Middle Tennessee State University

Historic Salt Works in

Arkansas Background and Five Year Plan for the Development of the Arkansas Salt Works

Project.

Kelsey Fields

12/12/2011

Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1

Pre-historic Era Background ..................................................................................................................... 1

Historic Era Background ........................................................................................................................... 3

Plan of Action ............................................................................................................................................... 7

Years 1-2 ................................................................................................................................................... 8

Years 2-4 ................................................................................................................................................... 9

Year 5 ........................................................................................................................................................ 9

Lesson Plan ............................................................................................................................................... 9

Sample Exhibit Panels ............................................................................................................................ 12

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................... 19

Appendices .................................................................................................................................................. 21

Appendix A: “Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas” ........................................................... 21

Appendix B: Currently Available Materials for use with the Historic Arkansas Salt Works Lesson Plan

................................................................................................................................................................ 37

Fields 1

Introduction

Saline County, Arkansas was founded in 1835 and some of its early history remains

unrecorded, confused or at the very least, incomplete. As the area school children are told, the

county was named Saline after the local salt works on the Saline River. However, the only salt

works discussed in the curriculum for local history focus entirely on the Caddo IV period (circa

1500-1700 C.E.) salt works south of Saline County in a salt marsh unconnected to the Saline

River.1 While this site has been studied by archaeologists, the documented historic era salt works

in the state have not. The residents of Saline County and the surrounding areas would benefit from

the clarification of the extent and location of historic salt works in Saline County and the State

through archaeological research and additional historical research. Findings from this proposed

research will result in more accurate lesson plans for school age children, interpretation of

archaeological and historical findings for the general public. The completed project will also offer

a venue to educate the general public regarding the importance of the salt trade in Arkansas’s

history.

Pre-historic Era Background

During the Jurassic Period the basin area now known as the Gulf of Mexico began opening.

The Gulf of Mexico acted as a “great evaporating basin, concentrating the waters of the Atlantic,

precipitating salt and gypsum.”2 This layer of precipitated salt eventually became compacted and

is currently known as the Louann Salt Stratigraphic Layer.3 This layer is continuous from the Gulf

of Mexico through Texas, Louisiana, and into Arkansas, south of the Ouachita Mountains. Later,

in the Cretaceous Period, a geologic event occurred opening the Mississippi River to the Gulf of

Mexico. Geologists have hypothesized that this occurred when an event, like the cooling of a

hotspot within the earth’s crust, broke the Ouachita-Appalachian Mountain Chain into the separate

Fields 2

chains that they are today.4 This opened a valley for which the Mississippi River could begin

flowing into the Gulf. However, due to the high sea levels of the Cretaceous Period, some

26.5-145.5 million years ago, the valley instead filled with water from the Gulf, creating a shallow,

salt water bay called the Mississippi Embayment. This bay allowed for the “deposition of gypsum

and anhydrite in highly saline waters in southwest Arkansas.”5 This explains the presence of salt in

the area. The importance of that mineral was to shape much of the history to follow.

As the shallow sea eventually evaporated the salt left behind proved necessary for

supporting the lives of large mammals, like deer and bison, as well as humans. Salt was

furthermore necessary for early humans to preserve food, tan leather, and was even used as a

disinfectant. As such an important resource, salt has been produced in Arkansas since pre-historic

times.

Pre-historic production of salt is taught to Arkansas school children. A recently updated

lesson plan compiled by the Butler Center for Arkansas Studies is devoted to this pre-historic

Production. “Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas” utilizes some of the basic findings

of the Hardman Settlement’s archaeological investigation to introduce fifth through eighth grade

students to the topic of salt production. The majority of this is done by showing the students an

artist’s rendering of the settlement circa 1500 B.C.E. This image shows the Caddo going to the

stream to gather water. The water is then put in nearly flat, round, ceramic pans near a large fire.

Such shallow ceramic pans were discovered through archaeological research.6

The actual archaeological process and finds at Hardman, a site in Clark County, are not

discussed in the plans. However, discussion of a possible Caddoan salt-trading network along

Arkansas’s navigable water ways hints at the importance that salt played in trade and offers an

opportunity to discuss the role that trade plays in acculturation. The lesson plans briefly glimpse

Fields 3

historic era salt production in Arkansas as the plans call for teachers to discuss with the students,

the type of salt pan that European settlers used to evaporate water in for salt production.7 Yet,

deeper discussion of historic era salt production is missing from the teacher’s resources. This

proves to be a disservice to Arkansas’s students, especially to those living in the historic era salt

producing areas of Arkansas, such as Saline, Clark, Sevier, and even Sebastian Counties. As

students of history know, resources to be exploited often shape human behaviors.

Historic Era Background

As in the pre-historic era, salt was a valuable and necessary commodity for early

European-American settlers. In the era prior to refrigeration, salt was necessary for the

preservation of food in the form of salting and pickling. This process inhibited the growth of

bacteria and was used to preserve everything from meat to vegetables and cheese. Because of the

wide range of uses for salt and is scarcity, one’s discovery of a well producing brine spring with

access to a trade route, such as a navigable waterway, opened up opportunities for making good

profits, which is what a number of settlers in the Arkansas territory did.

One of the earliest historic era documentations of salt production in the territory was said to

be Hernando DeSoto, during his stop in the winter of 1541-2 to make salt.8 In 1813 John Hemphill

started a salt work outside of Arkadelphia near both the Hardman site and the supposed site of

DeSoto’s stay.9 Furthermore, this salt producing region is historically important due to its

relationship with the Confederate Army during the Civil War.

Prior to the Civil War, The majority of salt used in the south was imported from American

salt works such as New York State’s Onondaga County and the Kanawha works in (West)

Virginia, or from foreign sources like Liverpool, England or one of France’s many salt

producers.10

Americans experienced war time shortages of salt previously during the

Revolutionary War and knew of the importance of salt production in war time.11

Therefore, when

Fields 4

the Confederate States ceded for the United States, the Union responded with a navel blockade

preventing the importation of foreign weapons and salt at New Orleans. The Confederacy had to

develop new sources of salt, including one of its by-products saltpeter for use in black powder.

This led the Confederacy to exempt salt workers from the draft.12

Confederate Officers Captain J.

M. King and M. S. Carpenter, a local, were sent to Arkadelphia to construct salt works to provide

the Army with salt.13

After the end of the war and the resumption of the regular salt trade, the

Arkansas works closed down as they could not compete with the imported salt.14

Although used

often over the years for salt production, this area is not historically the most productive salt work in

the territory.

That distinction belongs to “Lovely’s Lick.” Although the actual site of the salt works

became part of Oklahoma when Arkansas gained its statehood, Lovely’s lick is an example of the

importance of salt in politics of the territorial era. The area within which the salt work was located

was named after William L. Lovely. Lovely was sent as in Indian agent in 1816 to attempt to

secure the land from the Osage, who agreed to cede it to the United States Government as part of a

treaty between the Osage, Cherokee, and the United States. The treaty was never made official,

but the United State’s desire for the salt producing land had not disappeared. In 1818 most of the

land encompassed in Lovely’s treaty was purchased from the Osage. This land, however, did not

include the salt producing land, which was under the control of the Cherokee. In 1820 the

Cherokee chiefs had authorized salt production at the springs for the Cherokee and to sell to the

rest of the Arkansas Territory.15

Shortly thereafter, Cherokee Agent Ruben Lewis complained that “those salines are

important to the territory as well as to the Cherokees, and the Cherokees have not relinquished to

the United States any equivalent for them, it would seem reasonable that they should be so

Fields 5

disposed of as to secures to the territory, as well as to the Cherokees that necessary article at a fair

price.”16

Part of Lewis’s agitation about the salt appears go be the looming possibility that if the

Cherokee did not sell salt to the settlers for a low price, they would have to purchase salt shipped

up from New Orleans or down from Ohio.17

This would cause the salt to be taxed at three to five

dollars, not to mention a shipping cost of twenty-five to thirty dollars for each barrel.18

Following Lewis’s complaint, those salt-workers authorized by the Cherokee were forced

from the salt works by “persons pretending to have governmental authority.”19

In fact, this person

was likely Major William Bradford, commander of Fort Smith. Bradford reportedly replaced the

Cherokee’s salt workers with two men known as Bean and Sanders. Bean and Sanders reportedly

made salt in the area in 1915, prior to Cherokee possession of the land.20

The stated purpose of this

capture of salt rich territory was to produce salt for the garrison at the fort. The Cherokee appealed

to the President of the United Sates about this theft and sought the return of their property, but they

were denied.21

This is an example of how governments viewed important natural resources like salt.

Governments not only taxed salt but they often claimed ownership of salt springs and other types

of salt works, thus leasing them to operators. This practice has been documented as early as the

twelfth century B.C.E during the Shang Dynasty in China.22

France, Spain, and England all

attempted to establish some sort of salt monopoly. In France, the crown owned many of country’s

salt works. Additionally there was a tax on salt known as the Gabelle, the revenue from which was

used as the major source of funding for the country. By 1660 the tax required all citizens to

purchase a certain amount of government salt to insure that the tax earned enough revenue.23

When Spanish Conquistadors came to the Americas the “took over the brine springs and declared

them property of their king.”24

The English, while allowing salt production in their colonies,

Fields 6

closed down the salt works in Orissa, India because the salt produced there was more affordable

than the salt produced and shipped form Liverpool, England, thus cutting into the mother country’s

profits.25

Therefore it should come as no surprise to any student of history on the subject of salt,

that salt springs in Arkansas were declared to be federal property. When Arkansas became a state

in 1836, United States Congress granted the springs and their surrounding land to the state. The

action allowed the state to lease land around the springs for the purpose of salt production for a

period of less than ten years, unless otherwise approved by the United States Congress.26

As one would logically suppose, Saline County was named so because of the salt

production in the area. According to the Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture, the

county was “named for the salt works that were established in the area during the county’s early

years…” one such being the salt works of “Allen M. Oakley established… in 1827.”27

Under the

1836 law, a rival salt works were established in Saline County by William E. Woodruff, founder of

the Gazette, Arkansas’s first newspaper which ran until 1991 when it joined with the rival

Democrat, running today under the name Arkansas Democrat Gazette.28

Woodruff was a key

figure in the area’s early settlement and owned a large portion of land east of downtown Little

Rock where he build his home that still stands. It is not surprising that Woodruff had his hand in

the lucrative exploitation of the state’s salt resources as he often had a hand in key affairs, like the

steamboat trade on the Arkansas River. The information contained in the encyclopedia entry

appears to originate in Dallas Tabor Herndon’s Centennial History of Arkansas. The information

is re-phrased but never contains more details.29

Unfortunately there appears to be no further

documentation of the Saline County works.

So why is there not more taught about historic salt production in Arkansas? Firstly, the best

documented example of territorial salt production is now part of the state of Oklahoma. Secondly,

Fields 7

documents of other Arkansas salt works are apparently limited to the small collections of the

Arkansas History Commission and an incomplete listing of springs in Arkansas at the Arkansas

Geologic Survey that contains the location of some state salt springs in Sevier County. At the

commission, there is a twenty-five item file on the state’s leasing of springs. In another collection

there is an 1817 contract from two individuals for the lease of a salt spring. Unfortunately in the

case of the Saline County salt works, none of theses documentary resources pertains to Oakley’s

salt works for which the county was named. Likewise reports show that surveys by the Arkansas

Archaeological program have yet to occur in areas that might contain the salt works. Therefore it

is necessary to undertake in-depth archaeological and historical research to discover the location of

these salt works and details about the specific manufacturing processes that they utilized.

Plan of Action

Such research requires funding and interpretation of the findings to the public require

additional funds. Furthermore, completion of this process requires the cooperation of many

different organizations. Therefore this project, hereafter known as the Arkansas Salt Works

Project (ASWP), will work in partnership with the Henderson State University (HSU) branch of

the Arkansas Archaeological Survey (AAS), the Arkansas Historic Preservation Program (AHPP),

the Arkansas Humanities Council (AHC), and the Department of Arkansas Heritage (DAH), as

well as a number of local sponsors. The following plan of action is a preliminary five year plan

designed to get basic information on the historic Arkansas salt industry to the public and fund

archaeological research to discover the location of the Saline County works which have the least

documentation of the known works.

Fields 8

Years 1-2

First, the Arkansas Salt Works Project requires the incorporation of the project as a

non-profit 501 (c) (3), to begin rising money to start part one of the project. Part one involves

consultation with the Henderson branch of the AAS, to establish the viability of the project as a

Sponsored Research Program. This will require documentary research and reviews of the

archaeological literature to narrow an area of possible study through survey work.

According to the literature on other archaeological research of salt works, different

ethnographic processes leave different archaeological evidence behind. In Belize, costal salt

works are identified by the remains of ceramics produced in a standardized size, which apparently

contained saltwater for boiling and then were broken open to reveal salt cakes.30

This process is

similar to the process used in Breton circa 600B.C.E and by the Romans in 46 C.E.31

In addition to this style of salt manufacture is the historic era method used around lake

Cuitzeo, Mexico. Here, salt waster was concentrated by sprinkling it onto salt rich earth. This

earth was then leached with more water. The left over dirt from this process resulted in tell-tell

manmade earthen mounds indicating a salt work site. The salt water from the dirt was collected in

hollowed tree trunks to evaporate in the sun.32

Another solar evaporation method in North

America was the use of wooden vats with rolling wooden roofs that covered the vats in the case of

rain.33

In both of these cases, the wood contains such a high concentration of salt that it can be

preserved, as can hollow trees used to pipe saltwater from springs to the processing locations.34

Additionally, the walls of ditches and canals that carry saltwater can fossilize, due to the

solidification of the mineral deposits in the water.35

However, since records of salt production in in

Arkansas generally show that processing of salt was done through concentration in a series of iron

boiling vats, such as the one located on HSU’s campus, it is likely that this process was the most

common in the state and evidence of these vats should be looked for.36

Fields 9

Years 2-4

After an area for survey has been agreed upon, the second part of the Arkansas Salt Works

Project plan can proceed. This involves application to the Arkansas Humanities Council for a

$5,000 research grant to fund the archaeological survey work, as this project fulfills the Council’s

requirements of being a non-profit group researching a topic of Arkansas history with a value to

audiences both academic and not. While there is no actual monetary limitation on the Grant funds

requested, this amount seems justifiable. If through partnership with the AAS it is determined that

more funds are needed for the survey work, the ASWP will adjust the request. If after three years

of survey and excavation work the third part of the plan will proceed.

Year 5

The third part of the plan focuses on interpretation of findings to the public. The ASWP

will apply for a $5,000 grant from the Department of Arkansas Heritage to create a traveling

exhibit on the Arkansas salt industry for Arkansas Heritage Month. In addition to the exhibit,

lesson plans on historic era salt works will be added to the Butler Center for Arkansas Studies

Lesson Plans. These plans will focus on ninth through twelfth grade students, essentially picking

up where the “Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas” left off. In addition to the history

of the salt industry in Arkansas, these interpretive materials will offer a venue for the importance

of science in the understanding of salt, as well as the impact of salt on global trade and politics. A

general mock up of the lesson plans and the exhibit follow. However, given impossibility of

knowing what might be uncovered in the archaeological research, these mock-ups represent what

is already known. Therefore, they are subject to change in support of actual findings.

Lesson Plan

In this lesson students will learn about the salt industry in Arkansas. This comprises of

learning how stratigraphic layers form, including the salt deposits formed and how archaeologists

Fields 10

use stratigraphic layers to inform the time frame of deposits in their research. Students will also

explore the chemical makeup of salt and its many uses both in the preservation of food and in

industrial applications. Furthermore, students will learn the value of the salt trade and the political

importance that access to adequate salt reserves has played in local history.

These lesson plans, as discussed earlier, are designed for students in ninth through twelfth

grades to pick up where the Caddo salt work plans end. Materials to be used in this lesson include

a map of the natural divisions of Arkansas, a map of the stratigraphic layers of Arkansas, a sitemap

of the Hardman and Saline County archaeological sites, photos of artifacts, and a diagram of the

chemical makeup of salt.

Since this lesson plan focuses on the higher grades they are designed to meet Arkansas

Curriculum Frameworks for Arkansas history, and chemistry. Content frameworks included

fulfilling the geography standards. These standards require that students understand the

geographical regions of Arkansas. In this lesson plan this will be done through discussion of

pre-historic stratigraphic layers, such as Louann Salt, and how plate tectonics and erosion

developed the six geographical land regions in Arkansas by opening the Mississippi Embayment.

The lesson will further discuss the uses of major rivers for trade, including pre-historic and historic

salt trade. The origins of place names like Saline County and Mineral Springs will be explored, as

will the importance of the states abundant natural resources on economics. This includes the state’s

role as the country’s only industrial producer of Bromine.37

In addition to the geography standards, this lesson plan will address the pre-territorial

standards for investigation of Arkansas’s Indian tribes, why they were successful in Arkansas, and

what type of food they ate.38

Furthermore, this lesson plan allows students to “Investigate the

decline and removal of American Indian tribes in Arkansas” through discussion of Lovely’s

Fields 11

Lick.39

Likewise discussion of the Confederacy and it’s weaknesses in the exploration of the

Arkadelphia salt works fulfills the standards on Civil War era Arkansas history.40

Moreover students will explore the chemistry of acids, bases, and salts to understand the

different industrial uses for salt products. This will include learning the atomic structures of the

elements to visually depict how acids and bases combine to form salts.41

It is anticipated that this lesson plan will cover three, ninety-minute class periods. Day one

will cover an introduction to salt by involving the students in a discussion of what salt is, what

early humans used it for, and what it is used for today. The rest of the class should focus on the

chemical makeup of salts as being the combination of an acid and a base to form a stable

compound. Teachers should diagram the atoms of elements that join to become salt and discuss

the different characteristics of salt compounds other than Sodium Chloride.

The second day should cover where salt is found naturally and how humanity acquires it.

This will require discussion of geology, such as the opening of the Gulf of Mexico and the opening

of the Mississippi Embayment and how this resulted in the pre-historic depositing of salt. Also,

the development of brine springs through aquifers and salt domes due to pressure in the earth’s

crust should be discussed.

The third day should begin with a review of stratigraphic layers followed by a discussion of

the Hardman site. Teachers should show students the findings of the archaeologists and uses

deductive reasoning to hypothesize about what these findings mean. Then review archaeologist’s

conclusions about the site. Teachers will then discuss historic era salt works in Arkansas focusing

on their political impact through relationships with Native Americans and on the Confederacy’s

need of salt during the Civil War. Teachers should also focus on method of salt production and

Fields 12

have students hypothesize about what type of archaeological evidence and historical evidence

these salt works would leave behind.

For extensions on the lesson or as part of evaluations on understanding students should

read Trading Tastes: Commodity and Cultural Exchange to 1750 and report on the trade of salt

across the world also led to exchange of cultural ideas.42

Students could also read Salt: A World

History and report on the history of a salt preserved food product that is still eaten today, like hams

or pickled cucumbers.43

Students could also research and report on modern industrial uses for

salts, such as natron salts and the Arkansas bromine industry.

This lesson ties science, history, archaeology, and politics in a real world scenario that

relates to an everyday item with which all students will have familiarity. With the small grain of

salt, a big story can be told and broad and relatable education imparted.

Sample Exhibit Panels

In addition to the lesson plans will be and exhibit on the salt industry in Arkansas. It will

consist of five interpretive panels and two cases of archaeological artifacts. The first panel will

discuss the chemical make up of salt and how it was deposited in Arkansas. The second panel

will discuss Archaeological methods for research. The third and fourth panels will interpret the

findings on the Caddoan and historic era salt works in Arkansas. The final panel explores the end

of salt production in Arkansas and the rise of the bromine industry. Proposed panels with

completed research follow. These mockup panels will be approximately four feet wide by six feet

tall. They will contain twenty point font or higher and meet American’s with Disabilities Act

suggestions for text height from the floor. The proposed panels not shown will include historic

photos of salt kettles, scans of historic documents discussing the salt industry, and photos of

archaeological research in process so that visitors can grasp the methodology used to research the

past.

Fields 13

Pickled

Pig’s Feet! The history of

Salt in the

Natural

State.

So what is Salt? Regular table salt is a stable compound made

when the element Sodium (Na) joins with the element Chlorine (Cl). These elements are

unstable individually due to their uneven number of electrons. So to stabilize, Sodium shares an

electron with Chlorine giving them both an even pair this can be seen above.

As the Sodium and Chlorine start sharing electrons, they start to form a lattice

structure as seen above, This structure forms a salt crystal like those seen on the

left that is ground into smaller crystals and served with our food today

How did the salt get here?

During the Jurassic Period (144-208 million years ago) the earth’s crust shifted, opening the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic Ocean, The Gulf collected the ocean’s salty water in its shallow basin,. Sunlight caused evaporation of the water from the Gulf, concentrating the salt in the water. Eventually the alt started to crystalize and was deposited on the ground, Later, in the Cretaceous Period (26.5-145.5 million years ago), the Ouachita and Appalachian Mountains broke apart and the Mississippi river started to form. But because the water was so high in the Gulf, the Mississippi Valley flooded with salt water and became a bay in the Gulf,. This is called the Mississippi Embayment and can be seen In the illustration above.

The salt water from the Mississippi Embayment also left a layer of salt on the ground. Theses different layers are called striations and can be made out of any substance deposited on the ground. This results in a build up of layers of different materials on the earth’s crust. An example of striation is seen in the illustration above.

Fields 14

Why Is Striation Important? How Archeologists Research the Past

Striation can occur over long periods like the Jurassic and the Cretaceous, but it also occurs over shorter periods. Archeologists use these shorter striations to date when objects were left on the ground. Furthermore, when someone or something like a rabbit digs a hole, the archeologist can

see that in the layers. Archaeologists also use grids to document where each artifact (things found in each striation) was located. This allows the archaeologist to map where objects are found and determine where different rooms of houses were or where pottery was made.

Think about it: If you were an archeologist in the future researching houses of today and you found a large number of pots and pans in one room, and a number of toothbrushes and a

big tub in another, what might the rooms be?

Do you see the different layers in the earth? What makes them different?

Archeologists do not dig holes just anywhere. First, they form

a hypothesis. Then they research a topic. They look for evidence through ground penetrating radar, satellite, and through surveys of potential sites. When the Archaeologist is convinced that they have a spot that will support their hypothesis, then they start digging small test pits and carefully record everything they find. An example of ground penetrating radar, showing the foundations of a historic building in Fayetteville, Arkansas, is to the upper left.

But what does archeology have to do with salt?

Archaeologists research was conducted on Arkansas salt works . Their findings help interpret how salt was produced in the past. The photograph on the left is a ceramic

pan that was discovered in a single striation in an area where many similar ceramic pans were found. These pans had traces of salt on them and are similar to many other pans found in salt rich areas in the country. Therefor, the archaeologists interpreted their find as a Caddoan salt work. Archaeological research was also done on the salt works of Arkansas’s settlers, which had little historic

documentation to tell researchers what the industry was like.

Fields 15

Salt Industry in

Arkansas

Today

Today table salt

(NaCl) is so cheaply produced

that it is no longer profitable to produce in Arkansas. However, the

state’s salt deposits are home to something else

—Bromine, which is being produced at the facility

in this picture

Bromine (Br) is a liquid element that

is found in Earth’s ocean water, It was deposited when

with the salt during the Jurassic Period. This vial contains Bromine in its natural state—a liquid.

If left open to the air, liquid Bromine will quickly evaporate and can be dangerous to humans. However,

Bromine also forms a salt with Sodium (Na) to

creating Sodium Bromide. This

salt is used as a disinfectant

in swimming pools and hot

tubs and generally produced in tablets, like those shown here.

What is Bromine used for? According to the Arkansas Geological Survey, the

majority of Bromine produced in the world is consumed in the

manufacture of flame retardants. Bromine is also used in

fungicides and pesticides. Its probably in the car you drove in

today as an anti-knock agent for leaded gasoline engines.

Another common use of Bromine is in the production of purple

clothing dye. Other uses include disinfectants, photographic

preparations and chemicals, solvents, water-treatment

compounds, insulating foam, hair-care products, and oil well–

drilling fluids.

Another salt produced in Arkansas is Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Calcium Chloride is often used as a road deicer and in hand warmers during the winter. In the summer months, it is used to maintain the concrete in swimming pools. Pictured here is

a pile of salt mixture including Calcium Chloride to be used as road deicer.

Fields 16

1Marvin D. Jeter and Ann M. Early, “Prehistory of the Saline River Drainage Basin,” in Arkansas

Archaeology: Essays in Honor of Dan and Phyllis Morse, Ed. by Robert C. Mainfort and Marvin D. Jeter (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1999), 60.

2Jennifer Lytwyn’s lecture notes on Historical Geology Chapter 14

www.uh.edu/~geos6g/1376/mesogeol14.html. 3Krista Mondelli, “Salt Reconstruction and Study of Depositional History, Upper Jurassic, East Texas Basin,”

Master’s thesis (Huston: University of Huston, 2011), 2-3

4Roy B. Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, “The Mississippi's Curious Origins,” Scientific American, 296 no. 1

(January 2007) , 76-82.

5Arkansas Geologic Survey, “Geology: Geologic History” http://www.geology.ar.gov/geology

/gen_geologic_history.htm

6 Sherry J. Tipps, “Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas,” rev. ed. (Little Rock: Butler Center for

Arkansas Studies, 2008)

7Ibid.

8 F. P. Rose, “Primitive Salt Works,” The Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 11 no. 4 (Winter, 1952). 318

9 Ibid.

10

Mark Kurlansky, Salt: A World History, (New York: Penguin Books, 2003), 257-8, 260, 263.

11Ibid., 258.

12

Ibid., 265.

13 H. B. McKenzie, “Confederate Manufactures in Southwest Arkansas,” in Arkansas Historical Association

Publications, ed. John Hugh Reynolds. Vol. 2. (Fayetteville: Democrat Printing and Lithography, 1908), 201.

14 Ibid.

15

Daniel F. Littlefield Jr. “The Salt Industry in Arkansas Territory, 1819-1836” The Arkansas Historical Quarterly 32 no. 4 (Winter, 1973)

16 Ibid.

17

Ibid.

18 Ibid. 316 and Rose 318.

19

Littlefield 318

20 Ibid. 317

Fields 17

21

Ibid. 320

22 Erik Gilbert and Jonathan Reynolds, Trading Tastes: Commodity and Cultural Exchange to 1750, (Upper

saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson, 2006), 60.

23 Kurlansky, 225-6.

24

Ibid., 203.

25 Ibid., 341-2.

26

Virginia Buxton, “Salt Springs and Salt Works in Arkansas,” The Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 16 no. 4 (Winter, 1957), 383.

27Eddie G. Landreth, “Saline County” in The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture. Online at:

http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?search=1&entryID=804

28 Rex Nelson, “Arkansas Democrat-Gazette,” in The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture. Online

at: http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?search=1&entryID=2343

29Dallas Tabor Herndon, Centennial History of Arkansas, Vol 1, (Easley, S.C. : Southern Historical Press,

1922) , 462.

30 Heather McKillop and Jeremy A. Sabloff, “Finds in Belize Document Late Classic Maya Salt Making and

Canoe Transport,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102 no. 15 (April 2005), 5630.

31 Kurlansky 130.

32

Eduardo Williams, “The Ethnoarchaeology of Salt Production at Lake Cuitzeo, Michoacán, Mexico,” Latin American Antiquity 10 no. 4 (December 1999), 403-404, 410.

33 Kurlansky 238, 247

34

Littlefield. See photos on unnumbered pages, Kurlansky 256, and Williams, 404

35 Williams, 411

36 Littlefield. See photos on unnumbered pages

37

Arkansas Department of Education, “Arkansas History Grades 9-12 Social Studies Curriculum Framework” Revision 2006. G.1.AH.9-12.1-5

38Ibid. EA.2.AH.9-12.2

39

Ibid. TPS.4.AH.9-12.8

40Ibid. SR.5.AH.9-12.2

Fields 18

41

Arkansas Department of Education, “Chemistry Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Framework” Revision 2005. AB.20.C.1, AB.21.C.1 and 3

42 Kurlansky

43

Gilbert and Reynolds

Fields 19

Bibliography

Arkansas Department of Education. “Arkansas History Grades 9-12 Social Studies Curriculum

Framework.” Revision 2006.

_______. “Chemistry Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Framework.” Revision 2005.

Arkansas Geologic Survey. “Geology: Geologic History.” http://www.geology.ar.gov/geology

/gen_geologic_history.htm

Buxton, Virginia. “Salt Springs and Salt Works in Arkansas.” The Arkansas Historical Quarterly,

16 no. 4 (Winter, 1957)

Gilbert, Erik and Jonathan Reynolds. Trading Tastes: Commodity and Cultural Exchange to 1750.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson, 2006

Herndon, Dallas Tabor. Centennial History of Arkansas. Vol 1, Easley, S.C.: Southern Historical

Press, 1922

Jeter, Marvin D. and Ann M. Early. “Prehistory of the Saline River Drainage Basin,” in Arkansas

Archaeology: Essays in Honor of Dan and Phyllis Morse. ed. by Robert C. Mainfort and

Marvin D. Jeter. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1999.

Kurlansky, Mark. Salt: A World History. New York: Penguin Books, 2003.

Landreth, Eddie G. “Saline County.” in The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture.

Online at: http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-

detail.aspx?search=1&entryID=804

Littlefield, Daniel F. Jr. “The Salt Industry in Arkansas Territory, 1819-1836.” The Arkansas

Historical Quarterly 32 no. 4 (Winter, 1973).

Lytwyn, Jennifer. “Lecture notes on Historical Geology Chapter 14.”

www.uh.edu/~geos6g/1376/mesogeol14.html.

McKenzie, H. B. “Confederate Manufactures in Southwest Arkansas.” in Arkansas Historical

Association Publications. ed. John Hugh Reynolds. Vol. 2. Fayetteville: Democrat Printing

and Lithography, 1908

McKillop, Heather and Jeremy A. Sabloff. “Finds in Belize Document Late Classic Maya Salt

Making and Canoe Transport.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the

United States of America, 102 no. 15 (April 2005)

Mondelli, Krista. “Salt Reconstruction and Study of Depositional History, Upper Jurassic, East

Texas Basin.” Master’s thesis. Huston: University of Huston, 2011

Fields 20

Nelson, Rex. “Arkansas Democrat-Gazette.” in The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and

Culture. Online at: http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-

detail.aspx?search=1&entryID=2343

Rose, F. P. “Primitive Salt Works.” The Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 11 no. 4 (Winter, 1952)

Tipps, Sherry J. “Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas.” rev. ed. Little Rock: Butler

Center for Arkansas Studies, 2008

Van Arsdale, Roy B. and Randel T. Cox. “The Mississippi's Curious Origins.” Scientific

American, 296 no. 1 (January 2007).

Williams, Eduardo “The Ethnoarchaeology of Salt Production at Lake Cuitzeo, Michoacán,

Mexico.” Latin American Antiquity 10 no. 4 (December 1999)

Fields 21

Appendices

Appendix A: “Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas”

Fields 22

Appendix B: Currently Available Materials for use with the Historic Arkansas Salt Works Lesson

Plan