HIS 112Chapter 19

Toward an Urban Society

A Move to The Cities

1861 – 1/6 of Americans lived in cities of 8000+

1900 – 1/3 did 1920 – 1/2 did

Americans moved to the cities because of Isolation Tedious, hard labor with few benefits Better-paying jobs for the literate and

mechanically inclined

The migration at this time was primarily a white migration

However, 500,000 blacks did join in this move in the 1890s

Immigrants added to these numbers 1880s -1900 – it was primarily the Irish and

Germans who came 1900 – 1915 – immigrants were primarily from

Eastern Europe; approximately 1 million came each year

Many of these immigrants stayed in the cities making them both diverse and crowded

Many settled in ethnic ghettos usually near others from their various countries

The complacent, settled-in American way of life was shaken up a bit, and then it took on a different, more blended appearance as it settled in once again

Immigration

East coast cities grew at a rapid rate Chicago and Boston -1/3 of the population in

1890 had been born abroad Philadelphia – ¼ of the population in 1890 had

been born abroad

Those figures would be much higher in 1900

Immigrants settled in neighborhoods according to their ethnic background

Neighborhoods acted as buffers against prejudice and hostility

In these neighborhoods they could cling to their language, customs, and food for security

Other new arrivals wished to assimilate as soon as possible

Usually it was the younger ones open to change

Most who came were unskilled laborers between the ages of 15 and 40

2/3 were male job-seekers Aid societies were created to help immigrants

adjust to their new circumstances This sometimes encouraged clannishness

Aid Societies

Irish Benevolent Society German-American Society Polish National Alliance Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society Young Men’s and Young Women’s Hebrew

Associations St. Vincent de Paul Society begun by

Catholics

Salvation Army First established in England by Methodists in

1865 Brought to U.S. in 1880 to provide food,

shelter, and temporary employment for families

New York Charity Organization Society Begun by Josephine Shaw Lowell in 1882 Tried to foster self-sufficiency Visits made to immigrants’ homes The society believed that moral deficiencies

were at the root of all poverty Applied middle class values Tried to change people’s ways Disciplinarians

Settlement Houses The Neighborhood Guild founded in New York

in 1886 Jane Addams’ Hull House was established in

Chicago in 1889 She felt hardships of slum life were beyond the

control of individuals Relief workers lived and worked in poor

neighborhoods Pressure placed on politicians to improve

sanitation

Robert A. Woods’ South End House founded in Boston in 1892

Lillian Wald Henry’s Street Settlement established in New York in 1893

The middle class would give them food, clothing, and shelter, teach them English, take them to concerts or art shows, and showed them American values

Not only were Americans teaching American ways, they were also learning about other cultures

Cities

Originally there were walking cities Before the 1870s, people walked, had horses,

or horse-drawn carriages Think of a circle within a circle

Center circle: 1 or 2 factories Next circle surrounding the other one: this is

where factory workers lived The next circle surrounding the last one: Small

businessmen and shop owners

The next circle: mill owners and supervisors The last circle: shantytown with no services

That was the most common lay-out

Changes in transportation brought changes to the city’s layout

1870s & Before: Walking, horses, and carriages

Then: Horse-car Lines that were horse-drawn streetcars that cost 5 cents and were used by middle class

Next: El or Elevated Train that was a steam-powered train that ran at high speeds above the streets. This allowed the rich and middle class to move to the suburbs. This made those in shantytowns move to city centers. The El was expensive to build and was noisy

The Electric Trolley built by Frank Sprague Changed walking city to commuting city Economical, fast, fairly quiet, clean, and easy

to stop First built in Richmond, Virginia in 1887 By 1895 there were 850 others

City center became more for business as people moved out

Real estate values soared and led to muti-storied buildings Running out of land Too costly Electric elevator invented

I-shaped girders were created and formed the skeleton of the building

Walls, then, did not have to be so thick Buildings seemed to scrape the sky –

skyscrapers New York was the most dramatic of

skyscraper cities closely followed by Chicago Chicago had the first skyscraper built with

steel girders; 1871 Chicago Fire and the city had to be rebuilt

Louis H. Sullivan and John Root were the leaders of the skyscraper movement

Another technological invention: the Suspension Bridge by John Roebling German immigrant Arrived in 1831 Engineer Had factory that made cables from twisting

steel wire

Believed bridges could span broader rivers if they were hung from steel cables

Wished to build a bridge to span East River that separated New York from Brooklyn

Died in 1869 before bridge was completed His son Washington carried out his plan Brooklyn Bride was completed in 1883 This eventually led to the incorporation of

Brooklyn into the city of New York by law in 1898

Death Rates in Cities

Death rate in U.S. was 20 in the late 19th century

In the cities, especially in the slums, the rate was much higher In New York: 25 generally In New York slums: 38 Children under 5 in New York: 136 In Chicago slums in 1900: 200 In Chicago in 1900: 1 in 5 infants not yet 1

year old died

Why?

Crowded living conditions Former single-family homes were carved up

into tenement housing for 100 or more with one outhouse in backyard for 100

Some lived in buildings without windows, without sun, and 20,000 living in basements which flooded

Jacob Riis Newspaper reporter Exposed the living conditions of the cities 1890, published How the Other Half Lived Found 330,000 people living in a square mile

of slum 986.4 people per acre -- a living hell

Crowded conditions led to disease and epidemics Smallpox, cholera, measles, typhus, scarlet

fever, & diphtheria Chicken pox, mumps, whooping cough, croup,

& influenza Could prove fatal Hard to quarantine

Poor Sanitation Led to disease Outhouses for 100 Trash, garbage Horse manure and dead animal carcasses Sewage dumped in river; the same rivers

people bathed in and used for drinking water Water piped in to houses full of chemicals Wealthy bought spring water Wells and public bath houses

Crime Petty thieves, pickpockets, purse-snatchers,

violent robbery, gang violence, & homicide Homicide rate tripled in cities in 1880s Prison populations grew by 50%

Social Thinkers

Those concerned about the gap between rich and poor

Those who wished to alleviate the misery of the factory workers and to create a better standard of living Henry George: wrote Progress and Poverty in

1879; proposed a solution for the uneven distribution of wealth

Edward Bellamy: wrote Looking Backwards in 1888; about a man who falls asleep in 1888 and wakes up in 2000 in a Utopian society

Karl Marx: wrote Das Kapital in 1867 introduced Marxism Proletariat vs. Factory Owners Proletariat rises up and takes over the means of

production (factories) and the state Withering away of the state Classless society

Change

Cities were changing and developing The way people lived changed How people were educated changed How people thought changed Products they used changed

Sewing machines Clothes off the rack Breakfast cereals Canned meat

Indoor plumbing Washing machines Ice boxes Stoves, furnaces Electric lights Telephones Campbell’s soup Department stores Mail order: Sears

Higher Standard of Living

For the rich, the middle class, and for laborers Spread of public education helped people to

advance 1860 – 300 secondary schools in U.S. for 31.4

million people 100 were free Girls attended for only a few years 560 colleges and universities – mostly for elite;

there were some female seminaries

1900 - 6,000 free secondary schools

1915 – 12,000 free secondary schools educating 1.3 million students

High schools began teaching courses to lead to a job in industry or business

Millionaires founded universities Harvard, Yale, and Princeton had long been

established Cornell was founded in 1865 Drew was founded in 1866 Vanderbilt was founded in 1872 Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876 Carnegie Institute of Technology was founded

in1905

Temple was founded for poor boys in 1884 University of Rochester was founded by

George Eastman

Some Midwestern colleges admitted women There were also colleges expressly for

women Wesleyan (pre-Civil War) Mt. Holyoke (1837) Vassar (1865) Wellesley (1875) Smith (1875) Bryn Mawr (1885)

Barnard (1889) Pembroke ( 1891) Radcliffe (1893)

The percentage of colleges admitting women rose from 31% in 1880 to 71% in 1900.

These colleges aimed to develop self-confidence and less passive behavior.

They wished to enable women to compete equally with men.

Catholics established the first university in the nation’s capital: Catholic University ( 1889)

Catholics also established Notre Dame (1842) Holy Cross (1843) Boston College (1863)

Education for Blacks

Segregation in the South was supported by the Supreme Court decision of 1896 in Plessy vs. Ferguson

Schools were to be separate but equal In reality, they were separate and unequal Black schools were dilapidated, had outdated

books, and poorly paid teachers 35% of black children attended school in

1890

In U.S. there were some higher educational opportunities for well-qualified blacks

Example: W.E.B. Du Bois earned a Ph.D. at Harvard and then founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People to agitate for advancement

Some colleges were founded just for blacks Howard University –D.C. – 1867 Lincoln University -- Pennsylvania – 1854 Fisk University – Nashville -- 1866 Tuskegee Institute – Alabama– 1881 by

Booker T. Washington who advocated getting skills, getting education, and working hard to get ahead

On average 1 black in 3 above the age of 10 couldn’t read or write

Victorian Morality

Took hold at the end of 19th century Named for Queen Victoria of England Strict standards of dress, manners, and

sexual behavior Intense morality Victorians believed progress would come

through strenuous effort Strict codes of behavior with a heavy

emphasis on self-control and self-discipline

Stressed the importance of culture: Knowledge of the social graces Knowledge of literature Knowledge of the fine arts Knowledge of classical music Education all important

Refinement in speech and action Victorians supported museums of fine art They were pre-occupied with manners,

rituals, and proper etiquette Strong belief in country and in religion

Many middle class, writers, architects, and regular people began to react against Victorian practices at the turn of the century

Thirst for Knowledge

Went beyond formal education People read novels, poetry, and magazines They read Emerson, Longfellow, Whitman,

Whittier, and Emily Dickinson They read Mark Twain, Henry James,

Stephen Crane, Frank Norris, Jack London, and Theodore Dreiser

Magazines were new and sold for 5, 10, or 35 cents

Magazines used the new advertising to help defray costs

Literary Magazines: Atlantic Monthly, Harper’s Forum, and the Arena presented poetry, stories, and elegant essays Followed the genteel tradition Only certain subjects were deemed

acceptable

These magazines cost 35 cents.

Not so intellectual magazines: Ladies Home Journal, Cosmopolitan, Munsey’s, and The Saturday Evening Post These magazines cost 10 or 15 cents They discussed woman’s role as wife, mother,

and homemaker

Libraries were established Enoch Pratt donated $1 million to establish

Baltimore libraries Samuel Tilden gave New York City $2 million William Newberry gave Chicago $4 million Andrew Carnegie helped found 2,000 free

public libraries

Lyceum Movement ( a.k.a. Chautauqua) Travel to the mountains, lakes, nice healthy

spots for training or lectures of some kind Originally for Sunday school teachers Later general topics were discussed:

marriage, childbearing, parenting Started in Chautauqua, New York Died out in 1930s during depression and

revived in 1990s

Leisure Time

More of it Shorter work week Fewer children gave parents more time and

money Middle class hadn’t entirely accepted the

concept of leisure time, so they went to the mountains for Chautauqua – fun but educational

Upper classes went to the Springs for the mineral waters for better health

Lower classes could take the trolley to an amusement park or go to a park for a picnic Coney Island – N.Y. Willow Grove – Philadelphia Paragon Park – Boston Cheltenham Beach – Chicago

New York’s Central Park The Boston Commons

Americans also turned to sports, both amateur and professional Croquet Archery tennis Baseball – National League founded in 1876

&the American League around 1901 with the first World Series held in 1903

Football – popular in schools and was seen as violent; had to be regulated to prevent death

Boxing- people paid to watch a match; initially for upper classes and later for others

Basketball – invented in Springfield, Massachusetts in 1891 by Dr. James Naismith and became popular in women’s schools

Cycling – rivaled baseball in popularity; could combine courtship with exercise and no chaperones; influenced fashion

Golf – enjoyed by both sexes A fitness craze spread across U.S. at turn of

century; there was a need because jobs were more sedentary

Show Business Circuses – traveled more with the help of

railroads Popular dramas and musical comedies – gave

Americans an escape from their harsh lives George M. Cohan – musical comedy Lillian Russell – comic opera Victor Herbert – composer of comic operas Jerome Kern - composed more sophisticated

musicals and musical comedies

Vaudeville – probably the most popular entertainment of the early 20th century; variety show

Early movies – perfected by Thomas Edison in 1880s

Phonographs Photographs

Women

Went through a few changes at the turn of the century besides the change in fashion fostered by the bicycle

New Look – the Gibson Girl, fine-featured, trim, coy, flirtatious, and seductive but also self-assured, athletic, and had some independence; an image from a magazine illustrator, Dana Gibson