clause) What did they visit a shop which sold? 2.607 1.231 2.576 2.592 2.605 2.606 2.590 2.570 2.566 2.593 2.642 2.688O29 RC (wh-operator) The woman who helped me with my homework is Hanae. 3.139 1.357 2.457 2.554 2.722 2.944 3.172 3.352 3.467 3.535 3.591 3.647O12 RC (that) The picture that he is looking at was painted by Picasso. 3.018 1.388 2.498 2.606 2.760 2.920 3.049 3.144 3.218 3.286 3.355 3.418O07 *RC (relative clause) This is the soup which Mari visited a restaurant which served. 2.953 1.230 2.499 2.540 2.609 2.713 2.845 2.988 3.131 3.269 3.389 3.476H12 WH (question) Why was the man surprised to read a letter? 2.789 1.420 2.477 2.531 2.625 2.736 2.825 2.875 2.912 2.959 3.015 3.061H27 RC (wh-operator) The boy who(m) I met yesterday broke the car. 2.664 1.576 2.479 2.525 2.572 2.607 2.628 2.654 2.714 2.800 2.871 2.902H07 *WH (sub-aux inversion) Where your friend got such a great idea? 2.694 1.411 2.474 2.513 2.594 2.692 2.760 2.775 2.761 2.762 2.795 2.844O33 RC (wh-operator) The man who(m) I employed as my assistant works hard. 3.038 1.288 2.462 2.496 2.595 2.766 2.970 3.164 3.325 3.444 3.524 3.578H04 *WH (relative clause) What did he interview the teacher who wrote? 2.712 1.224 2.466 2.485 2.525 2.581 2.643 2.714 2.797 2.891 2.982 3.054O06 RC (null) The magazine they are always talking about is very useful. 2.751 1.543 2.023 2.096 2.267 2.531 2.812 3.027 3.149 3.204 3.233 3.259O02 RC (that) The car that you can see over there caused this accident. 2.692 1.477 2.262 2.305 2.394 2.523 2.660 2.774 2.865 2.949 3.032 3.101O25 *RC (resumptive pro) The classmate that you don’t like him is very unkind. 2.688 1.506 2.179 2.237 2.336 2.461 2.581 2.695 2.829 2.989 3.149 3.279O04 *RC (doubly-filled comp) The woman who that is singing on the stage is my aunt. 2.685 1.558 2.268 2.304 2.364 2.457 2.561 2.655 2.763 2.917 3.099 3.257O20 RC (that) The student that has written this letter must be crazy. 2.587 1.523 2.157 2.185 2.256 2.369 2.507 2.659 2.803 2.907 2.971 3.017O31 *RC (resumptive pro) The friend that I lent the book to her studied very hard. 2.694 1.474 2.120 2.163 2.237 2.345 2.488 2.671 2.890 3.114 3.304 3.437O44 *RC (sentential subject) This is the meeting which that Taro attended shocked his parents. 2.739 1.243 2.359 2.363 2.369 2.392 2.466 2.619 2.840 3.076 3.272 3.405O18 *RC (resumptive pro) The town that my mother came from it is far from here. 2.618 1.465 2.171 2.188 2.229 2.299 2.391 2.517 2.699 2.929 3.156 3.329H25 *WH (sub-aux inversion) Whose car your father is going to drive? 2.491 1.398 2.334 2.344 2.367 2.411 2.469 2.529 2.586 2.633 2.660 2.668H11 *WH (sub-aux inversion) Which city you believe that they attacked? 2.561 1.347 2.325 2.349 2.376 2.406 2.447 2.514 2.620 2.755 2.884 2.972H35 *WH (sub-aux inversion) Which medal it is difficult for him to win? 2.456 1.441 2.172 2.202 2.262 2.349 2.438 2.513 2.584 2.657 2.718 2.756O03 *RC (sentential subject) This is the ghost which a picture of frightened the children. 2.458 1.481 1.902 1.958 2.072 2.226 2.372 2.489 2.607 2.761 2.939 3.090O40 *RC (adjunct island) This is the homework which Ann went to school before she did. 2.411 1.438 2.060 2.043 2.037 2.066 2.159 2.318 2.515 2.715 2.893 3.026O27 RC (wh-operator) The girl for whom I have bought a computer is my sister. 2.339 1.594 1.812 1.863 1.953 2.068 2.183 2.309 2.476 2.683 2.879 3.015O39 *RC (doubly-filled comp) The dogs which that I gave the milk to were very small. 2.449 1.469 2.242 2.217 2.200 2.211 2.254 2.325 2.431 2.588 2.774 2.931O14 RC (wh-operator) The boy to whom I talked yesterday seemed very nervous 2.272 1.600 1.791 1.847 1.940 2.049 2.147 2.255 2.406 2.583 2.744 2.859O08 *RC (doubly-filled comp) The woman whom that we talked with was our teacher. 2.420 1.538 2.276 2.257 2.240 2.248 2.288 2.351 2.438 2.545 2.650 2.729H03 *WH (sub-aux inversion) Why she was worried about her daughter? 2.298 1.648 2.091 2.071 2.062 2.080 2.136 2.239 2.381 2.533 2.652 2.725O10 RC (wh-operator) The girl whose handbag was stolen is suffering from shock. 2.317 1.568 2.016 2.039 2.092 2.182 2.290 2.392 2.469 2.519 2.554 2.589O21 *RC (adjunct island) This is the girl who(m) the bell rang while I was thinking of. 2.321 1.436 2.067 2.092 2.123 2.164 2.221 2.297 2.389 2.496 2.600 2.678O11 *RC (doubly-filled comp) The glasses which that Judy broke were very expensive. 2.308 1.521 2.273 2.239 2.170 2.085 2.025 2.034 2.139 2.336 2.572 2.769H29 *WH (sentential subject) What did a discussion of occur during the meeting? 2.241 1.279 2.080 2.104 2.124 2.136 2.147 2.177 2.243 2.351 2.468 2.557H01 WH (question) Whose books did you borrow yesterday? 2.456 1.515 2.396 2.414 2.446 2.491 2.534 2.550 2.529 2.481 2.429 2.388H06 WH (question) Who came to see your father yesterday? 2.363 1.604 2.331 2.343 2.359 2.363 2.340 2.315 2.327 2.383 2.437 2.456H32 WH (question) What books is it necessary for you to read? 2.123 1.422 2.140 2.135 2.126 2.113 2.105 2.113 2.129 2.136 2.125 2.107O16 RC (wh-operator) The man used a word whose meaning I don’t know at all. 2.229 1.550 2.042 2.071 2.109 2.153 2.196 2.232 2.269 2.317 2.376 2.439O23 RC (that) The student that you gave a present to looked very happy. 2.151 1.635 2.033 2.097 2.173 2.243 2.296 2.321 2.291 2.199 2.086 2.010H08 *WH (embedded question) Which book did she ask John when he read? 2.248 1.409 2.291 2.278 2.236 2.176 2.136 2.152 2.220 2.300 2.346 2.348H15 *WH (complex NP) Who(m) did they know the fact that David hit? 2.085 1.390 2.040 2.063 2.086 2.098 2.099 2.099 2.108 2.118 2.114 2.097H26 *WH (adjunct island) Who(m) did a fire occur while you were talking with? 2.173 1.283 2.106 2.084 2.076 2.092 2.121 2.146 2.174 2.224 2.290 2.342O15 *RC (embedded question) This is the house which Peter knows when Tom bought. 2.155 1.424 2.184 2.183 2.180 2.166 2.136 2.096 2.063 2.067 2.120 2.197O19 *RC (complex NP) This is the boy who(m) Jack described the way that Bill hit. 2.238 1.336 2.141 2.137 2.134 2.134 2.150 2.186 2.236 2.295 2.368 2.446O32 *RC (embedded question) This is the story which Kyoko wondered who believed. 2.321 1.476 2.312 2.312 2.286 2.258 2.265 2.303 2.335 2.348 2.363 2.387H36 *WH (embedded question) What did you wonder who would believe? 2.063 1.421 1.989 1.997 2.004 2.009 2.018 2.034 2.063 2.108 2.166 2.218H17 *WH (sub-aux inversion) What you and your son looked at? 2.090 1.595 1.809 1.826 1.885 1.977 2.066 2.141 2.220 2.304 2.368 2.399H34 *WH (complex NP) Which car did he believe the claim that John stole? 2.035 1.320 1.991 1.990 1.991 1.988 1.980 1.979 2.006 2.064 2.131 2.180H30 *WH (sub-aux inversion) What you and your friend wanted to do? 2.008 1.552 1.861 1.862 1.873 1.909 1.976 2.057 2.126 2.163 2.171 2.166O28 *RC (complex NP) This is the car which we heard the news that Toru bought. 2.058 1.494 1.994 1.956 1.905 1.855 1.829 1.853 1.949 2.117 2.311 2.468O41 *RC (resumptive pro) The building that it stands near the lake is our school. 1.944 1.672 1.625 1.607 1.608 1.642 1.708 1.810 1.964 2.169 2.389 2.567O36 *RC (relative clause) This is the book which John interviewed the man who criticized 1.818 1.471 1.747 1.736 1.712 1.683 1.667 1.689 1.757 1.868 1.998 2.103H19 WH (question) Who(m) does she know that Mary loved? 1.774 1.435 1.785 1.783 1.787 1.799 1.810 1.813 1.799 1.766 1.728 1.702H13 RC (wh-operator) The girl from whom I received a letter is pretty. 1.296 1.359 1.406 1.388 1.372 1.354 1.321 1.268 1.218 1.189 1.179 1.176O35 RC (null) The friend they lent money to bought a very big house. 1.663 1.633 1.412 1.475 1.562 1.655 1.748 1.831 1.875 1.850 1.774 1.693H16 *WH (adjunct island) Which car did they cross the street when John stopped? 1.501 1.373 1.499 1.505 1.504 1.489 1.472 1.478 1.511 1.539 1.538 1.513

Table 1 Results

Rank 1

[R43] RC (null): The house you can see on the corner was built ten years ago.[R37] RC (wh-operator): The job which I wanted to apply for was very popular.[W14] WH (question): What did you do for your son last week?[W24] WH (question): What did your mother want to talk about?[W28] WH (question): When did he go to London to study English?[W21]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Who your favorite movie stars are?[W10]*WH (sentential subject): Who(m) did that she went out with make him sad?[W33]*WH (relative clause): What did they visit a shop which sold?

Rank 2

[R12] RC (that): The picture that he is looking at was painted by Picasso.[R29] RC (wh-operator): The woman who helped me with my homework is Hanae.[W27] RC (wh-operator): The boy who(m) I met yesterday broke the car.[W12] WH (question): Why was the man surprised to read a letter?[W07]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Where your friend got such a great idea?[R07]*RC (relative clause): This is the soup which Mari visited a restaurant which served.

Table 2 Sentence types learners in each rank can respond correctly

Rank 3[R33] RC (wh-operator): The man who(m) I employed as my assistant works hard.[W04]*WH (relative clause): What did he interview the teacher who wrote?

Rank 4[R02] RC (that): The car that you can see over there caused this accident.[R06] RC (null): The magazine they are always talking about is very useful.

Rank 5[R20] RC (that): The student that has written this letter must be crazy.[R25]*RC (resumptive pro): The classmate that you don’t like him is very unkind.[R04]*RC (doubly-filled comp): The woman who that is singing on the stage is my

aunt.

Rank 6

[R18]*RC (resumptive pro): The town that my mother came from it is far from here.[R31]*RC (resumptive pro): The friend that I lent the book to her studied very hard.[R44]*RC (sentential subject): This is the meeting which that Taro attended shocked his parents.[W11]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Which city you believe that they attacked?[W25]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Whose car your father is going to drive?[W35]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Which medal it is difficult for him to win?

Rank 7[R03]*RC (sentential subject): This is the ghost which a picture of frightened the children. [R40]*RC (adjunct island): This is the homework which Ann went to school before she did.

Rank 8

[R10] RC (wh-operator): The girl whose handbag was stolen is suffering from shock.[R14] RC (wh-operator): The boy to whom I talked yesterday seemed very nervous.[R27] RC (wh-operator): The girl for whom I have bought a computer is my sister.[R08]*RC (doubly-filled comp): The woman whom that we talked with was our teacher.[R39]*RC (doubly-filled comp): The dogs which that I gave the milk to were very small.[W03]*WH (sub-aux inversion): Why she was worried about her daughter?

Rank 9[R11]*RC (doubly-filled comp): The glasses which that Judy broke were very expensive.[R21]*RC (adjunct island): This is the girl who(m) the bell rang while I was thinking of.

Rank 10 [W29]*WH (sentential subject): What did a discussion of occur during the meeting?

Below2.500

[R23] RC (that): The student that you gave a present to looked very happy.[R35] RC (null): The friend they lent money to bought a very big house.[W13] RC (wh-operator): The girl from whom I received a letter is pretty.[R16] RC (wh-operator): The man used a word whose meaning I don’t know at all.[W01] WH (question): Whose books did you borrow yesterday?[W06] WH (question): Who came to see your father yesterday?[W19] WH (question): Who(m) does she know that Mary loved?[W32] WH (question): What books is it necessary for you to read?[R41]*RC (resumptive pro): The building that it stands near the lake is our school.[W17]*WH (sub-aux inversion): What you and your son looked at?[W30]*WH (sub-aux inversion): What you and your friend wanted to do?[R36]*RC (relative clause): This is the book which John interviewed the man who criticized.[W16]*WH (adjunct island): Which car did they cross the street when John stopped?[W26]*WH (adjunct island): Who(m) did a fire occur while you were talking with?[R19]*RC (complex NP): This is the boy who(m) Jack described the way that Bill hit.[R28]*RC (complex NP): This is the car which we heard the news that Toru bought.[W15]*WH (complex NP): Who(m) did they know the fact that David hit?[W34]*WH (complex NP): Which car did he believe the claim that John stole?[R15]*RC (embedded question): This is the house which Peter knows when Tom bought.[R32]*RC (embedded question): This is the story which Kyoko wondered who believed.[W08]*WH (embedded question): Which book did she ask John when he read?[W36]*WH (embedded question): What did you wonder who would believe?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

R02

01234

LATENT RANKPR

OB

AB

ILIT

Y1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

R43

01234

LATENT RANK

PRO

BA

BIL

ITY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

W13

01234

LATENT RANKPR

OB

AB

ILIT

Y

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

W36

01234

LATENT RANK

PRO

BA

BIL

ITY

- A learner in a higher rank judged correctly in more test items.- There were several items in which, as the learners’ ranks went up, parallel increase was observed in the probabilities of both correct and incorrect responses. This implies that even for advanced-level L2 learners, acquisition of some types of relative clause and wh-question constructions poses unique difficulty.

- Japanese advanced-level EFL learners might have different processing strategies of relative clauses and wh-question formation from native speakers of English (non-UG).

Conclusion