Kelompok 1

History of Pharmacy, India

http://www.pharmainfo.net/zarrinfaria/history-pharmacy

Pharmacy profession has existed in a rudimentary form from time immemorial. It is fruitless to try to determine when it started. Greeks were one of the first patrons of this profession. The word pharmacy originated from the Greek word “PHARMAKON”.

It was in 9th century in the civilized world around Baghdad that the profession of pharmacy started acquiring shape. It slowly spread to Europe as alchemy and finally developed into chemistry. The first known chemical process was carried out by the artisans of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China. However in the 19th century it completely sprouted out from medicine and started developing as a separate profession.

This happened only when the role of pharmacist as a compounder of medicines were identified and differentiated from physician whose role was accepted as the therapist. The practice in those times was restricted to compounding, dispensing medication and manufacturing medicaments in bulk lots not for general sale. The medicament commonly produced was simple elixirs, spirits, and powders in contrast to the complex pharmaceutical remedies of the present era.

The 19th century witnessed various milestones being set in the field of pharmacy. In 1821, first school of pharmacy was established in U.S at Philadelphia. The first U.S pharmacopoeia was published in 1820. American pharmacist association was founded in 1852.The first National formulary was published in 1888. The inception of pharmacy profession in India was marked by the first class of the chemist and druggist conducted at the Madras medical college in 1870s to train students to gain skills in pharmacy practice. Pharmacy education pattern was based on the instructions provided by the pharmaceutical society of Great Britain. A formal training of the compounders was started in 1881 in Bengal.

The pharmacy profession entered India almost simultaneously with U.S but the growth in India remained very slow. For almost half a century not much progress was noticed, until B.pharm course was started in 1937 at Banaras Hindu University and in 1944 at the Punjab University, Lahore now in Pakistan. The B.pharm course at BHU was industry oriented while that at Punjab University was oriented towards Pharmacy practice. Though the profession was oriented towards pharmacy practice at the introductory stage but as it grew it became more industry oriented.

This bend lead to the development of modern Indian pharmaceutical industry, which is now the 4th in terms of volume and 14th in terms of value. The future prediction for the Indian pharmaceutical industry is that it is expected to become the super power by the year 2020. As the pharmaceutical industry is becoming highly automatic the bend is again towards the pharmacy practice like the rest of the world. The future of a pharmacy is in pharmacy practice. So, it is now observed that pharmacy in India is going back to from where it started: Pharmacy Practice.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/455192/pharmacy/35617/History-of-pharmacy

The beginnings of pharmacy are ancient. When the first person expressed juice from a succulent leaf to apply to a wound, this art was being practiced. In the Greek legend, Asclepius, the god of the healing art, delegated to Hygieia the duty of compounding his remedies. She was his apothecary or pharmacist. The physician-priests of Egypt were divided into two classes: those who visited the sick and those who

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remained in the temple and prepared remedies for the patients. In ancient Greece and Rome and during the Middle Ages in Europe, the art of healing recognized

pharmacy, the science and art concerned with the preparation and standardization of drugs. Its scope includes the cultivation of plants that are used as drugs, the synthesis of chemical compounds of medicinal value, and the analysis of medicinal agents. Pharmacists are responsible for the preparation of the dosage forms of drugs, such as tablets, capsules, and sterile solutions for injection. They compound physicians’, dentists’, and veterinarians’ prescriptions for drugs. The science that embraces knowledge of drugs with special reference to the mechanism of their action in the treatment of disease is pharmacology.

The pharmacy profession can be traced back at least as far as the Sumerian population, living in modern day Iraq. From around 4000 BC, they used medicinal plants such as liquorice, mustard, myrrh, and opium. There were separate people who worked to prepare medicines, as a separate role from diagnosis and treatment which was carried out by medics. These precursors to pharmacists also combined their role with that of a priest. The Sumerians wrote the earliest surviving prescriptions from at least 2700 B.C. – so nearly 5000 years ago.

The Ancient Egyptians had specific preparers of medicine, known as Pastophor. Pharmacy was viewed as a high status branch of medicine, and again, like the Sumerians, these pharmacists were also priests who worked and practised in the temples.

From surviving papyrus scrolls, notably the Ebers Papyrus which dates from 1500 BC, we know that the Egyptians made and used infusions, ointments, lozenges, suppositories, lotions, enemas, and pills. The Ebers Papyrus includes 875 prescriptions and 700 drugs.

Meanwhile, in China in about the same era (2000 BC), a man called Shen Nung wrote the first Pen T’sao or native herbal, which contained descriptions of 365 plant-based drugs.

Stalls and shops selling medicinal goods existed around 1900 B.C. in the town of Sippara on the Euphrates river. However, the earliest recorded shop dealing with sales of medicines in London was opened in 1345

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Kelompok 2

The history of pharmacy in Britain

http://www.rpharms.com/about-pharmacy/history-of-pharmacy.asp

The word 'pharmacist' was first used in a publication in England in 1834 according to the Oxford English Dictionary in a novel by Lytton called The Last Days of Pompeii. However, it was certainly in use from the 18th century with the meaning of someone who prepared and dispensed medicines. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the 19th century most people working in this area would have called themselves chemists and/or druggists. The terms pharmacist and pharmaceutical chemist (now usually shortened to chemist) came later in the 1800s.

The word “pharmacy” has a much longer history in England. Chaucer in The Knight’s Tale (written around 1386) uses the word to describe a medical preparation of plants “farmacies of herbs.”

The term apothecary, often used between the 1600s and 1800s, does not refer to the chemist and druggist, or pharmacist. It was used for individuals living in London who had passed the examinations of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries of London, founded in 1617, or to their often less well qualified counterparts in the provinces. The role of the apothecary developed out of the role of the spicer or pepperer – or grocers – someone whose trade included crude drugs and prepared medicines. The Grocers had their own Guild – professional body in the City of London- from the 13the century. The Apothecaries split from them in 1617 to form their own Society.

Although the apothecary's practice included a strong dispensing element, it was more all encompassing than the handling of drugs and chemicals. Apothecaries were also examining and treating patients, but they did not charge for these services – only for the medicines supplied.

Following a ruling in the Rose Case (1701-1703/4), apothecaries became legally ratified members of the medical profession, able to prescribe as well as dispense medicines.

As apothecaries moved into a more advisory role, pharmacists (or chemists and druggists) could develop their own area of preparation and supply of medicines. However, this put them in competition with the apothecaries who were also still involved in the same area. The apothecaries attempted to control the chemists and druggists' activities in 1748 with a proposed new law to control the supply of medicines. This didn't progress.

In the early 1800s, an Association was formed to put together a proposal to Parliament to set up a body that examined and regulated apothecaries, surgeon-apothecaries, midwives and

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dispensing chemists. The chemists and druggists took action, arguing that they were best placed to set their own standards, as they were more experienced in making up prescriptions and making medicines than the apothecaries, so they should not be put under their control. The chemists and druggists won their argument, and when the Apothecaries Act of 1815 was finally created, the apothecaries did not have control over making medicines.

Some key dates in pharmacy history

1820 The alkaloid quinine was first extracted from the bark of cinchona trees by two French chemists, Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Biename Caventou.

1874 Diamorphine or Heroin was first synthesised from morphine.

1883 First edition of The Extra Pharmacopoeia published, edited by William Martindale and Dr Wynn Westcott.

1899 Aspirin, was launched by the German company.

1910 Salvarsan, the first 'magic bullet' drug, effective against syphilis was discovered by Paul Ehrlich and Dr Sahachiro Hata.

1915 Medicine stamp duty was doubled as a wartime fundraiser.

1917 The Venereal Disease Act prohibited the advertising of medicines for VD and selling mixtures containing scheduled substances. It introduced the concept of 'prescription only' medicines.

1922 The Dangerous Drugs Act regulated the import and sale of potential 'drugs of addiction', including the derivatives of opium, cocaine and cannabis so widely used in proprietary remedies.

1928 Penicillin discovered by Alexander Fleming.

1938 The Food and Drugs Act prohibited the adulteration and mislabeling of drugs.

1939 The Cancer Act restricted the advertisement of products claiming to treat cancer.

1940 Under the Finance (No. 2) Act purchase tax was imposed on a range of goods including most drugs and medicines.

1941 The Pharmacy and Medicines Act repealed the old medicine stamp duty. It forbade the general advertisement of products claiming to treat a number of specific illnesses including Bright's disease, cataract epilepsy and TB, or to be effective in procuring an abortion. For the first time manufacturers were required to list the active ingredients of products on their packaging.

1948 The National Health Service made prescription medicine available to all. Until the introduction, in

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the 1950s, and subsequent hefty increasing of prescription charges, proprietary medicines were no longer seen as a cheap alternative to seeing the doctor.

1961 Ibuprofen was first synthesised by a team at the Boots Pure Drug Company in December.

1964 Introduction of Adverse Drug Reaction 'yellow card' scheme in reponse to the thalidomide tragedy of 1961.

Kelompok 3

The American Pharmacists Association: A short history

http://www.pharmacist.com/AM/Template.cfm?Section=History

Founded as the American Pharmaceutical Association in 1852, APhA today represents more than 60,000 practicing pharmacists, pharmaceutical scientists, student pharmacists, pharmacy technicians, and others interested in advancing the profession. APhA, dedicated to helping all pharmacists improve medication use and advance patient care, is the first-established and largest association of pharmacists in the United States. Three academies—Pharmacy Practice and Management, Pharmaceutical Research and Science, and Student Pharmacists—make up APhA.

Since its founding on October 6, 1852, in Philadelphia, APhA has been the home for all of pharmacy. Virtually every pharmacy specialty organization traces its roots to APhA and the many sections and interest groups it has served over the years, including the National Community Pharmacy Association (founded in 1898 as the National Association of Retail Druggists), the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (founded in 1900 as the American Conference on Pharmaceutical Faculties), and the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (founded in 1942 as the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists).

APhA’s reach goes far beyond the shores of the United States. An active participant in the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) since 1925, APhA has both hosted and attended dozens of meetings of pharmacists from around the world, and its staff and officers have held key positions in FIP and other international pharmacy organizations.

Policy for APhA and the profession of pharmacy as a whole is developed by the APhA House of Delegates. Comprising representatives from all major national pharmacy organizations, state pharmacy associations, federal pharmacy, and APhA’s three academies, the APhA House of Delegates meets during the APhA annual meeting each spring to consider matters of timely and critical importance to pharmacy. The House was first organized in 1912.

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A spinoff of APhA’s centennial celebration was the APhA Foundation, created in 1953. The Foundation, recognized as a 501(c)3 charitable/educational nonprofit organization, conducts research demonstration projects, such as its Project ImPACT, and its latest initiative, the HealthMapRX, a project that aims to combat the effects that chronic diseases have on America’s workforce. Along with demonstration projects, the Foundation offers programs to pharmacists such as the Advanced Practice Institute, National Clinical Issues Forum, and the Incentive Grants for Practitioner Innovation in Pharmaceutical Care. The Foundation also hosts the Pinnacle Awards each year to recognize health professionals’ contributions to the health care system.

In the 1920s and 1930s, APhA was able to secure coveted land on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., for construction of its national headquarters. Designed by famed architect John Russell Pope, the American Institute of Pharmacy was built at 23rd Street and Constitution Avenue and dedicated in 1934. An annex was constructed later, being dedicated in 1960. Today, the annex has been demolished and has made way for a new addition to the original Pope building, completed in 2009.

As it has done for more than 150 years, APhA continues today to lead the profession of pharmacy. Medication therapy management, a component of the Medicare Part D prescription drug benefit launched in 2006, provides the means for pharmacists to complete the transformation of their profession from one focused on the drug product to a clinical service focused on the patient. As APhA Executive Vice President and CEO John A. Gans, PharmD, puts it, pharmacists have gone from “making medicines” to “making medicines work.” Through the programs, publications, and services provided through APhA, pharmacists across America and around the world are in the forefront of making this change happen each day, one patient at a time.

The History of the Pharmacy Introduction The Medieval Faience Pharmacy Objects

The Saint Healers

The Oldest Collections

The Collection of Muniments and Documents

The Drama of the Old Pharmaceutic Objects

The Destruction and the Nationalization of the Chemist's Shops

The Problem of the Collections of History of the Pharmacy

The Present-day Situation

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Conclusions

Some say that the Dacians used medicinal herbs and had medical knowledge, facts that are mentioned by some of the Ancient Greek and Roman writers. It is rightly supposed that the first ustensils for the preparing of the medicines had been manufactured out of wood and burnt clay, but they did not resist to the aggressive factors of the nature and to the incapacity of the people in preserving those ustensils. It seems that all of them, the Ancient receptacles and medicines, as well as those from the territory of present-day Romania are of Mediterranean origin. All along the Black Sea coast and in Dobrudja numerous vestiges, up to the Roman conquest of Moesia Superior, belong to the Hellenistic culture. The oldest pharmaceutical vessel acknowledged by the archaeologists would be an "alabastron" (a vessel with characteristic shape, made of glass and having blue color) dated in the 7th century BC

IntroductionIn the present-day museums of Dobrudja there are numerous vestiges, especially from the first centuries of our era: two small portable, partitioned medicine chests, with prismatic glass flagons ( not round as the majority of the nowadays flagons are), differentiated into bottles for liquids (narrow-necked ), jars with an equal volume with that of the bottles, but with wider necks, used to preserve powders and small glass or ceramics receptacles, with characteristic forms and dimensions, resembling to those that used to be placed by the Romans inside one's tomb in order to symbolically collect the tears of those who mourned the defunct person, receptacles used to preserve ointments, having different forms, as well as other such objects. In this respect there is a well documented little book by the archaeologist Mihai Bucovală. Besides, there are charateristic metal little spoons, beautifully executed and glass side-footed sticks, simple or in cable moulding. Such Ancient objects can be found in museums from Mangalia, Constanţa, Tulcea, Galaţi, Brăila, in The Severeanu Collection in Bucharest etc.

We should also mention the two portable medicine chests with 5, respectivelly 7 compartments and with other accessories, too; they are exhibited in The Museum of Archaeology and National History of Constanţa. Inside the mosaic edifice there are exhibited several amphoras with drugs (resins) partly carbonized and which, undergoing an organoleptical analysis, could not be identified. Although of Hellenistic origin, they are extremely valuable for the Romanian pharmacy museums by their age and richness. Objects and ustensiles, mainly of Roman facture and ressembling to the Hellenistic and the Hellenic ones, brought from the Italic peninsula, are less numerous but endemical on the territory of our country. Such objects, disconnected or together can be found in Sighişoara, Alba Iulia, Craiova, Tg. Jiu, Turnu Severin and probably in other localities that have not been identified up to the present moment. These objects: glass vesels, little spoons, sticks, small receptacles for preserving ointments, clay rushlights,

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receptacles of the type that resemble to the Roman mortuary vessels of which we have already mentioned, are all things of value for our museums. Unfortunately, there is neither a centralized evidence of these objects nor have they been profoundly studied. We could add medicines presented under the form of hard eye washes (dry), with the printed seal of the person who executed the preparation (for exemple, Publius Corcolonius). We could also add amulets, votive plates and data on a sort of nurseries in the Roman castes, as well as instruments: bistouries, forcepses, needles made of various metals and others, that were used for therapeutical purposes by our ancestors.

Kelompok 4

Medieval Faience Pharmacy Objects from the Romanian MuseumsBecause of the artfulness they have been executed with and because of their signification, such vessels have been imported from the West by the specialists. The vessels are larger or smaller than the nowadays flower vases, made of enamelled faience, with burnt etiquetes (that is written before the vessels were put into kilns). As a rule they were made with the "great fire technique" and only few were made with the "small fire technique". When the Chinese porcelain begun to be imported, the vessels were nolonger produced in the West. They are very rare in the Romanian museums. Thus, in The National Art Museum of Bucharest there are 18 pieces, namely: "albare" (special forms of vessels used to preserve ointments and soft extracts), carafes for aromated waters, jugs.

Some such vessels are to be found in the profile collection of The Peleş Museum of Sinaia. A porcelain vessel, having (as others as well) as effigy a saint with an aureola, is to be found in the collection of The Pharmacy Faculty of Bucharest. At the present moment the situation of the 18 vessels from The National Museum is not exactly known because the objects have been put to shelter because of the events of the 22nd-25th of December 1989. One (or more of these vessels) are to be found in The History and Archaeology Museum of Bucharest. All or almost all of the vessels from The Art National Museum have been photographed and exhibited on the occasion of several pharmacy manifestations and constituted the object of a calendar of The Medicines Factory from Bucharest, before the revolution.

The Saint HealersPictures of the Saint healers representing Cosma and Damian, as artistic proofs in the orthodox an catholic Romanian churches, can be found in many places. The oldest picture of them all is in the church situated in Densuş (Hunedoara County), but also in Roman, Bucharest etc. They are important because, on the one hand many

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of them are medieval,and on the other hand because one of these two saints holds a small portable medical pouch that seems to be made of wood and in the other one he holds a spoon or a little spoon used to administer the medicine, usually pills or bolus. Of course, there are many saint healers which have been painted in the churches but they do not have ustensiles. The orthodox Romanian church painting also shows Ancient physicians such as Esculap and Hygiea.

The Oldest Collections of History of the Pharmacy In Romania, the laboratory pharmacy appeared later than in the West and progressed slower. The first mentioning in official documents is dated in the year 1494, in Sibiu, chemist's shops appearing afterwards in Bistriţa, Braşov, Făgăraş etc. In the Danubian Romanian Principalities the chemist's shops appear during the second half of the 18th century, although the trade with medicinal drugs (camphor, pepper, etc.) is dated three centuries earlier. The objects belonging to the Romanian Middle Age preserved and are still preserved in some places, by virtue of habit, but due to lack of acquaintance with the matter, the objects are getting fewer and fewer every year. We could take as exemple the situation of two objects used for other purposes, but which have been identified and handed over to the museums: a charge of one pound was keeping open, for over 100 years, the door of the dispensary of the Military Hospital from Cluj.

Now the object is at The National Military Museum of Bucharest. The master of the State Chemist's Shop (ex-chemist's shop no. 84), Duca Avenue, had on her desk a brass piece, polished after so much manipulation, as it was used to press the prescriptions so that they would not be blown by the draught. It had the form of the pyramid trunk. The chemist had brought it from another chemist's shop but she was not curious to look at it attentively; if she had done so, she

would have seen the metrology cheques legislated a century before. It had an old pharmaceutical weight. So, during the time, pieces 100-150 years old had been and actually continue to be found; they are unindentified and used with other purposes. The oldest collections of history of the pharmacy that have been organized after World War I, belong to the professors from Cluj, namely Professor Doctor Jules Guiart and Valeriu Bologa and, apart, to Iuliu Orient, physician-chemist, whose collection seems to be a little bit older.

A small and old collection of history of the pharmacy can be found at The History Museum of Sighişoara. Numerous pharmacy pieces are used as hand balances, weight boxes, pestle mortars, etc.; such objects are frequently found in many museums in the country, but they are

little studied. An old collection is at The Medicine and Pharmacy Museum in Roman, Neamţ County; it has been studied and exhibited by Mr. Căzărescu, Doctor. It is exposed to degradations due to the fact that it is placed in a small room that functioned as control post. It would represent a significant loss because the hospital had been built two centuries ago.

The Collection of Pharmacy Muniments and Documents

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The collection has been founded at the end of the 19th century by N. I. Angelescu, Doctor-Chemist, from Bucharest. The collection, which has never been exhibited for the public, constituted the base of the printed work entitled "Papers and Documents from the Past of the Romanian Principalities", Bucharest, 1904. Unfortunately, the author, a great personality of the Romanian pharmacy, brought the collection to the House of Trade - and, some authors say, was sheltered inside the present-day building of the Court house situated on the Quay of Dâmboviţa River. The chemists do not know what happened next with the collection. Pharmacy muniments, though few in number, can be found in the Central State Archives in Bucharest. The muniments were written by hand on parchmented paper and were signed by the Romanian rulers which reigned between 1750 - 1830; the pergaments bear imposing sealing waxes; the intention was to create chemist's shops and to give privileges.

The Drama of the Old Pharmacy Objects from the Collection of the Pharmacy Faculty in Bucharest According to the relating of Professor Doctor Al. Ionescu Matiu (1889-1975), it seems that after the Pharmacy Faculties of Iaşi, Cluj and Bucharest were unified in 1934 in Bucharest, the newly created institution gathered old objects from the chemist's shops from the country's capital-city, thus making up a museum collection. In this respect, chemist Aurel Scurtu was especially called from Galaţi. There he owned a chemist's shop and was the author of many articles on the history of the pharmacy, which were published in the successive magazines he edited. The didactic collection was well organized by a competent person and exhibited for the public in the building of the old Bucharest University, the present-day Faculty of History. In 1944, during the bombardments, it was exactly that side of the building that was hit and set on fire.

Unfortunately, all the objects were lost, and if something was saved anyway, the place where it could be found is not known. Thus, the capital-city of the country was widowed of the oldest and most beautiful vestiges of pharmacy history. A year after the bombardment chemist Aurel Scurtu died and our investigations at his domicile in Şt. Furtună Street (ex- Angelescu Street) led to no results due to the changing of the lodgers and to the nationalization of the house.

Kelompok 5

Destructions During the WarIt is known for sure that the Schuster Emil chemist's shop situated on Calea Victoriei, at the beginning of Calea Griviţei, was hit during the German air raids of the 25th- 27th of August 1944. The entire shop was destroyed but it had in its windows an expensive collection of medieval faience pharmacy objects (say the eye-witnesses). It is not known if anything was saved and, if so, where it could be found.

The Nationalization of the Chemist's Shops in Romania This operation was made in three different stages: on the 11th of

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June 1948 the biggest laboratories of pharmacy products have been nationalized; on the 2nd of April 1949 the private chemist's shops from the towns have been nationalized; in 1953 the rural chemist's shops have been nationalized. By entering the state chemist's shops, it seemed that the old ones will be preserved as they were on their places. However, a stipulation from the Ministry of Health decided the modernization of the chemist's shops and the handing over of the old objects to The Bruckenthal State Museum in Sibiu. Duringng 1951 - 1952, maybe later also, 64 boxes containing pharmacy objects were sent. We have no knowledge of the stipulations by virtue of which the most representative pieces were selected and sent to Cluj, to The Museum of History of Transylvania and constituted there The Museum of History of the Pharmacy.

In 1973, the second Pharmacy Museum was open in Sibiu, having objects from this collection, that were to be found at The Bruckenthal Museum. Unfortunately, the organizers of these museums never revealed the sources from where the objects came. Their discretion might be related to hidden purposes. They also gave the impression that the objects belonged there. Negligence must not be left out of view. The third lot of pharmacy objects of historical importance remained in the storage rooms of The Bruckenthal Museum and can constitute a part of the patrimony fund of a future national museum of pharmacy.

The Problem of the Museum Collections on the History of the Pharmacy that Exist in Romania and Solutions for Their Future It is well-known that in the entire country there are over 20 collections that are state property, stored in places that are state property as well. As the storage places can become private property, these collections might: Either, if preserved in state property, be evacuated from those places, as these ones would have more profitable usings. Or, they would become private property and would cease being exhibited for the public; thus the trace of the materials would be lost. An analysis at the highest degree must be effectuated; a decision that would state their regime must be issued as well. If these collections had a state inventory and the storage places remained in state property as well, the problem of the buildings servicing (who pays) and of the personnel ( who gives the salaries) would occur than. We shall further describe the collections that exist in state property in an organized manner.

The Present-day Situation The state fund consisting of pharmacy furniture, vessels and utensils that are obsolete and present a high level of damage, represent a constitutive part of the present-day functioning chemist's shops. This general inventory, with old furniture of historic interest, has been achieved by and with the participation of the ex-chemist's offices. Nowadays, they are incompletely changed into private property, because the old endowments of the chemist's shops from all over the country had not been changed into private property.

The historic inventory could be preserved in the state fund and delivered by transfer to the national patrimony. Now it is the most opportune time for this because, if the objects arrive in the possession of private owners, their passing into a museum's possession and exhibiting them

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into a national museum would meet great difficulties, moreover, the base of materials would be significantly reduced in view of constituting the fund of objects for the museum. The difficulties would start at the moment when, instead of talking to one single owner - the state - the problem of constituting the fund of objects for the museum would get slower by talking to the hundreds or the thousands of private owners.

It is also necessary to take into consideration a conjuncture element: as a consequence of the decline of preparing the medicines in the laboratory of the chemist's shops in favour of the medicines prepared on industrial scale, many utensils, apparata vessels and maybe furniture would not be useful any longer and could be given to a future museum. Rescuing these objects 2 or 3 years from now would be too late because destroying is easier and more simple than preserving something in order to transfer it to The National Pharmacy Museum. This opportunity hurries the organizing of the national museum.

The Pharmacy Museum of the National Museum of History of Transylvania from Cluj The Pharmacy Museum of the Bruckenthal State Museum, Sibiu

The Collection of History of the Pharmacy from the basement of the Bruckenthal Musem, Sibiu

The Collection of the Faculty of Pharmacy from Bucharest

The Musuem of the History of Medicine and Pharmacy from Craiova

The Museum Collection of the Medicines Storage Room of Banat, ARCATIM, Timişoara

The Museum Pharmacy Collection of the Ex-Pharmacy Office, Galaţi

The Museum Collection of the History of the Pharmacy of the History Museum from Brăila

The Collection of History of the Pharmacy from the ex-Chemist's Shop no.40, Bucharest

The Collection of the History of Medicine and Pharmacy in Professor Doctor Vasile Rascanu Memorial House

The Museum Collection of the ARGESFARM Trade Society, Piteşti

Small Collectionsfrom the History and Archaeology Museums from Constanţa, Mangalia, Giurgiu and Tg. Jiu

The Museum Collection of The History Museum of Focşani

The SC. MEDIFARM Ploieşti Collection

The Museum Pharmacy Collection from Oraviţa

The Collection of The Institute of Public Hygiene and Health from Bucharest

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The House of chemist C. C. Hepites from Brăila

The Collection of History of the Pharmacy from Braşov

Museum - Chemist's Shops

Unorganized Collections or mere disconnected pieces

Kelompok 6

The Present-day Situation 1. The Pharmacy Museum of The National History Museum of Transylvania, Cluj-Napoca,

Doctor Physician Eva Crişan as custodian. It is the first museum in Romania that was created with a majority of objects that had been conceded by The Bruckenthal Museum and with part of the objects belonging to the Hintzs's chemist's shop that had been funded in 1710. It is probably the oldest one, but the building still exists even now. It is state property. The museum is open for the public.

2. The Pharmacy Museum of The Bruckenthal State Museum, Sibiu

Part of the objects that were collected after the nationalization together with the "La Ursul Negru" ("The Black Bear's") chemist's shop's inventory (property of chemist Guido Fabritius, who lived in Germany) are now state property and make up the present-day inventory of the museum - chemist's shop (Chemist Ban Minodora being the custodian). The museum is open for the public. The exhibition is well organized but the objects are not studied from a pharmaceutical point of view, as the case is at The National History Museum in Cluj.

3. The Collection of History of the Pharmacy from the Basement of The Bruckenthal Museum, Sibiu

It is made up of objects that remained after the most representative and aesthetic pieces had been chosen and handed over to the two museums described above. It is an unstudied collection, stored together with depersonalized and, probably, not paired objects as well. From a scientific point of view we know that all the small homeopathical medicine chests have been grouped by historian chemist I. Fr. Roth (1914 - 1977) and stored in The Pharmacy Museum in Sibiu; it was a remarcable and well done thing; Sibiu was the city where Hahnemann, the founder of the homeopathy as a science, had lived. We do not know the criteria that were at the base of the distribution of the other pieces between the two museum - chemist's shops. This collection may constitute the basis for

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a national pharmacy museum but we suppose it being insufficient because they are remains and, probably, the most recent belonging to the harvesting of 1950 - 1952.

4. The Collection of The Faculty of Pharmacy in Bucharest

It was created for didactic purposes but it went beyond this objective as it enowed itself with numerous objects from the Counties of Hunedoara ( Director Andrei Labud) and Suceava (Director Paul Potorac) at the request of Doctor Lecturer Fărşirotu Z. around the '70's or so. This is a rich collection exhibited in two rooms and a small repository (the third room). Normally, this colection should contain aparata and ustensiles that are used in the teaching process. However, the criterium has not been paid attention to and that is why it has a pharmacy musuem character. It is state property, Professor Doctor Ana Carata being the conservatoire. She also teaches the History of the Pharmacy at the Faculty of Pharmacy. The present-day conservatoires aprove the transfer of objects and constitute the second base for the national museum.

5. The Museum of the History of Medicine and Pharmacy, Craiova

Has mixed aims: both didactic and exhibitional. The Director is Professor Doctor Scheanu Mihail, professor in the History of the Pharmacy at the Faculty of Pharmacy in Craiova. The pharmacy part is sheltered in the basement and does not benefit by the best conditions. It is state property. Here is the adress where the offices are: Unirii Street, no.104; it has a yard and an area for growing medicinal herbs. The source of the objects is known - but not entirely - due to the two founders, the chemists Gh. Cismărescu and N. Zahacinschi, both of them deceased.

6. The Museum Collection Belonging to the Medicines Repository of Banat ARCATIM, Timişoara

It is a small collection, exhibited in a room. We do not know the exact situation, but there exists the possibility of disanssembling as the old chemist founder and conservatoire, Popovici Valeriu, has now retired. It has not been open for the public and the objects have not been scientifically identified. "Arcatim" is now a trade organization and in the future it might need the space where the collection is kept.

7. The Museum Pharmacy Collection of the Ex-Pharmacy Office, Galaţi

Is now a trade Society named "Hepites" s.r.l. It has a collection of old pharmacy vessel and objects. We do not know the present-day situation of the inventory and the value of the pieces. It seems that it is exhibited for the public since 1981, but the information is incertain.

8. The Museum Collection of the History of the Pharmacy Belonging to the History Museum in Brăila

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It is state property. The collection has been founded by Paul Bălcănescu (1910 - 1965). After the death of the chemist, his sister donated the entire inventory to the locality museum, following the testamentary will. Now the collection can be found in good conditions at the museum that is situated in Piaţa Traian (Trajan Square), Brăila. However, the objects of history of the pharmacy are few and not studied.

9. The Collection of History of the Pharmacy, State Property of the Ex-State Chemist's Shop No.40 in Bucharest, Calea Călăraşi

Is now conceded to a trade society. It is a valuable collection, the majority of the objects being well known as origin and fabrication. It is also open for the public, but not with museum status. It comprises old, unitary furniture (belonging to one single chemist's shop), vessels, ustensiles - it seems that it has the same source as the furniture. It also comprises a small pharmacy library - books from the 20th century and pharmacopoeias. It is attractive for the chemists because it is aesthetic as well.

10. The Collection of History of Medicine and Pharmacy from the Memorial House of Professor Doctor Vasile Răşcanu, Iaşi

It is a reduced collection, it comprises pharmacy objects, pharmacopoeias etc. Space - a small room; it illustrates the developement of the Moldavian pharmacy. It has a didactic purpose as well. It is open for the public. The objects are disparate, regarding from the point of view of their origin.

11. The Museum Collection of ARGEŞFARM Piteşti

Trade Societyfounded by the old pharmacy office from Piteşti. It is a rich, unitary and well built collection. The furniture, vessels, ustensiles, diplomas, books, etc. are stored in two large rooms that enter the repository of a functioning chemist's shop, now in private property. The custodian, founder and conservatoire is chemist Dorina Mureşan. She has advertized the collection on the occasion of various national and international manifestations (Wien, Prague, Paris). The collection has an assured perspective and it should be conceded to the national heritage , respectively to the History Museum of Argeş County.

12. Small Collections from the History and Archaeology Museums in Constanţa, Mangalia, Giurgiu, Tg. Jiu and others possess old pharmacy objects, some of them even from the Antiquity.

The objects are exhibited. Neither an inventory, nor a sistematic study from the point of view of the history of the pharmacy have been made, but they are necessary. It is a dowry of invaluable historic value, but it is not advertized and sufficiently studied.

13. The Museum Collection Belonging to The History Museum, Focşani

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It is inventoried and exhibited. The objects are well located. The collection comes from an exhibition on the history of the pharmacy organized on the occasion of an inter-regional pharmacy conference in 1970 (organizer C. Iugulescu, with the support of the Focşani chemists). The entire collection has been donated to the History Museum in Focşani, where few proofs existed and other pieces were collected from private persons and chemist's shops that have been subsequently demolished during 1976 - 1985. Part of the assets of the old chemist's shops, situated in basements, have been burried by leveling the area so that new buildings could be constructed. Focşani still has the possibility to collect some objects related to the history of the pharmacy.

14. S.C. MEDIFARM Ploieşti Collection, State Property

It seems that the collection has unrecorded objects. It has been founded by the old pharmacy office, now transformed into trade society. The inventory and the value of the pieces are not known.

Kelompok 7

15. The Pharmacy Museum Collection, Oraviţa

It comprises two rooms where a temporary exhibition was held and now the furniture and the vessels are only stored. It has not been advertized. We do not know its adress (it seems that it could be sheltered in two rooms with degrading roof, somewhere near or at the town theatre).

16. The Collection of The Institute of Public Hygiene and Health in Bucharest

Has only a few glass pieces (disconnected pharmacy vessels, of different size and source) with no historic value, constituted only for illustrative purpose. But, the collections of old books and magazines belonging to the history of medicine department are more important than the pharmacy objects. It is important that many old and rare pharmacy books, donated by chemists, are accessible but not exhibited. The value of the collection is immense, but the storage conditions are not proper - in halls or basements).

17. The House of Chemist C. C. Hepites from Brăila

Would be suited for declaring it memorial house. C. C. Hepites was one of the first class personalities of the 19th century. It would be a great win for the town itself, Brăila, the major of which he was.

18. The Collection of History of the Pharmacy, Braşov

Organized by the old inter-county pharmacy office, now turned into trade society named "Farmacom" s.r.l. A room from a 200 year-old building, that functioned as a

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chemist's shop, was localized in Braşov. It seems that the wall paintings that proved the room had been used as a chemist's shop, have been covered again, if not even destroyed. Anyway, the County of Braşov has a good potential in the field of the history of the pharmacy, a potential that have not been explored; it is to be found in Braşov, Codlea, Făgăraş.

19. Museum-Chemist's Shops

Presently, more chemist's shops that have preserved the furniture, vessels and even the configuration of an older chemist's shop, well determined from a scientific - historic point of view, may be declared museum-chemist's shops and offered to the visitors. Here are few chemist's shops that have a well known, characteristic past and an unitary aspect and which are now passing into private property:

o The state chemist's shop, ex-no.13 "Hotăranu", Galaţi Street, Bucharest o The state chemist's shop, ex-no. 40 "Mihalovici Aristide" Călăraşi Street,

Bucharest

o Numerous chemist's shops from the province: Corabia, Sinaia etc.

o

20. Unorganized Collections or mere disconnected pieces

Presently, they are state property, but soon will be passed into private property. It is less probable that they will remain unitary, because the new commodities requirements demand that the spaces must be cleared. Probably they will desintegrate, but it would represent a great loss for the national heritage.

ConclusionsThese data impose the founding of a national museum of History of the Pharmacy. Here are the most important elements in this respect:

The political situation of transition toward privatization takes out from the state property and thus, from the pharmacy heritage, all the above mentioned collections. The national museum could absorb the collections that would remain without a storage place and without guard - conservation.

The museum could function in a building that was raised with the financial contribution of the chemists, should it be retroceded; the building is situated in Pitar Moş Street and belongs to the Chemist's Shops Supply Office (OAF). Minovici villa could also be solicited; it had been conceded to the state. The place would be satisfying . It is situated in a central area and served as shelter for museum materials.

The difference between our country and the Western developed countries could be reduced.

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There are unlimited resources coming from the quashing of the Romanian pharmacy industry undergoing a process of receiving a technological character. We already have the trained personnel for this. A Romanian pharmacy society is functioning already. A central college of the chemists and county colleges are also functioning already; they all could get involved in this great action, the chemists being interested in the developement of their profession, as it is menaced by dezorganization. The tendency to support the establishing of a national museum began to be felt among the chemists since September 1995.

All these conditions related to the material, personnel, opportunity and inerest from the part of the majority of the chemists make us propose the establishing of a National Museum of History of the Pharmacy in Bucharest. The action should commence as soon as possible. This idea has been launched in the pharmacy environment in September 1996.

Last update: July 13, 1999. web: Cornelia Calin

Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its

development]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9324574

PMID: 9324574 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Hadzović S.

Abstract

The differentiation and separation of two scientific disciplines, medicine and pharmacy begins during the 12th century. Each differentiation by itself brings certain improvement and upgrading but at any level, this happens only when proper conditions are met. Therefore, in order for pharmacy to appear as a profession and to promoted to the level of science, certain conditions had to be met, namely the society and cultural forces had matured to the level of differentiation of these two disciplines, which have begun existing as completely independent disciplines in that time.

For the history of pharmacy, it is very important to note the fact that we find the first beginnings of professional pharmacy among Arabic population. The first drug stores in the world were established in Arabic world (Baghdad 754). Considering the fact that Arabs had brought a great deal to pharmaceutical science and the fact that their search included some 2.000 substances, the goal of this work was formulated and medicinal herbs used in the treatment listed.

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The forms used that period are still used in the therapy and some formulations of drugs can be found in pharmacopeas even today. If we add to these reports the fact that most of the literature appearing in the field was also of Arabic origin and that many editions and translations of the pharmaceutical works from Arabic to Latin had been published ever since, the obvious contribution of Arabic science in the development of pharmacy becomes even more obvious.

(The FASEB Journal. 2006;20:1581-1586.)© 2006 FASEB

Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 C.E.) and today

Matthew E. Falagas*,†,1, Effie A. Zarkadoulia* and George Samonis‡

* Alfa Institute of Biomedical Sciences (AIBS), Athens, Greece;

† Department of Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA; and

‡ Department of Medicine, University of Crete School of Medicine, Heraklion, Crete, Greece

1Correspondence: Institute of Biomedical Sciences (AIBS), 9 Neapoleos St., Marousi 15123, Greece. E-mail: m.falagas@aibs.gr

THE ARAB WORLD COVERS a vast geographic area, comprising many different countries in Asia and Africa. The contemporary world owes much of its progress in all fields of human intellectual activity, including medicine, to Arabic culture, especially the advancements made during the Golden Age of Arabic-Islamic science (8th to 13th centuries C.E.). The glorious historic background of the Arabic world permits us to identify the debt that humanity owes to the Golden Age of Arabic science and to evaluate the research contributions made by Arab countries to biomedical sciences in our own day.

Kelompok 8

THE GOLDEN AGE OF ARAB SCIENCE

The biomedical sciences of the Arabic-Islamic world underwent remarkable development during the 8th to 13th centuries C.E., a flowering of knowledge and intellect that later spread throughout Europe and greatly influenced both medical practice and education. The scientific glory of the Arabic nation originated on the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century C.E., where the preaching of the prophet Mohammed united the Arab tribes and inaugurated the Muslim religion (1) . The Islamic state was formed in 622 C.E., when the Prophet moved from Mecca to Medina. Within a century after his death (632 C.E.) a large part of the planet, from southern Europe throughout North Africa to Central Asia and on to India, was controlled by and/or influenced by the new Arabic-Muslim Empire (1 , 2) . In 711 C.E., Arab Muslims invaded

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southern Spain and a center of flourishing civilization (al-Andalus) was created (1) . Another center emerged in Baghdad from the Abbasids, who ruled part of the Islamic world during a historic period later characterized as the "Golden Age" (∼750 to 1258 C.E.) (3) .

Arguably, many of the achievements of the Islamic-Arabic Golden Age were based on previous initiatives taken by the ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, Persians, Greeks, and Romans (1 , 2 , 4) . Hence, translators were invited to Baghdad, where scientists and researchers studied the past and created the future. The result of their work was impressive progress in all sectors of science. The rulers of Islamic Spain, in an attempt to surpass Baghdad, recruited scholars who made contributions of paramount importance to science, medicine, technology, philosophy, and art.

WHAT LED TO THE GOLDEN AGE?

"The Golden Age" was based on several factors (5) . Muslims following the guidelines of the Prophet studied and searched for knowledge (1 , 5 , 6) . The Quran is clear: "The scholar’s ink is more sacred than the blood of martyrs", while the Prophet promoted medical research preaching that "For every disease, Allah has given a cure." (5) Communication became easier because the Muslim Empire united extensive geographic areas. Scholars travelled to teach or share ideas. Furthermore, the Arabic language became a unifying factor (4 , 5) . Translations from Greek, Latin, and Chinese into Arabic were innumerable, thus removing language barriers for scholars. During the same period, Arabs learned from the Chinese how to produce paper and books became more available (5) . Libraries were established in Cairo, Aleppo, Baghdad, and urban centers in Iran, central Asia, and Spain, while bookshops with thousands of titles opened in several cities (4 , 5) . Finally, The House of Wisdom, an academic institution serving as a university, was established in Baghdad in 1004 C.E. (5) .

ISLAMIC MEDICINE

During that period, Islamic medicine went through impressive developments, which later influenced medical education and practice in Europe (1 , 2) . Intense efforts for translation and analysis of the works of Hippocrates, Rufus of Ephesus, Dioscorides, and Galen took place (1 , 2) . Arab scholars synthesized and further elaborated the knowledge they had gathered from ancient manuscripts, adding their own experience. Numerous Arab pioneers are mentioned in medical history.

Among the most famous are: Yuhanna ibn Massuwayh who performed dissections and described allergy (4 , 7) ; Abu Bakr Muhummad ibn Zakariyya ar-Razi (Rhazes) who differentiated smallpox from measles, described the laryngeal branch of the recurrent nerve, introduced mercurial ointments and hot moist compresses in surgery, investigated psychosomatic reactions, and wrote the famous Al-Hawi, a medical encyclopedia of 30 volumes (4 , 7) ;

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Az-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), known as the father of surgery, who performed tracheotomy and lithotomy, introduced the use of cotton and catgut, and described extra-uterine pregnancy, cancer of the breast, and the sex-linked inheritance of hemophilia (4 , 7) ;

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) who differentiated meningitis from other neurologic diseases, described anthrax and tuberculosis, introduced urethral drug instillation, stressed the importance of hygiene, and dietetics, and the holistic approach to the patient [his work al-Qanun fil Tibb (The Canon of Medicine), represented the absolute authority in medicine for 500 years (4 , 7) ]; Ibn-Zuhr (Avenzoar) who described pericarditis, mediastinitis, and paralysis of the pharynx, and who pointed out the importance of drugs for body and soul (4 , 7) ; and Ibn-Nafis who studied and described pulmonary circulation (4 , 7) .

Progress was apparent in all medical fields, including anatomy, surgery, anaesthesia, cardiology, ophthalmology, orthopaedics, bacteriology, urology, obstetrics, neurology, psychiatry (including psychotherapy), hygiene, dietetics, and dentistry (1 , 4 , 7) .

EDUCATION, HOSPITALS, AND SCIENCE

In that era, a thorough system of medical education was created in the Arab-Muslim world (1 , 4) . Arabic medical studies consisted of initial training in such basic sciences as alchemy, pharmacognosy, anatomy, and physiology, which was followed by clinical training in hospitals, where students performed physical examinations, attended ward rounds, and clinical lectures (1 , 2) . Upon completion of training, future physicians were required to pass oral and practical exams in order to be licensed. Medicine was not only a profession or science, but also a philosophical attitude based upon religion and culture, obeying codes of ethics characterizing the physician’s behavior and obligations to patients, colleagues, and the community (4) .

At the same time, secular hospitals (Bimaristans), developed all over the Arab world (1) . These were well-organized institutions, run under specific regulations and directed by physicians (1 , 2) . No sexual, religious, social, or economic discrimination interfered with patients’ treatment (1). Detailed medical records were kept (1) . These hospitals were adequately equipped, and had both inpatient and outpatient units (1 , 2) . Small, mobile hospital units were also created to serve distant areas and battle fields (1) . The first known hospital was established in Damascus in 706 C.E., while the most important one, located in Baghdad, was established in 982 C.E. (2) .

Kelompok 9

Along with progress in medicine, there were remarkable developments in pharmacology (1 , 2) . In the 9th century C.E., manuscripts of Dioscurides and Galen translated from Greek formed

the basis of further understanding. Arab scholars became acquainted with herbs, experimented with anesthetics, developed techniques such as distillation, crystallization, solution, and calcinations (1 , 2) and introduced new drugs such as camphor, senna, musk, alum, sandalwood, ambergris, mercury, aloes, and aconite. They also developed syrups and juleps,

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created flavoring extracts made of rose water, orange or lemon peel, and experimented with poisons and antidotes (1 , 2 , 4) . The most famous manual was The Comprehensive Book on Materia Medica and Foodstuffs, an alphabetical guide to over 1400 simples, written by Ibn al-Baytar (2) . The first pharmacies were established in Baghdad in 754 C.E. In the 12th century C.E., pharmacology was differentiated from medicine and alchemy and became an independent discipline (1) . The impact of Arabic pharmacology in Europe was tremendous for centuries. Terms used in everyday pharmacy and chemistry such as drug, alkali, alcohol, elixir, aldehydes, etc., are derived from the Arabic (1) .

Advances in medical sciences were not an isolated phenomenon. Astonishing progress was made in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, and other fields of science (1 , 6 , 8) . Prominent astronomers were Ibn Firnas, who constructed a planetarium and reputedly was the first man to fly; Al-Zarqali, who created a kind of astrolabe for measuring the motion of the stars; Al-Bitruji, who studied stellar movements; Al-Fargani, who wrote the Elements on Astronomy; and al-Sufi, who described the Andromeda galaxy. Mathematics was closely linked to astronomy and almost every mathematician was also an astronomer (8) . Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry flourished. Famous geometricians were Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, who first translated Euclid’s Elements; and Muhammad and Hasan Banu Musa, who wrote books on the measurement of the sphere and trisection of angles and who discovered kinematical methods of drawing ellipses (8) . Among arithmeticians and algebraists, al-Khwarazmi was considered the greatest. He obtained data from Greeks and Hindus and transmitted arithmetical and algebraic knowledge, which exerted great influence upon medieval mathematics (8) . Finally, trigonometry was developed along with astronomy with important representatives such as Ahmad al-Nahawandi, Al-Khwarizmi, Habash al-Hasib, Yahya ibn abi Mansur, and Sanad ibn Ali (8) . In the field of chemistry, Jabir Ibn Haiyan introduced the meaning of experimentation, leading from alchemy to modern chemistry.

Additionally, the Golden Age was characterized by technological, architectural, and artistic achievements (Figs. 1 and 2) . Methods for irrigation including underground channels, windmills, and waterwheels were some of the Arabic inventions (6 , 9) , while even today Arab architectural miracles and unique objects of art can be admired in many countries, with many of the best examples in southern Spain.

View larger version (101K):

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In this windowIn a new window Figure 1. Pottery cup depicting a leopard. Fatimid period, Egypt (11th century C.E.). Diameter: 20.4 cm. From the Islamic collection of the Benakis Museum, Athens, Greece (printed with permission).

View larger version (81K):In this windowIn a new window Figure 2. Glass cup. Egypt, Syria, or Iraq (9th–10th century C.E.). Height: 10 cm. From the Islamic collection of the Benakis Museum, Athens, Greece (printed with permission).

Unfortunately, decline is an historical phenomenon observed in all times and cultures, and the Arabic-Islamic world was no exception. From the 9th century C.E., several provinces had already started to fall away from Abbasid control and in the next four centuries the political power of the Empire was dispersed among new independent states (6) . Around the 12th century C.E., the Abbasid Empire became weak, marking the beginning of the end (1 , 9) . Turks played a major role. Turkish soldiers, who first reinforced the Empire after 861 C.E., undermined the central authority (6) . While the Abbasid Caliphate was disintegrating, the Seljuk Caliphate was beginning in 1057 C.E. By then the Empire had lost unity and power due to religious differences, charges of heresy, and assassinations. Along with the internal pressures, the European Crusades (1097–1291 C.E.) further weakened the Muslim Empire (9) . Finally, in 1236, Cordoba fell to Spanish Christians (5) and in 1258, Baghdad fell to Mongols (1 , 5) .

Kelompok 10

ARAB SCIENCE TODAY

To document the contributions of Arab countries to science today, we performed a bibliometric evaluation of the current biomedical research productivity in Arab countries, updating the relevant literature (10 , 11) by analyzing data of the last decade and expanding on the issue with the use of various methods of measuring research output and the inclusion of more Arab countries. Although bibliometric analyses have several limitations, such as the inclusion of only a proportion of journals in indexing databases (12 , 13) , the results of our study offer useful data about the biomedical research productivity in Arab countries during the last decade. The

23

research productivity of 23 Arab countries was evaluated by three different methods. First, by using the PubMed search engine, we identified the number of biomedical articles in which the first author’s address was in one of the Arab countries for the period 1994–2003. We used a methodology similar to other bibliometric studies performed by our group (14) .

In addition, the total number of articles originating from all Arab countries was calculated and compared with worldwide productivity. This method included the use of the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) Essential Science Indicators (ESI) database. The ESI database provides science trends and statistical information derived from other ISI databases. At the time of our analysis (April 2005) a total of 4941 journals were included in the ESI database and were categorized into 22 broad scientific fields for the 10-year period 1995–2004. We focused our search on nine biomedical scientific fields: biology and biochemistry, clinical medicine, immunology, microbiology, molecular biology and genetics, multidisciplinary, neuroscience and behavior, psychiatry / psychology, and pharmacology and toxicology. Data in the ESI database is organized in various ways, including national rankings for research productivity in the above scientific fields. Thus, data pertaining to the total number of publications, total number of citations, as well as to the number of citations per paper for the examined 10-year period, was collected and evaluated for each of the 23 Arab countries. Some Arab countries did not have data in the ESI rankings because they did not pass the needed cumulative citation count threshold as set by ESI.

We also evaluated articles published in the top 50 clinical medicine journals as categorized in the ESI database, sorted on the basis of the number of citations per paper. Then, by making use of the ISI Web of Science "advanced search" tool, we identified articles in these journals in which at least one author had an address in an Arab country. We analyzed data on original articles only, excluding publication types such as letters, editorials, and news items. In order to adjust for confounders that affect research productivity, the average population and gross domestic product (GDP) for each country during the study period were calculated from data obtained from the online World Bank databases (15) .

Raw and adjusted indicators for the biomedical research productivity of the Arab world during the last 10 years are shown in Table 1 . The last two columns present data adjusted for population size and GDP. Researchers from Saudi Arabia published the largest number of articles. However, when adjustments for population and GDP were made, Kuwait and Jordan, respectively, were the most productive. Looking at the cumulative indices of scientific production of the Arab countries, one may notice that although the population of these countries represented 4.6% of the global population and had 1.4% of the global GDP during the study period, they produced 0.5% of the biomedical research indexed in the PubMed database and 0.1% of the articles published in the top 50 clinical medicine journals. Only 30 articles from those published in the top 50 clinical medicine journals during the period 1994–2004 originated exclusively from Arab countries, whereas in 254 others there was also participation of authors from non-Arab countries [in 146, authors from the USA; and in 112, authors from Western Europe (there were co-authors from the USA, Western Europe, and Arab countries in some papers)].

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View this table:In this windowIn a new window Table 1. Raw and adjusted indicators for biomedical research productivity of Arab countries

Most Arab countries located in the African continent produced less research, in absolute or adjusted numbers, than the majority of non-African Arab countries. Although researchers from Egypt and Morocco published a relatively large number of papers and received a good number of citations compared to researchers from other Arab countries, they ranked lower when the data for research productivity were adjusted for population and GDP.

Data regarding the number of articles indexed in PubMed, in which the first author’s address was in an Arab country, for the years 1994–2003 are presented in Table 2 . As shown, there was a continuous increase in the number of articles originating from Arab countries. In 1994 these articles represented 0.4% of the total articles indexed in PubMed, whereas this figure was 0.6% for 2003.

View this table:In this windowIn a new window Table 2. Number of articles indexed in PubMed for each Arab country during the years 1994–2003

ON TO THE FUTURE

Biomedical research is important not only because of its direct significance for the health and well being of humans, but also because of the great economic advantages it affords. We are persuaded that the scientific community as well as the public and private funding organizations of Arab countries share the responsibility of increasing the funding for biomedical research and for improving the research infrastructure of each Arab country. Also, increased collaboration between Arab countries and their neighbours will offer a considerable benefit to those involved. Moreover, wealthy nations and regions, such as the USA and Europe, have the responsibility to assist Arab countries in their efforts to increase research productivity. This may be accomplished by incorporating well-trained Arab scientists in international research networks, and by helping them to stay in their home countries, thus increasing the local research productivity. Arabs have a long history of contribution to science, especially during the Arabic-Islamic Golden Age. However, political, social and economic problems have hampered scientists in Arab countries, making is difficult to optimize their capacity in research productivity in most scientific fields.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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We thank Ioannis A. Bliziotis, M.D. and Evi Papastamataki, R.N. for their help with data collection and analysis and Elpis Mantadakis, M.D. for reviewing the manuscript. M.E.F designed the study, supervised data collection and analysis, and wrote the bibliometric part of the paper. E.A.Z. and G.S. wrote the part of the paper regarding the Islamic Golden Age. M.E.F. is guarantor.

FOOTNOTES

The opinions expressed in editorials, essays, letters to the editor, and other articles comprising the Up Front section are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of FASEB or its constituent societies. The FASEB Journal welcomes all points of view and many voices. We look forward to hearing these in the form of op-ed pieces and/or letters from its readers addressed to journals@faseb.org

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4. Haddad, F. S. (1993) Arab contribution to medicine. Bull. Soc. Liban. Hist. Med. 1,21-33

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8. Ead, H. A. eds. History of Islamic Science 2 www.levity.com/alchemy/islam13.html. Accessed January 11, 2006.

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www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/ScienceMath/Science_and_Math.html. Accessed on January 6, 2006

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14. Bliziotis, I. A., Paraschakis, K., Vergidis, P. I., Karavasiou, A. I., Falagas, M. E. (2005) Worldwide trends in quantity and quality of published articles in the field of Infectious Diseases. BMC Infect. Dis. 5,16[CrossRef] [Medline]

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