his 102 chapter 21 romanticism, revolution, repression -nation building in the 19th century

Romanticism, Revolution, Repression1830-1871

ROMANTIC POLITICS1830 - 1848

Cultural Revolt: Romanticism

• Romantic politics: liberty, history, and nation• Victor Hugo (1802–1885)• Dealt sympathetically with the experience of the common

people

• François de Chateaubriand (1768–1848)• Religious experiences of the national past are woven into the

present• Accent on religious emotion, feeling, and subjectivity


• Romantic politics: liberty, history, and nation• The Romantic uniqueness of cultures• Johann von Herder (1744–1803)• Civilization arises out of the Volk (common people), not elites• The Volkgeist—spirit or genius of the people

• Brothers Grimm• Collected German folktales


• Orientalism• Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt (1798)• Brought back the Rosetta stone• Establishment of the Egyptian Institute

• Defined Europe by looking at the Orient• A fascination with ethnography and new regions

Women of Algiers, Eugene Delcroix

Reform and Revolution

• The 1830 Revolution in France• Louis XVIII succeeded by Charles X (1757–1836, r. 1824–

1830)• Determined to reverse the legacies of the Revolution and

Napoleon• Appeased the ultraroyalists by compensating nobility whose

land had been confiscated during the Revolution• Restored the Catholic Church to its traditional place• Provoked widespread discontent


• The 1830 Revolution in France• Charles called new elections, then tried to overthrow the

parliamentary regime• The July Ordinances (1830)• Dissolved the newly elected chamber before it had even met• Imposed strict censorship of the press• Further restricted suffrage to exclude all non-nobles• Called for new elections


• The 1830 Revolution in France• Revolution• Paris took to the streets for three days of battles• The abdication of Charles

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FgQgzKVX9jc

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FgQgzKVX9jc

Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix


• Belgium and Poland in 1830• Belgium• Congress of Vienna joined Belgium to Holland• Never popular in Belgium• News of the July Revolution catalyzed Belgian opposition• Brussels rebelled, and the great powers guaranteed Belgian

neutrality (in force until 1914)


• Belgium and Poland in 1830• Poland• Not an independent state—under Russian governance• Polish parliament, constitution, guarantees of basic liberties

were ignored by Russian-imposed head of state, Constantine• People favored independence from Russia in 1830• Drove Constantine out

• 1831: Russian forces retook Warsaw• Poland placed under Russian military rule


• Reform in Great Britain• The end of the Napoleonic Wars• Agricultural depression, low wages, unemployment, and bad

harvests• Social unrest

• Peterloo (1819)• Demonstration against the Corn Laws• Manchester Patriotic Union advocating for universal male suffrage• Radical Orator Henry Hunt to speak• Fearing unrest, local magistrates called on military to arrest Hunt• Military fired on crowd—15 killed; 700+ wounded


• Reform in Great Britain• Parliament passed the Six Acts (1819)• Outlawed “seditious and blasphemous” literature• Increased stamp tax• Restricted the right of public meeting

• Refused to reform political representation in the House of Commons

William Hogarth, Canvassing for Votes, 1754-1755. Oil on Canvass, Sir John Sloane’s Muesum, London.


• Reform in Great Britain• The repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)• Corn Laws protected British landlords from foreign

competition• Kept the price of bread artificially high• The Anti–Corn Law League• Held large meetings throughout northern England• Lobbied members in Parliament• Persuaded Prime Minister Peel to repeal the Corn Laws


• British radicalism and the Chartist Movement• The six points of the “People’s Charter”• 1.universal male suffrage;• 2.a secret ballot;• 3.no property qualification for members of Parliament;• 4.pay members of Parliament (so poor men could serve);• 5.constituencies of equal size;• 6.annual elections for Parliament.

• As economic conditions deteriorated, Chartism spread in the 1840s• Chartists disagreed about tactics and goals• William Lovett• Self-improvement• Education of artisans was the answer


• British radicalism and the Chartist Movement• Chartists presented petitions to Parliament in 1839 and 1842

—both rejected• April 1848: Chartists planned a major demonstration and

show of force in London• Twenty-five thousand workers marched to Parliament with a

petition of 6 million signatures demanding the six points• The failure of Chartism• Accusations of radicalism• Reforms enacted • Faded in times of prosperity

Chartist Meeting of 1848 on Kensington Common


• The French Revolution of 1848• Provisional government• A combination of liberals, republicans, and socialists• A new constitution based on universal male suffrage• Tensions between middle-class republicans and socialists

Horace Vernet, Barricade rue Soufflot, Oil on Canvass. Paris.


• The French Revolution of 1848• Provisional government• A combination of liberals, republicans, and socialists• A new constitution based on universal male suffrage• Tensions between middle-class republicans and socialists


• The French Revolution of 1848• Popular politics• Provisional government lifted restrictions on freedom of

speech and political activity• Women’s clubs and newspapers appeared

• The end of the National Workshops• French assembly decided the Workshops were a financial drain

• The June Days (June 23–26): Parisian workers barricade the streets


• The French Revolution of 1848• Repression• The government of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808–1873)• Spent most of his life in exile• Used his position to consolidate his power• Permitted Catholics to regain control of the schools• Banned meetings, workers’ associations• Asked the people to grant him the power to draw up a new

constitution (1851)


• The French Revolution of 1848• The Second Empire of Napoleon III (1852–1870)• Significance of the 1848 Revolution in France• Its dynamics would be repeated elsewhere• The pivotal role of the middle classes• Many saw the June Days as naked class struggle• Middle-class and working-class politics were more sharply

differentiated

Conclusion

• The French Revolution of 1848 as the opening act of a larger drama• Broad revolutionary alliances were broken apart by class

politics• Earlier forms of utopian socialism gave way to Marxism• Romanticism lost appeal and gave way to Realism• Nationalism contextualizes political attitudes of

conservatism, liberalism, and socialism

Territories, States & Citizens, 1848-1871

Chapter 21

Introduction

• Key themes• 1848 as high point of the age of revolution• Nationalism and nation building• Political reform: government and citizens• American Civil War• Unification of Italy and Germany

Nationalism and Revolution in 1848

• What makes a nation? Germany in 1848• The German Confederation• Created at the Congress of Vienna• Loose organization of thirty-eight states, including Austria and

Prussia• Intended to provide common defense but no executive power


• What makes a nation? Germany in 1848• Reforms• The reconstitution of the army• Officer recruitment based on merit (still drawn from the

Junkers)• The abolition of serfdom and the estate system (1807)• Expanded facilities for primary and secondary education


• What makes a nation? Germany in 1848• Prussia• Tried to establish itself as the leading independent national

power• Zollverein (1834)• Established as a customs union• Established free trade among German states• By the 1840s, it included all German states except Austria• A potential market of 34 million people


• What makes a nation? Germany in 1848• Prussia• Political clubs• Students and other radicals joined with middle-class reform groups• New demands for representative government

• Frederick Wilhelm IV (1795–1861, r. 1840–1861)• Made gestures toward the liberal cause• His regime reverted to authoritarianism• Openly opposed constitutionalism• Shaken by violence, the Kaiser finally capitulated

Friedrich Wilhelm IVOf Prussia

“No Piece of Paper will Come Between myself and

my People” (1848)


• The Frankfurt Assembly and German nationhood• Most delegates represented the professional classes• Most were moderate liberals• Desired a constitution for a liberal, unified Germany


• The Frankfurt Assembly and German nationhood• The nationalist question• The “Great German” position and “Small Germany”• Great Germany included all former principalities and Austria even

though Austria had non-German ethnic minorities• Small Germany included only the German principalities under the

leadership of Prussia and excluded Austria

• The Assembly accepted the “Small Germany” solution• Kaiser wanted the crown and larger state on his terms alone


• The Frankfurt Assembly and German nationhood• The nationalist question• The delegates left the Assembly disillusioned• Perhaps liberal and nationalist goals were incompatible

• Popular revolution• Peasants ransacked tax offices and burned castles• Workers smashed machines• Formation of citizen militias

The Barricades at Alexander Platz 1848

Germania, Philipp Veithung inside the Paulskirche where the Frankfurt Parliament assembled, covering the organ.


• Peoples against empire: the Habsburg lands• Ethnic and language groups• Germans, Czechs, Magyars, Poles, Slovaks, Serbs, and Italians

• Nationalist sentiment strongest among Polish aristocrats• Habsburgs played Polish serfs against Polish lords


• Peoples against empire: the Habsburg lands• Hungarian nationalist claims advanced by the small Magyar

aristocracy• Lajos Kossuth (1802–1894)• Member of the lower nobility• Published transcripts of parliamentary debates• Campaigned for independence and a separate Hungarian

parliament

Hungarian Revolutionary Lajos Kossuth, 1851


• Peoples against empire: the Habsburg lands• Pan-Slavism• Desire for a union of Slavic-speaking people• Resented oppressive Russian rule


• Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of peoples and autumn of empire• Kossuth stepped up his campaigns against the Metternich

system of Habsburg autocracy and control• Demanded representative institutions


• Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of peoples and autumn of empire• Vienna: popular movement of students and artisans• Demanded political and social reforms• Built barricades and attacked imperial palace• Metternich fled to Britain

The First Uncensored Newspaper after the Revolution in

Vienna, January 1848


• Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of peoples and autumn of empire• The March Laws• Hungarian parliament abolished serfdom and noble privilege• Established freedom of the press and of religion• Changed suffrage requirements, enfranchised small-property

holders

• Kossuth severed all ties between Hungary and Austria


• Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of peoples and autumn of empire• Franz Joseph asked Nicholas I of Russia for military

support• The Hungarian revolt was crushed (August 1849)

Emperor Franz Josef of Austria r. December 1848 – November 1916


• Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of peoples and autumn of empire• Liberal government capitulated on October 31, 1849• Reestablished censorship• Disbanded the National Guard and student organizations• Twenty-five revolutionary leaders went to the firing squad• Kossuth exiled himself to Turkey

Languages of Central and Eastern Europe


• The early stages of Italian unification in 1848• A patchwork of small states• Piedmont-Sardinia, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of the

Two Sicilies• Lombard and Venetia controlled by Austria• Tuscany, Parma, and Modena ruled by the Habsburgs


• The early stages of Italian unification in 1848• Giuseppi Mazzini (1805–1872)• Former member of the Carbonari• Founded the Young Italy Society (1831)• Mission was to bring democracy to the world

Giuseppi Mazzini


• The early stages of Italian unification in 1848• The liberal impulse• Many shared Mazzini’s commitment but not his methods• Hoped for a merger of existing governments into a

constitutional monarchy

• 1848 raised hopes for political and social change and Italian unification• The risorgimento—Italian resurgence

Building the Nation-State

• Nationalism after 1848• States and governments took the initiative• Alarmed by revolutionary ferment• Promoted economic development and social and political

reform


• France under Napoleon III• Believed in personal rule and a centralized state• Control of finances, the army, and foreign affairs• An elected Assembly had no real power• Aimed to put the countryside under the rule of the modern state• Undermined traditional elites, fashioned a new relationship

with the people

Napoleon III of France20 December 1848 –2 December 1852


• France under Napoleon III• Economic changes• Faith in the ability of industrial expansion to bring prosperity

and national glory• Passed new limited-liability laws• Signed a free-trade agreement with England (1860)• Founded the Crédit Mobilier• Reluctantly permitted trade unions and the legalization of

strikes


• France under Napoleon III• Paris and Napoleon III• Massive rebuilding of the medieval infrastructure• Financed by the Crédit Mobilier• New water pipes and sewer lines• Wholesale renovation did not benefit everyone

• Aggressive foreign policy

Paris Rebuilt


• Victorian England and the Second Reform Bill (1867)• British government faced demands to extend the franchise

beyond the middle classes• Industrial expansion had created a “labor aristocracy” of

skilled workers• Building, engineering, and textile industries• Favored collective self-help through cooperative societies and

trade unions• Collected funds against old age and unemployment


• Victorian England and the Second Reform Bill (1867)• Industrial expansion had created a “labor aristocracy” of

skilled workers• Education as a tool for advancement

• The need to vote• Championed by middle-class reformers


• Victorian England and the Second Reform Bill (1867)• The Dissenters• Denied civil and political rights• Could not attend Oxford or Cambridge• Resented paying taxes to the Church of England


• Victorian England and the Second Reform Bill (1867)• Great Reform Bill (1867)• Doubled the franchise• Men who paid poor rates or rent of £10 per year in urban areas• Rural tenants paying rent of £12 or more

• Large northern cities gained representation


• Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi• Two visions of Italian statehood• Giuseppi Garibaldi (1807–1882)• Achieving national unification through a popular movement

• A constitutional monarchy as favored by conservative nationalists• Pinned their hopes on Victor Emmanuel II the new king of

Piedmont-Sardinia

Giuseppe Garibaldi


• Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi• Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810–1861)• Promoted economic expansion and raising Piedmont Sardinia's

profile

• Cavour and Italy• Relied on diplomacy• Cultivated an alliance with France in order to drive the

Austrians from Italy• France provoked war with Austria (1859)

Count Camillo Benso di Cavour


• Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi• Cavour and Italy• Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy• Joined by Tuscany, Parma, and Modena• The southern states• Francis II (1859–1860) faced a peasant revolt in the Two Sicilies• Garibaldi landed in Sicily (1860)• Garibaldi took Sicily in the name of King Victor Emmanuel• Garibaldi marched on Rome


• Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi• Garibaldi and Cavour• Cavour worried that Garibaldi would bring French or Austrian

intervention• Cavour preferred that unification take place quickly, without

domestic turmoil• The king ordered Garibaldi to cede military authority

The Unification of Italy


• Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi• Final gains • Venetia remained in Austrian hands until 1866, then became

part of Italy• Italian soldiers occupied Rome in September 1870• Rome became the capital of a united Italian kingdom in July

1871 • Widening gap between industrial north and rural south


• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik• Frederick William of Prussia• Granted a Prussian constitution• Established a bicameral parliament• Modified electoral system to reinforce hierarchies of wealth

and power• A large landowner or industrialist had a hundred times the voting

power of a common working man


• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik• Growth of the Prussian middle class• Active liberal intelligentsia• Liberal civil service; dedicated to political modernization

• Liberalism and Frederick William IV (1840–1861)• King wanted to expand the standing army and take military

matters out of parliamentary control


• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik• Liberalism and Frederick William IV (1840–1861)• Opponents saw the king perhaps creating a personal army• Frederick William IV named Bismarck minister-president of

Prussia (1862)


• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik• Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898)• Prussian Junker and defender of the monarchy• Opposed liberalism and nationalism• Believed that some sort of union was inevitable and that

Prussia ought to take the initiative• Bismarck and the opposition• Defied parliamentary opposition• Dissolved Parliament over the levy of taxes

Otto von Bismark


• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik• Bismarck and foreign policy• Played the “nationalist card” to preempt his liberal opponents• The dispute over Schleswig-Holstein• Outbreak of War• Austria gave up Schleswig-Holstein and surrendered Venetia to the

Italians• Austria agreed to dissolve the Confederation


• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik• Bismarck and foreign policy• Bismarck created the Northern German Confederation• Prussian victories weakened liberal opposition• Hoped to include the southern German states of Bavaria,

Wurttemberg, Baden, and Hesse- Darmstadt • France opposed unification because it would create a state that

was too powerful on its eastern border.

Romantic Nationalism

• State derives its legitimacy as an organic (natural) consequence of the unity of those whom it governs• Includes language, culture, religion, customs of the nation• Race is often a component

• Zeitgeist—spirit of the age

Franco - Prussian War

• In 1868, Prince Leopold Hohenzollern was offered the throne of Spain following the overthrow of Queen Isabella.

• France feared encirclement with a Prussian Confederation to her east and a Hohenzollern monarch on the Spanish throne and threatened war.

• Leopold forced to decline Spanish throne • France wanted Kaiser Wilhelm to promise that a Hohenzollern

Prince would never make a claim to the Spanish throne again.• Wilhelm refused.• Diplomatic dispute over communication between the Kaiser and

the French diplomat.

Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern

Kaiser Wilhelm & Vincent Benedetti at Ems: 13 July 1870

Franco-Prussian War- Ems Telegram

Count Benedetti intercepted me on the promenade and ended by demanding of me, in a very importunate manner, that I should authorize him to telegraph at once that I bound myself in perpetuity never again to give my consent if the Hohenzollerns renewed their candidature. I rejected this demand somewhat sternly, as it is neither right nor possible to undertake engagements of this kind [for ever and ever]. Naturally, I told him that I had not yet received any news and, since he had been better informed via Paris and Madrid than I was, he must surely see that my government was not concerned in the matter.

Franco-Prussian War

After the news of the renunciation of the Prince von Hohenzollern had been communicated to the Imperial French government by the Royal Spanish government, the French Ambassador in Ems made a further demand on His Majesty the King that he should authorize him to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King undertook for all time never again to give his assent should the Hohenzollerns once more take up their candidature. His Majesty the King thereupon refused to receive the Ambassador again and had the latter informed by the Adjutant of the day that His Majesty had no further communication to make to the Ambassador.


• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik• Bismarck and The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)• A conflict with France would aid German nationalism in

Bavaria, Württemberg, and other southern states• Skillful propagandist—played off public opinion• France declared war with Prussia• German states rallied to Prussia’s side• No European powers came to the aid of France

Franco-Prussian War

• France had a volunteer army of 400,000 men.• Inefficient mobilization

• Prussia and allies had a conscript army of over a million men.• Efficient mobilization• Better technology• Prussian General Staff• Direct operational movement• Organize logistics and communications• Oversee overall strategy


• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik• The German empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors

at Versailles on January 18, 1871• A “revolution from above”


• The state and nationality: centrifugal forces in the Austrian empire• The Habsburgs abolished serfdom but made few other

reforms• The Hungarians were essentially reconquered• Administrative reforms• New and more uniform legal system• Rationalized taxation


• The state and nationality: centrifugal forces in the Austrian empire• Ethnic relations• Grew more tense• The “nationalities” protested the powerlessness of their Diets,

military repression, and cultural disenfranchisement

• Franz Joseph (1848–1916, emperor of Austria)• Agreed to the new federal structure


• The state and nationality: centrifugal forces in the Austrian empire• The Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary)• Common system of taxation, common army, made foreign and

military policy together• Internal and constitutional affairs were separated

• No national unification in Habsburg lands

Nation & State Building: Russia, United States, Canada

• Russia: Territory, the state, and serfdom• Abolition of serfdom as part of a project to rebuild Russia

as a modern state• “Slavophiles”• Preserving Russia’s distinctive features• Idealized traditional Russian culture


• Territory, the state, and serfdom: Russia• The Emancipation Decree of 1861• Massive in scope, limited in change• Granted legal rights to 22 million serfs• Gave former serfs title to a portion of the land• Required the state to compensate landowners

American Expansion in the Late Nineteenth Century

Manifest Destiny by John Gast, Library of Congress LC-USZC4-668


• Territory and the Nation: the United States• Territorial expansion—the Louisiana Purchase (1803)• Added millions of acres of prime cotton land• Extended the empire of slavery

• Andrew Jackson (1829–1837)• Transformed Jeffersonian liberalism• Campaigned to extend suffrage to all white males• “continent”


• Territory and the Nation: the United States• Andrew Jackson (1829–1837)• All officeholders should be elected and not appointed• Frequent rotation of men in power

• Manifest Destiny—“to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us.” John O’Sullivan, 1845.


• The Politics of Slavery• 1838–1848: abolition of slavery in Great Britain and France• Latin America• Nationalist leaders recruited slaves to fight the Spanish• Simón de Bolívar


• The Politics of Slavery• The legality of slavery• Southern United States, Brazil, Cuba, most of Africa, parts of

India and the Islamic world

• Slavery and the Enlightenment• Slavery contradicted natural law and natural freedom• Slavery as metaphor for everything that was bad• England and the abolition of the slave trade


• The Politics of Slavery• Why did attempts to abolish slavery occur?• Less profitable• Adam Smith and free trade• Religious revivalism• Appealed to women reformers• The working classes• Slave rebellions


• The American Civil War, 1861–1865• Consequences of the Civil War• The abolition of slavery• Established the preeminence of the national government over

states’ rights• The Fourteenth Amendment• Due process defined by the national not state government

• The expansion of the U.S. economy

• War laid the foundations for the modern American nation-state

Civil War Recruiting Poster, public domain

The Decline of Ottoman Power and International Relations

• The Eastern Question• Ottoman empire lost its grip on provinces in southeastern

Europe• Strategic interest, systems of alliances, and the balance of

power in Europe


• The Crimean War• Russia invaded Ottoman territories of Moldavia and

Walachia• Austria garrisoned its troops• Russia turned on the Turks• Provoked French and British fears of Russian expansion

The Crimean War


• Importance of the war• Peace settlement was a setback for Russia• Romania becomes an independent nation• Embarrassed French prestige• Innovations in warfare• Correspondents and photojournalists—a “public” war• Florence Nightingale (1820–1910)

Half a league half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred: 'Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns' he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundredForward, the Light Brigade!' Was there a man dismay'd ? Not tho' the soldier knew some one had blunder'd: Theirs not to make reply, theirs not to reason why,Theirs but to do & die, Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them Volley'd & thunder'd; Storm'd at with shot and shell, Boldly they rode and well, Into the jaws of Death, Into the mouth of Hell Rode the six hundred.

Flash'd all their sabres bare, Flash'd as they turn'd in air Sabring the gunners there, Charging an army while All the world wonder'd: Plunged in the battery-smoke Right thro' the line they broke; Cossack & Russian Reel'd from the sabre-stroke, Shatter'd & sunder'd. Then they rode back, but not Not the six hundred.

Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon behind them Volley'd and thunder'd; Storm'd at with shot and shell, While horse & hero fell, They that had fought so well Came thro' the jaws of Death, Back from the mouth of Hell, All that was left of them, Left of six hundred.

When can their glory fade? O the wild charge they made! All the world wonder'd. Honour the charge they made! Honour the Light Brigade, Noble six hundred!

“The Charge of the Light Brigade,” Alfred Lord Tennyson

Conclusion

• 1850–1870 as decades of intense nation building• Unifications of Italy and Germany• The rise of the United States• Nationalism as an erratic and malleable force• Enlightened Nationalism• Realpolitik• Romantic Nationalism

his 102 chapter 21 romanticism, revolution, repression -nation building in the 19th century

Education

french revolution

revolution andnapoleon

members of parliament

france revolution paris

great britain parliament

new constitution

new elections

restricted suffrage