historical sketch of the rise, progress, and decline of the reformation in poland vol 2.pdf

7/28/2019 Historical sketch of the rise, progress, and decline of the reformation in Poland vol 2.pdf

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I/ r and Kaski. Confederation of the 6thJanuary 1573, which insures the perfect equality of allChristian confessions in Poland. Candidates to thethrone. The French court induces the Protestants ofGermany to recommend to their brethren in Poland tosupport the election of the French king. Embassy ofMontluc. Massacre of St. Bartholomew, and its effectson Poland. Montluc succeeds, in spite of all difficulties,in attaining his object. Circumstances which favoured


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Fruitless attempts of the Protestants to intrust theelection of the king to a regular Diet 1

CHAPTER II.INTERREGNUM AND REIGN OP STEPHEN BATTORY.

The throne of Poland is declared vacant, and the electionof a new monarch resolved on. Candidates to thethrone, and state of parties. Stephen Battory presentshimself as a candidate for the vacant throne. EmperorMaximilian elected by the senate. The equestrian order,headed by Zamoyski, proclaims princess Anna queen,and Stephen Battory king, on condition of marryingher ; and the senate is obliged to assent to that election.

Stephen Battory, induced by the intrigues of Soli-kowski, becomes, on entering Poland, a Romanist. TheRoman Catholic synod of Piotrkow, in 1577, confirmsthe enactments of the council of Trent, which were rejected by the senate. The Roman Catholic synods ofthe diocese of Warmia adopt several resolutions againstthe progress of heresy. Establishment of the tribunalsor supreme courts of justice, by which the church isdeprived of its separate jurisdiction. Partiality of Stephen Battory for the Jesuits. Pillage of the reformedchurch of Cracow by a mob. Profanation of the Protestant burying-ground, and several other excesses,committed at Cracow by the mob and the pupils of theuniversity. Severe regulations enacted for the mainte


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Riga. Pernicious influence of the Jesuits on the foreignpolicy of Battory ... ... ... ... ... 43

CHAPTER III.EFFORTS MADE BY THE PROTESTANTS TO EXTEND AND CON

SOLIDATE THE RESULTS OF THE UNION OF SANDOMIR, DURINGTHE PERIOD FROM THE DEMISE OF SIGISMUND AUGUSTUS,TO THE ACCESSION OF SIGISMUND THE THIRD, 1572 1587.

General Synod of Cracow, 1573. Its wise and pious regulations concerning manners and morals. Synod ofPosnania. Attempt of the Polish Protestants to extendthe effects of the union of Sandomir to all Europe, andto promote the convocation of a general synod of all theProtestant churches. General synod of Piotrkow.First attempt at dissolving the union of Sandomir, madeby the Lutherans at Vilna, 1578. The Lutheran minister of Posnania, Paul Gericius, endeavours to destroy theunion of Sandomir. General synod at Vlodislav in1583,, in order to allay the incipient dissension. Gericius continues to foment disunion among the Protestants.

Fruitless attempts at conciliating the growing hostilityof the Lutherans made at the assembly of Vilna ... 65

CHAPTER IV.ELECTION OF SIGISMUND THE THIRD.

Pillage of the Protestant church at Cracow during theinterregnum. Election of Sigismund the Third. His


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tempt of the Roman Catholic clergy to recover theirlost churches, tithes, and properties. Zamoyski s attempt to improve the form of electing the king failsthrough the opposition of the reigning sovereign andthe bishops. The Roman Catholic synod of Gniesno,in 1589, passes severe resolutions against heresy, whichare confirmed by a bull of the Pope. Destruction of theProtestant church of Cracow by a mob. Protestant assemblies, to oppose Roman Catholic persecution by legalmeans. Attack of a Protestant individual at Cracowunpunished. Fruitless attempts of the Jesuits to destroy the Bohemian church of Posnania ... ... 87

CHAPTER V.SYNOD OF THORN, HELD BY THE UNITED PROTESTANT

CONFESSIONS.Dissensions amongst the Protestants. The principal Pro

testants assembled at the Diet of Cracow, 1595, resolveto convene, in the same year, a general synod, in orderto strengthen the union of Sandomir. Members of thesynod assembled from all parts of the Polish dominions.

Various messages addressed to the synod. Attemptsmade by the royal deputy, and several other Romanists,to disperse the synod. Twofold object of the synodOpposition of Gericius. Altercation between ErasmusGliczner and some ministers of the Helvetian confession.

Message of prince Ostrogski, the leader of the followers of the Eastern church in Poland. Renewedattempt of the royal commissioners to disturb the synod.


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CHAPTER VI.ATTEMPTS AT EFFECTING A UNION BETWEEN THE PROTESTANT

CONFESSIONS AND THE EASTERN CHURCH.Page

Eastern church. The Greek divines of Constantinoplepropose a union to the Hussites. Correspondence between the divines of Tubingen and the patriarch ofConstantinople,, for the purpose of effecting a union between the Eastern church and the Protestant confessions.

Endeavours of Sigismund the Third to effect a unionbetween the Greek church of Poland and Rome. TheGreek synod convened at Brest, in Lithuania, 1594*,resolves on a union with Rome. It sends delegates toRome, who solemnly acknowledge the union of Florence The Greek synod of Brest, 1596, confirms theunion with Rome, but a great part of the followers ofthe Eastern church dissent from that synod, and eachparty excommunicates the other. Fatal consequencesof that union to Poland. Attempt at effecting a unionbetween the Eastern church and the Protestant confessions in Poland. Assembly of Vilna, for the purpose ofeffecting a union between the Greeks and the Protestants.

Questions proposed by the Protestant divines to theGreeks. First meeting of the Protestant divines withthe Greek priests. Second meeting of the Protestantand Greek divines, who acknowledge the impossibilityof concluding a dogmatical union between their respective confessions without the authority of the patriarchof Constantinople. Articles common to both the confessions, which are proclaimed as preliminaries of the projected union. Confederation between the Greek andProtestant nobles, for the maintenance of the reli


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CHAPTER VII.CIVIL WAR OCCASIONED BY THE GENERAL DISCONTENT AGAINSTTHE KING AND HIS ADVISERS.

PageFruitless attempts of the anti-Romanists to obtain redressby constitutional means. Death of Zamoyski, whichdestroyed every hope of arresting, by peaceful means,the Roman Catholic re-action.- Agitation of the countryproduced by religious as well as political causes. Ze-brzydowski, chief of the discontented party. Therokosh of Proszowice demands from the diet redress ofseveral grievances. The king attempts in vain to nego-ciate with the discontented party. Preparations of theking and his partizans against the rokosh ; temporaryreconciliation between the two parties. Renewal of therokosh. A commission appointed by the diet, in orderto examine the grievances of the rokosh, which protestsagainst it on account of its partiality. The king presentsto the senate an apology for his conduct, and the dietenacts several regulations, in order to remove the grievances presented by the rokosh, and then summons thatassembly to dissolve under pain of being held guilty ofhigh treason. The king marches against the insurgents.

Battle of Guzow, and defeat of the insurgents. Theinsurrection is not quelled by the defeat, but finallypacified by a general amnesty. Causes which preventedthe success of the rokosh 161

CHAPTER VIII.INCREASED PERSECUTIONS OF THE ANTI-ROMANIST CONFES


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them. Violences repeatedly committed against the Protestants at Cracow. The Protestant place of worship atAlexandrowice is attacked by the students of Cracow,who commit great excesses on that occasion. ManyProtestant citizens emigrate from Cracow,, which produces an injurious effect on the welfare of the town.Continuation of "the persecutions at Cracow. Destruction of the Protestant churches of Posnania, at theinstigation of the Jesuits, who openly recommended suchviolence. Martyrdom of a young Italian at Vilna.Persecution at Lublin and other places. Judicial murder of Tyskiewicz. Attempt at curtailing the libertyof the press. Persecution of the Eastern church. Riotproduced at Mohilev by the forced union writh Rome.The Greek clergy opposed to Rome assemble a synod atKiof, where new bishops are elected in the place ofthose who had accepted the union. Josephat Koncewicz, archbishop of Polotzk, of the united Greek church,persecutes the opponents of Rome with much violence.

Letter of the chancellor Sapieha, remonstrating againstthe blind zeal of Koncewicz. Murder of Koncewicz bythe inhabitants of Vitepsk, exasperated by his persecution. Severe punishment of that crime ... ... 177

CHAPTER IX.GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE REIGN OP SIGISMUND THE

THIRD.Prosperous state of Poland at the accession of Sigismund

III. Melancholy condition of the country at the demiseof that monarch. Causes which produced that unfor


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on the national literature. Effects of the religious intolerance on the provinces of Livonia and Prussia. Fatalinfluence of the Romanist party on the foreign relationsof Poland 195

CHAPTER X.ELECTION AND REIGN OF VLADISLAV THE FOURTH.

The diet of convocation confirms the rights of the anti-Romanist confessions. The anti-Romanists seek to obtain a more ample development and a better guaranteeof their rights. Opposition to these demands raised bythe influence of the Roman Catholic clergy. The imprudence committed by some Protestants causes therejection of their just demands. Gustavus Adolphus acandidate for the throne of Poland. The same dietmakes an attempt to limit the increase of the estatesof the Roman Catholic church. Achatius Grochowski,bishop of Lutzk, openly attacks the rights of the anti-Romanists,, at the diet of election, 1632. He is supported by several zealous Romanists,, \vho seek to abolishthose rights by force of arms. Civil war, which wason the point of breaking out, is prevented by the exertions of several patriots, and by the tolerant dispositionsof the newly-elected monarch. Noble and uprightcharacter of Vladislav the Fourth. The primate andthe synod of Warsaw issue a prohibition against theProtestant Bible in particular, and the reading of theScriptures in general. Vladislav s project to marry thedaughter of the palatine of the Rhine is defeated by the

of the Roman Catholic Violence


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monks on that occasion. Indignities committed on thebody of a Protestant lady by the students of the University of Cracow Pillage of the house of a Protestantby the students of the University of Cracow, disguisedas pilgrims. Remarkable defence made by the perpetrators of that violence ; they are condemned and executed. This severity gives peace to the Protestants ofCracow for several years, but is again disturbed in 1647.The persuasions of the clergy induce the municipalityof Cracow to deprive the Protestants of the privilegesof the burghers. Persecution of Protestants at Lublin.

At Vilna, where the reformed church and school areabolished. Remarkable avowal of a Roman Catholicbishop

whenrequired

to punish the excesses committedby the students of his schools against the Protestants.The bishop of Vilna accuses, before the diet of 1646,prince Radziwill of sacrilege, but his accusation is rejected. Affairs of the Eastern church of Poland. PeterMohila, metropolitan of that church, establishes anacademy for ecclesiastics at Kioff. Persecution of thefollowers of the Eastern church, and its fatal consequences 209

CHAPTER XI.COLLOQUIUM CHARITATIVUM OF THORN, 1645.

The project of uniting the different religious persuasionswhich prevailed in Poland, by means of friendly meetings of their respective divines, suggested to the kingby Nigrinus. The king and the primate adopt that

and fix Thorn for the of Public


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excluded from taking part in the Colloquium. TheHelveto-Bohemian synod of Leszno try to induce theLutherans of Poland to act in common with them at theColloquium ; but their efforts are frustrated by theopposition of the University of Wittemberg. Impossibility of effecting the intended union. Meeting of theColloquium, and its composition. Manner of proceedingduring the discussions of the Colloquium prescribed bythe royal instruction. The parties quarrel at the beginning of the deliberations, which, after thirty-six meetings, produce no result 245

CHAPTER XII.REIGN OF JOHN CASIMIR.

Revolt of the Cossacks. Election of John Casimir. Fruitless endeavours of the Protestants to provide for thebettersecurity oftheir rights. War with the Cossacks. Pacification of the revolt defeated by the Roman Catholic clergy.War with Muscovy. War with Swreden ; its causes.The Swedesinvade Poland, and are joinedby agreatnum-berof the discontented inhabitants. John Casimir leavesPoland, which is almost entirely occupied by the kingof Sweden. Unjust accusation of the Protestants ofhaving submitted Lithuania to the Swedes. The townsof Polish Prussia, although peopled by Protestants, resistthe Swedish invasion. The king of Sweden loses theadvantages he had obtained in Poland by his haughtyand imprudent behaviour. The confederation of Tys-zowce re-tores the fortunes of John Casimir. TheSwedes are expelled from Poland. Cruelties committed


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persecution of Protestants in Grand Poland. Persecution of Protestants at Cracow. The provisions of thetreaty of Oliva, in 1660, in favour of religious liberty donot insure its existence. State of Protestantism in PolishPrussia 264

CHAPTER XIII.INTERNAL STATE OP THE PROTESTANT CHURCHES OF POLAND.Causes which had an influence on the organization of the

Protestant churches in Poland. The Protestant hierarchies of Poland divide into three provinces,, independent of each other. Superintendent. Seniors, con-seniors, and ministers. Civil seniors. Synods. Defectsof the organization of the Protestant hierarchy in Poland.The Helvetian confession is the most influential inPoland. Division of the reformed churches of LittlePoland. Probable number of those churches. Lithuania. Grand Poland. Sketch of the organization anddiscipline of the Bohemian brethren. Account of theProtestant versions in Poland. Protestant schools inPoland. Leszno. Protestant typographies in Poland.

Protestant literature in Poland ... 292

CHAPTER XIV.ACCOUNT OF THE ANTI-TRINITARIANS IN POLAND, FROM 1565

TILL THEIR -FINAL EXPULSION IN 1660.Division the anti-Trinitarians manifested at the


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Gregorius Pauli. Symon Budny. Faustus Socinusarrives in Poland,, and gives a uniform religious systemto the anti-Trinitarian churches of that country. TheCatechism of Rakow. Attempts of the Socinians toeffect a union with the reformed churches and with theMennonites. Rakow the chief seat of Socinianism.Principal congregations and schools of the Socinians inPoland. The Socinians endeavour to propagate theirsect abroad. Persecution of the Socinians. Abolitionof the school of Rakow, Ruin of several Socinianchurches and schools. Sufferings of the Socinians underthe reign of John Casimir. Expulsion of the Sociniansfrom Poland by an enactment of the diet of 1658.They disperse to different parts of Europe. Influenceof Socinianism on the cause of the Reformation in Poland. State of morals and learning amongst the PolishSocinians ... ... 356

CHAPTER XV.THE STATE OF PROTESTANTISM IN POLAND, FROM THE END OFTHE REIGN OF JOHN CASIMIR TILL THE ACCESSION OF STA-NISLAV PONIATOWSKI, 1668 1763.

State of the Protestants at the accession of Michel Wis-niowietzki. Prohibition to abjure Romanism, and theprofession of it rendered obligatory on the kings ofPoland. Reign of John Sobieski. Judicial murder ofLyszczynski, for an alleged crime of Atheism. Accession of Augustus the Second, elector of Saxony, who isobliged to promise not to confer any important dignitieson anti-Romanists. The of the Polish


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synods of Protestants, in order to deliberate about themeans of counteracting the persecution to which theywere exposed. Case of Unruh. Treaty of Warsaw,concluded under the influence of Russia, prejudicial tothe Polish Protestants and to the interests of the nationat large. Opposition of several eminent Roman Catholics to the restriction of the rights and liberties ofthe anti-Romanists. Noble conduct of a Roman Catholic bishop on that occasion. Leduchowski s effortsto maintain the rights and privileges of the dissidentsor anti-Romanists are eluded by Szaniawski s artfulinterpretations. The diet of 1717, which lasts only afew hours, confirms the treaty of Warsaw, 1716. Theking gives a solemn promise to the Protestants thattheir rights shall remain uninjured. The Protestantsynod of Dantzic, in 1718, present a petition to themonarch and the states, enumerating the grievances ofthe anti-Romanist confessions. Illegal exclusion of aProtestant nuncio by the diet of Grodno, on account ofhis religion. Foreign interference in favour of Protestants serves only to render worse their position.Affair of Thorn. The introduction of Jesuits in thattown produces continual vexations to the Protestantinhabitants. The pupils of the Jesuits college excite,by their aggressions on the Protestant inhabitants, a riot,during which the college is sacked by a mob. Agitationset up by the Jesuits over all the country, in order toexcite the public opinion against the Protestants ofThorn. A special commission is appointed for the investigation of that affair. Illegality and injustice of itsproceedings. The affair is brought before the Assesso-rial Court of Justice ; measures adopted to insure thecondemnation of the accused Fruitless to


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by the Jesuits. Bloody sentence pronounced by thatcourt against Thorn. Clause attached to its execution.

Intercessions addressed in vain by Dantzic and someforeign powers in favour of Thorn. Execution of thesentence. Sensation produced in Europe by the affairof Thorn. Reflections upon that affair. Injurious effecton the condition of the Polish Protestants, produced bythe interference of foreign powers in their favour.Szaniawski declares by a pastoral letter that the Protestants belong to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of theRoman Catholic bishops. Protestant synods at Dantzic.

Representation made in favour of Polish Protestantsby Woodward, English minister at the court of Poland,and by other Protestant powers. Unfortunate conditionof Protestants during the reign of the Saxon dynasty inPoland. Enumeration of their griefs, in a petition presented by them to the king and the states 410

CHAPTER XVI.INTERREGNUM AFTER THE DEMISE OF AUGUSTUS THE THIRD,

AND REIGN OF STANISLAV PONIATOWSKI.State of Poland at the close of the reign of the Saxon

dynasty. Revival of learning in Poland by the exertions of some patriotic individuals. The necessity ofreforming the constitution of the country begins to befelt in Poland. Bold undertaking of the princes Czar-toryski to reform the constitution of Poland.- The dietof convocation of 1764 enacts new restrictions againstthe dissidents. The dissidents exert themselves to re


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reflections on that conduct. The claims of the dissidentsrejected by the diet of convocation. Intrigues of thecontending parties at St, Petersburg. Letter of theking of Poland to the empress of Russia respecting thedissidents. Arguments for and against the claims of thedissidents exposed at St. Petersburg. Peremptory demand of Catherine to restore the rights of the dissidents.The claims of the dissidents converted into a pretence

for political struggle. Soltyk, bishop of Cracow, becomes the head of the party which opposes the claims ofthe dissidents, as well as the reforms introduced by theCzartoryskis. The king represents to the bishop, thatif they wished him to resist the demands of the foreigncourts, they should afford to him the means for such aresistance. The bishop of Cracow demands,, at theopening of the diet of 1766, the rejection of the claimsof the dissidents, as well as the abolition of the newreforms introduced by the Czartoryskis Successfulmachinations of the ministers of Russia and Prussia forthe abolition of the new reforms. Machinations of theforeign ministers, in order to raise an opposition to theking, and abolish the reforms introduced by the Czartoryskis. Vain attempt of the monarch to preserve anddevelop the commenced reforms. The Russian ambassador, who supported the opposition, demands theabolition of all the new reforms. An agreement onreligious affairs, which is on the point of being concluded, is broken off by fresh orders from St. Petersburg. The dissidents are excited by the court ofRussia to wrest by force the rights and privileges theyclaimed. Representations of the Prussian, English, andDanish ministers in favour of the dissidents, and that ofthe


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abolition of the new laws. Imperious demand of theRussian and Prussian ministers of the restoration of theliberum veto in its full vigour. Tumultuous scene at thediet, created by an attempt of the king to evade therestoration of the liberum veto by presenting the affairsof the dissidents. Abolition of the reforms introducedby the Czartoryskis. Some insignificant concessions,which are proposed by the bishop of Cracow to the dissidents, are rejected by them. Dissident confederationsof Thorn and Sluck. The plan of a general confederation, devised by Podoski, is promoted by Russia. Imperious behaviour of Repnin. General confederation ofRadom. The king becomes reconciled with the Russianambassador, who suddenly turns against the confederation, and exercises great violence against their chiefs atRadom. Podoski becomes primate. State of the country, and violences committed by the Russian troops.Moderation of the bishop of Cracow, who is on the pointof arranging with the Protestants an amicable agreement, but which is interrupted by the Russian ambassador. Line of policy adopted by Soltyk. Plans ofPodoski. Imperious demand of Repnin for the satisfaction of the claims of the dissidents. Exertions of thepapal nuncio* Project of deciding the most importantaffairs of the state by a commission, violating the constitution of the country and the principles of internationallaw. Opposition of Soltyk and Rzewuski to such aplan. Soltyk is seized with the other leaders of opposition, and carried into the interior of Russia Fruitlessattempt of the diet to obtain some modification of theproposed commission. The commission is appointed.The dissidents are restored to their rights and privileges,


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by the same diet which sanctions the first dismemberment of Poland. Prospects of a reform of the nationalchurch of Poland, favoured by the rapid development ofthe national intellect, 1775 1791, destroyed by thepolitical dissolution of that country. Remarkable coincidence between the fortunes of Poland and its Protestantinhabitants 467

RECAPITULATION AND GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ... 539


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HISTORICAL SKETCHOF THE

REFORMATION IN POLAND.

CHAPTER I.INTERREGNUM AFTER THE DEATH OF SIGISMUND AU

GUSTUS. ACCESSION AND SHORT REIGN OF HENRYOF VALOIS.

THE state of Poland at the demise of Sigis- state of Polandat the death ofmund Augustus was very critical, from the un- sigismund Augustus.settled manner in which the vacant throne wasto be filled. The election of a monarch, whichhad existed only in theory so long as the Jaguel-lonian dynasty continued without interruption,was now fairly to be put to the test by its extinction. This most important political transactionought certainly to have been regulated by strictlydenned forms; but although several Diets hadattempted to regulate by precise rules the mannerin which the sovereign of the country should be

VOL. II. B


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elected, their salutary projects were defeated bycauses, which, to investigate, would be foreignto our subject ; and the most important affair ofthe state remained exposed to the violence ofpassions, and to the pernicious influence of domestic and foreign intrigues. The religious parties which at that time divided Poland, renderedthe election of a new monarch still more difficult,as the Protestants were anxious to bestow thecrown of their country on a candidate of theirown persuasion, or at least on such a one aswould promote their views. On the other hand,the Roman Catholics were strenuously labouringto insure the throne to a zealous supporter oftheir church. This last party began its intrigueseven before the death of Sigismund Augustus,and it found an able leader in the celebratedpapal diplomatist, cardinal Commendoni, whowas at that time in Poland, where he had arrivedin order to embroil that country in a war with

Conspiracy to the Turks. Commendoni wished to establish onsecure the va-cant throne to the throne of Poland the archduke Ernest, sonthe archduke ._.- .,. , ,Ernest, orga- of the emperor Maximilian the Second ; and for

that purpose he induced Nicholas, prince Radziwill, palatine

of Vilna, and John Chodkiewicz,two powerful Lithuanian grandees, who hadboth abandoned the Protestant religion, andbecome zealous Romanists, to make a secret convention. The plan by which their views wereto be carried into effect, and which had been


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designed by Commendoni, was of a most dangerous nature, and would soon have involvedthe country in a religious and civil war. According to that scheme, the archduke was to beelected previously grand duke of Lithuania, afterwhich he was to levy an army of 24,000 men, inorder, if necessary, to compel the senate of Polandto imitate the example of Lithuania. Radziwilland Chodkiewicz meditated, at the same time, aproject of dissolving altogether the connexionbetween Lithuania and Poland; but Commendoni, afraid of weakening by such a dismemberment a power which he was anxious to armagainst the Turks, disapproved of that treasonablescheme ; and the above-mentioned grandees contented themselves by demanding the most ampleguarantees for all the ancient privileges of Lithuania : as for instance, that no dignity or chargewhatever should be given, except to the nativesof that country ; and that those provinces whichwere ceded to Poland by the act of the unionof 1569, should be restored to Lithuania. Commendoni did not forget, on the occasion of league,or rather conspiracy, to insert an article in favourof his church, stipulating that the monarch shouldgive up his right of nominating bishops, andrestore it to the chapters.*

* The details of that treaty, which was concluded in thedepth of a forest between the two above-mentioned noblemen

B 2 and


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SKETCH OF THE

Commendonisucceeds individing theProtestants.

Having united the Romanist party, Commendoni sought to weaken and to divide that of theProtestants, whose leader was John Firley, palatine of Cracow, and grand marshal of Poland.He was the head of the followers of the Helvetian church, and as grand marshal, first officerof the state during the interregnum. His highstation, and the popularity which he enjoyed, rendered him exceedingly influential, so that he wassupposed by many to aim at the crown of hiscountry, and not without a great chance of success. Personal enmity, and perhaps even more,the fear of seeing the ultimate triumph of theHelvetian or reformed church in Poland by theelection of Firley, induced the powerful familyof Zborowski, who professed Lutheranism, tooppose him ; and the same religious jealousyinduced the Gorkas, another powerful Lutheranfamily, to join the Zborowskis against Firley.Commendoni took advantage of that unfortunatedivision amongst the Protestants, and increasedit by means of Andreas Zborowski, one of thebrothers who had remained a Romanist, and whowas entirely devoted to the cardinal, whose intrigues were so successful, that the Zborowskis,excited by their jealousy against Firley, aban-

and Commendoni, have been described by his secretary andbiographer Gratiani, who was present at that meeting. VideVie du Cardinal Commendoni, par Gratiani, livre iv. chap, iii.


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REFORMATION IN POLAND. 5cloned the Protestant interest, and declared for aRoman Catholic candidate to the throne. Com-mendoni informed the emperor of the success ofhis intrigues, and engaged him to furnish money toAlbert Laski,* palatine of Sieradz, who was entirely devoted to the cardinal, in order to enablehim to levy some troops. At the same time theemperor was to send some detachments of cavalryto the frontiers of Poland, as well as his son, thearchduke Ernest, who was to be placed on thethrone of that country. He requested him chieflyto inform Chodkiewicz and Radziwill of thesemeasures, because, as he said, if the archduke iselected grand duke of Lithuania, whilst Laskideclares for him with a large party; and theimperial troops appear at the same time on thefrontiers, the archduke will be in possession ofthe throne of Poland, before his competitors willeven have time to oppose him ; and he will,moreover, have the advantage of receiving thecrown from the Romanist party, without subscribing to any condition restricting his authority,and in spite of all the efforts of the Protestants.

This treasonable scheme, devised by cardinal The conspiracyCommendoni against the civil and religious liber- Sedition, Theties of Poland, and which would have involved ^7that country in all the horrors of a domestic war, nance Jttwithout securing its throne to the archduke,

Vide vol. i. p. 244, note.


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6 SKETCH OF THEfailed through the prudence and moderation ofthe emperor Maximilian the Second. Althoughhe desired to place his son on the throne ofPoland, he clearly saw the impossibility of obtaining that object by violence and treason, andpreferred to seek it by means of negociation.The momentary influence which Coligny andthe Protestant party enjoyed at the French courtafter the pacification of St. Germain, 1570, produced a most decisive effect on its foreign relations, and particularly on those with Poland.Coligny and the Protestants meditated a giganticscheme of political and religious combination,the object of which was to humble Romanism,and its chief support, the court of Spain. His

con- intention was to combine the scattered elementsecof placing of the Reformation, and to unite the dividedon th^throne

06 Protestants into one centre, in order to give amotives?*

1 HlS unifrm tendency and action to their cause,which would have insured its final triumph overall Europe.* Coligny saw the importance ofPoland in such a combination, and he thoughtthat the Protestant cause having once prevailedin France and Poland, these two countries,united by a political and religious alliance, wouldhave speedily overturned the domination of Romanism, and the house of Austria. Coligny ad-

* Vide Capefigue s Histoire de la Keibrme, &c. vol iii.chap. 36 and 47.


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vised, therefore, to make every effort, in order toplace the French prince Henry of Valois, dukeof Anjou, on the throne of Poland ; and Catherine de Medicis, who appeared at that time tofavour the Protestants, eagerly seized on thatproject for the aggrandizement of her son. Thisplan was conceived during the life-time of Sigis-mund Augustus ; and Balagny, a natural son of Baiagny s em-Montluc, bishop of Valence, was sent to Poland land.as an ambassador, under the pretext ofdemandingthe hand of the princess Anna, sister to SigismundAugustus, for the duke of Anjou, but, in fact, tocollect information as to the real state of thecountry, and the principal parties prevailing there.Balagny arrived with a splendid retinue in Poland, in the month of May 1572. However, as hiscommission was rather to gather information thanto act, he did not establish any French party,with the exception of the family of Dembinski,who promised to support the French prince.A singular circumstance particularly served topromote the interest of the French prince in thatcountry. A Polish dwarf, named Krassowski, The dwarf1-1 , . Krassowski.who was the son 01 a gentleman, having receiveda good education, and being endowed with greatintellect, went in his youth to France, where byhis agreeable manners and cleverness, he becamea great favourite of the royal family, and livedon terms of intimacy with the most eminent persons of the country. He amassed considerable


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8 SKETCH OF THEriches ; and after having spent many years inFrance, he revisited his own country during thelife-time of Sigismund Augustus. His powersof conversation, and his extensive informationabout the country where he had spent so muchtime, rendered him a welcome guest in the housesof the first noblemen of his native land, to whomhe constantly related all the details of the Frenchcourt, and of the religious and political troublesby which France was at that time agitated. Heparticularly extolled on every occasion the eminent qualities of the duke of Anjou, to whom, itis probable, he was under some particular obligations. He succeeded in establishing for theprince such a reputation, that some nobles, andprincipally Andreas Zborowski, dispatched afterthe death of Sigismund Augustus this samedwarf Krassowski. with a request to the duke ofAnjou to become a candidate for the vacantthrone of Poland. Such is the account of Com-mendoni s biographer about this extraordinarypersonage. It is, however, much more probable,as some others maintain, that Krassowski wasdispatched on purpose to further the views of theFrench court; and it is known, that he wasafterwards actively engaged as an agent ofCatherine de Medicis.*

* Vide la Vie de Commendoni, livre iv. ch. viii. p. 553.Gratiani having been himself at that time in Poland, probably


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The first active contest which took place be- state of parties.tween the Protestant and Romanist party, alterthe demise of Sigismund Augustus, was aboutthe person who was to be intrusted with thesupreme authority during the interregnum. According to the constitution it devolved on theprimate of the realm, and his claims on thatoccasion were supported by the inhabitants ofthe province of Grand Poland, not only theRomanCatholics, but the Lutherans also; whilst the inhabitants of Little Poland, where the influence ofthe Reformed religion was paramount, wishedto see their leader, Firley, invested with thatauthority, in his quality of grand marshal of thecrown. In Lithuania, where a strong party wishedto elect the czar of Muscovy, they kept alooffrom the contest between the two provinces,although the majority of its inhabitants beingcomposed of anti-Romanists, inclined towardsFirley, who convoked the nobles of Little Poland at Cracow immediately after the death of theking. This assembly adopted several regulations Assembly of... . Cracow.for maintaining the peace of the country duringthe interregnum, and for the protection of therights and liberties of Protestants, as well asRoman Catholics. The same assembly was particularly jealous of Commendoni, who remained inknew Krassowski personally. Capefigue, in his Histoire cle laReforme, chap. 49, quotes letters addressed by Krassowski toqueen Catherine de Medicis.


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SKETCH OF THE

Assemblies ofKnyszyn, Lo-wicz, Sroda,and Kaski.

the vicinity of Cracow, in order to promote byhis intrigues the interests of Rome. They senta deputation to him requesting him to leave thecountry, as his legation was terminated by thedemise of the monarch, and represented that heought to do it for the sake of his own security ;but Commendoni evaded the demand, under pretence that they had no legal right to require hisleaving the country : he retired to a convent nearSieradz, whence he continued to direct the RomanCatholic party.The same assembly fixed another meeting atKnyszyn, the place where the king died, whichsome Lithuanian noblemen were expected to join.This assembly, which took place on the 24th ofAugust, and which was numerously attended,chiefly by Protestants, resolved, in order to prevent foreign intrigues, to fix the election of thenew sovereign on the 13th October 1572, andchose for the place of that important transactionthe plains of Bystrzyca, in the vicinity of Lublin.This place had the advantage of being central,and would have afforded great facilities for thepopulations of Little Poland, Red Russia, andLithuania, to take part in the election ; but asthe influential part of those populations, beingchiefly composed of anti-Romanists, would haveensured the throne to a candidate belonging to thesame party, it was strongly opposed by the RomanCatholic clergy and their adherents, with the ex-


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REFORMATION IN POLAND 11

ception of Krasinski, bishop of Cracow, who supported Firley ; the Lutherans of Grand Polandsupported the Roman Catholics on that occasion.This party had assembled in July at Lowicz,in order to maintain the rights of the primate,and convoked another meeting for the same purpose at Sroda. This last assembly acted withgreat moderation, and decided to convoke atKaski, for the 25th October, a general assemblyof the states of Poland ; which having met at theappointed time, left to the primate the supremedignity during the interregnum, whilst the affairswere to be conducted in his and the senate sname bythe grand marshal. It adopted also severalregulations for the maintenance of public peace,and equal protection to the citizens of every religious persuasion ; and it resolved, that the Dietof Convocation should assemble atWarsaw on the6th January, 1573.*The first and the most important object of confederation

that Diet was, to settle in a peaceful manner the nuarye i573,differences between the Roman Catholics andthe Protestants. The clergy, who saw the im- oldstmn^con-possibility of crushing their opponents, and even [^,bcjons m Fthe danger to which they were themselves ex-

* The Diet of Convocation was that which assembled afterthe demise of the monarch, in order to fix the time and placeof the election, to convoke the voters, and to adopt the necessary measures for the maintenance of the internal peace, aswell as the external safety of the country.


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posed, were the first to propose such a measure.Karnkowski, bishop of Cujavia, composed thearticles, in which he insured a perfect equality ofrights and privileges to all the Christian professions in Poland. The same act guaranteed thedignities, rights, and privileges of the RomanCatholic bishops ; but abolished the obligationof the church patrons to bestow the benefices intheir gift exclusively to Roman Catholic clergymen. This wise act was, however, disgraced byan article which insured to the landowners aperfect authority over their subjects, even inmatters of religion.*

This remarkable transaction gave to the Protestants a legal existence in Poland, becausethe former enactments, although they gave thema complete freedom, did not grant them thatperfect equality with the Roman Catholic churchwhich they now acquired ; but the article whichconfirmed and extended the power of the landowners over the peasants, may be considered

* The act of confederation of 1573, which guaranteedcomplete religious liberty to all the citizens of Poland, wasevidently modelled on the celebrated religious peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which full religious liberty was secured to theProtestants of Germany. The above-mentioned act does notuse the expressions of securitas, tolerantia, or proteclio, butonly pax dissidentinm, establishing a perfect equality amongstall the religious professions. Heydenstein, speaking of thesame act, says : Similem sanctionem qua in Germanid pax reli-gionis sancita esset, constituere. Lib. i. p. 21.


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REFORMATION IN POLAND. 13as a most deplorable event in the Polish history.It was undoubtedly brought about by the troubleswhich the blind zeal of some reformers had excited in Germany, and the report of which wasindustriously circulated and magnified by theRomanist party. Its effect was particularly injurious to the progress of the Reformation, as itestranged from it the inferior classes of society,and prevented it from taking a deep root in thenational mind.Although the confederation was framed by the

clergy themselves, the instigations of Conimen-doni produced a great change in their opinions,and the bishops protested against that measure,and refused to sign it, with the exception ofFrancis Krasinski, bishop of Cracow, and vice-chancellor of Poland, who preferring the interestsof his own country to those of Rome, signed theact of the confederation. He was bitterly censuredby Rome for his patriotism, and Commendoniconsidered him as of suspicious orthodoxy, andentirely devoted to Firley.*

* This act, which became a fundamental law of Poland,excited the strongest animadversions on the part of the Romanistclergy. Commendoni s biographer calls it an impious act.Cardinal Hosius published two works against the provisions ofthis confederation, which he addressed to the newly electedsovereign, Henry of Valois. The celebrated Jesuit Skargawrote also against it, as well as several other Romanist writers.It was, on the other hand, zealously defended by many Protestant authors, but particularly by Erasmus Gliczner. It

was


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14 SKETCH OF THEThe same Diet fixed the election of the mo

narch for the 7th April at Kamien, in the vicinityof Warsaw. The choice of the place, which wasmade according to the advice of Commendoni,was a great advantage obtained by the Romanists ; because the inhabitants of Mazovia,wherein Warsaw is situated, were zealous Romanists, and the great number of the small nobleswhom that province contained, and who wereblindly devoted to the interests of the clergy,could easily turn the balance in their favour.The time before the election was busily employed by the parties in promoting the interestsof their candidates. The foreign ambassadorswho had arrived in order to recommend theirprinces for the vacant throne, remained in a kindof honourable custody, and could not act openly,although they continued to carry on their in-

Candidates to trigues in secret. Five principal candidates to thethe throne. throne presented themselves : the grand duke ofMuscovy; the king of Sweden; Ernest, archduke of Austria ; Henry of Valois, duke of An-jou ; and a Piast, or national king.

was called confederation, and not constitution (the name whichwas given to the enactments of an ordinary Diet), because itwas passed by a confederated Diet, where the senate and thenuncios voted together, and where the affairs were decided bythe majority of votes, and not by the unanimity which wasrequired in an ordinary Diet,


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Sigismund Augustus, during his life-time, frequently advised the Poles to choose for his successor a northern prince, by which, as it is supposed, he meant the grand duke of Muscovy. Thisopinion had many partisans amongst the Lithuanians, who, during the interregnum, began anegociation on that subject with Ivan Vassile-vich, czar of Muscovy. But the arrogance ofthat monarch, his coarse manners, and his unparalleled cruelty, left him no hope of success,notwithstanding the great political advantageswhich Poland might have derived from such anelection. The archduke s party, conducted byCommendoni, was very powerful, and comprehended almost all Lithuania, and a considerablepart of Grand Poland. The duke of Prussia,who had for some time the project of seekingthe throne of Poland for himself, promised tosupport the archduke. Yet the Austrian partyrapidly lost ground by the procrastination ofthe emperor, as well as by many errors committed by his agents ; and the jealousy against theinfluence of the house of Habsburg, whose dominion proved so injurious to the liberties ofBohemia and Hungary,* grew

r sostrong, as to

* Several Bohemian gentlemen of the suite of the imperialambassadors, who became, from the community of their originand language, very intimate with the Poles, expressed to them,that the ancient grandeur of their country, as well as theirliberties and privileges, were lost under the domination of the

house


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The Frenchcourt inducesthe Protestantsof Germany torecommend totheir brethrenin Poland, to

French king,

Embassy of

destroy all the views of the archduke to thethrone of Poland ; and Commendoni, perceivingthat his case was hopeless, transferred his influence to the French party.The policy of France was conducted on that

. . , . . . . .... _occasion with admirable skill. As the great, * . t , ^ , ,object of ensuring the throne of Poland to aT i i A ir rench prince, was to crush the overgrown powerf Austria and Spain, by raising the Protestant

cauge jn j;urope . the French court sent Schom-berg to Germany before the demise of SigismundAugustus, in order to induce the Protestantprinces of that country to conclude an alliancewith France, as well as to support its views inPoland.When the ground was prepared in that man

ner by Balagny in Poland, and by Schombergin Germany, Montluc, bishop of Valence, waschosen as ambassador to Poland, and furnishedwith ample instructions by Coligny.* Circum-

house of Austria; and advised them that, if they valued theirliberty, they should not entrust the throne of their country tothat family. Vie de Commendoni, livre iv. chap. 6.

* The bishop was instructed to promise the restoration ofWallachia and Moldavia, an alliance with France, and in case ofwar, assistance in money and men, peace with Turkey, andconfirmation of all the liberties of the nation. The new monarchwas to draw from France a revenue of 400,000 dollars. Thebishop was to gain over the palatines by such means as would bemost agreeable to each of them, and he had a carte blanche to

promise


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REFORMATION IN POLAND. 17stances were extremely favourable to the electionof the duke of Anjou. He was not suspectedby the Roman Catholics, having distinguishedhimself against the Protestants at the battleof Jarnac ; whilst the Protestant party considered the influence of Coligny, and the state ofthe Protestants of France, whose rights were atthat time secured by an equitable treaty, as asufficient guarantee of their own rights. Thechoice of the ambassador produced also a favourable impression; because Montluc, although aRoman Catholic bishop, was openly inclined tothe doctrines of the Reformation,* so that Pope-linniere wrote the greatest praises to him. Thiscircumstance could not remain unknown to theProtestants of Poland, whose churches maintained a constant intercourse with the reformedcongregations of Switzerland and France.

Montluc left Paris in August, 1572; but he Massacre of st.had not yet passed the frontiers of France, when Xithe massacre of St. Bartholomew was perpetrated. on Poland *Coligny was one of the victims of that abominable event, which sacrificed a policy foundedon national interests to the influence of Romepromise any sums of money and dignities to those who wouldsupport him." Manuscript of Fontanier, in the library Richelieu in Paris.

" Le prelat n etait Catholique que par son titre ; il etaitdetermine en faveur des opinions nouvelles." Manuscript ofFontanier.

VOL. II. c


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18 SKETCH OF THEand Madrid. Montluc, on receiving the news ofthat execrable act, saw at once its injurious effecton the French interest abroad, and suspendedhis journey. His life was in great danger, because the duke of Guise commissioned his secretary Macere to murder him, and to seize the largesums of money with which he was entrusted,Catherine de Medicis perceived, however, thatinstead of the difficulties of her government inFrance diminishing, they were rather increased bythe massacre of St. Bartholomew, and she saw thenecessity of following the same course of foreignpolicy which had been adopted previous to thatdeplorable event. Montluc received orders tocontinue his journey ; whilst his letter of instructions, composed by Coligny, remained unaltered,which is the most splendid evidence of the patriotic views of that great man.The news of the events of St. Bartholomew sday rapidly spread over all Europe, and filled theProtestants of Germany and Poland with horror.Schomberg was, at the same time, instructed by hiscourt to maintain the Protestant princes of Germany in the French interest, and to soften as muchas possible the impression produced by the above-mentioned news, by exonerating the monarchfrom a participation in that abominable crime;*

* The king wrote to Schomberg, that he was " fort eloignede la cruaute et de 1 inhumanite. Une grande diversite" des

lettres


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REFORMATION IN POLAND. 19whilst Balagny tried in Poland to represent themassacre of Paris as being produced entirely bypolitical causes, and without any religious motive. He assured them also, in a letter addressedto the senate, that although Henry was an orthodox Catholic, he would not infringe on the liberties of the Protestants.*Such a task seemed, however, to be impos

sible; and the object of Montluc s embassypresented apparently no hope of success. Heentered Poland on the 12th November 1572,and found the state of parties there entirelychanged- The Romanist party, despairing ofthe success of the archduke of Austria, hadbecome since the news of the massacre zealouspartisans of the duke of Anjou, whom they considered as the exterminator of heresy ; whilst theProtestants, terrified by the murder of their brethren in France, abandoned the interests of thatcountry, the policy of which, since the death ofColigny, they could not but consider as hostileto the Protestant cause. Even many RomanCatholics were indignant at the atrocities com-lettres qu ont ete envoyees d Allemagne en Pologne, contenantplusieurs choses diffamatoires centre mon frere pour empecherson election,, sont malicieusement controuvees." He wanted theGerman Protestant princes to write to the Polish Protestants.Manuscript of the library Richelieu Sismonde, Hist, des Fran-9ois.

* "Conserver les uns et les autres dans toute surete."Popelinniere, 1. 30.

C 2


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20 SKETCH OF THEmitted in France, the details of which were rapidly spreading all over the country by means ofseveral publications on that subject,* and byseveral Poles who were present at those scenes,as well as French Protestants who had escapedfrom them. The most active promoter of hatredagainst France was colonel Krokowski, a Polishgentleman, who had commanded, during the religious wars of France, under Conde and Coligny,a body of cavalry composed of Polish Protestants, who had left their country to assist theirbrethren in France.f Such were the difficultieswhich Montluc had to overcome, in order toobtain the throne of Poland for the duke ofAnjou. He was strongly supported by his government, and furnished, as we have alreadysaid, with the most extensive powers. The duke* There appeared at Cracow a pamphlet, entitled : " Vera et

brevis descriptio tumultus postremi Gallici Lutetiani in quo occi-dit Admirallius cum aliis non panels ab origine sine cujusdaminjuria facta." Cracow in officina ScharfFenberg, anno 1573.There were also circulated pictures of that massacre, wherethe king, Charles the Ninth, and the duke of Anjou, were represented animating the murderers. Vide Choisnin, p. 41.The same .author

says,that all the ladies of Poland shed tears,

in speaking of that event, with such abundance as if they hadbeen present there.f Choisnin, p. 78. Krokowski had commanded a body of

cavalry known in the religious wars of France under the nameof Reitres, and chiefly composed of Germans. Choisnin relates that the same Krokowski had pecuniary claims on France.


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REFORMATION IN POLAND. 21of Anjou himself solemnly disclaimed, in a letteraddressed to the Polish states, his participationin the atrocities of Paris.* Montluc advisedthe French government to proclaim liberty ofconscience in France, and to desist from everysevere measure. His advice was partly followed,and the affairs of the French Protestants tooka more favourable turn for the sake of theirbrethren in Poland.

Montluc, although living retired, maintained Montluc sue-a most active correspondence, in order to allay offnthe general irritation against his court, boldly l^^denying the most authentic information about theevents of Paris. He scattered money with thegreatest profusion, promising every thing, andgiving every guarantee that was required. Thushe accomplished what appeared to be impossible,and realized the great scheme traced by Coligny.Many circumstances acted in favour of Mont- circumstances

luc. The Protestant party, headed by Firley, andwishing to have a Protestant king, had no candi- tlons>date who could present himself with hope of success. The king of Sweden, brother-in-law of thelate monarch, hesitated to take any decisive step ;and the duke of Prussia, although he had shewnat the beginning a strong resolution to competefor the vacant throne, soon abandoned his project. A considerable party, which Thuanus

* Vide Heydenstein, 1. 1.


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22 SKETCH OF THEcalls the best part of the nation, wished to electa native of the country.* The choice of such acandidate was chiefly supported by Mielecki,palatine of Podolia, a Protestant grandee, andTomicki, castellan of Gnezno, also a Protestant,who proposed Stanislav Szafranietz, castellan ofBiecz, a nobleman belonging to the same communion, and exceedingly popular amongst thelower nobility, as a candidate to the throne. ButSzafranietz had not sufficient resolution for entering into such a contest, which would havebeen opposed by the great families of Poland, jealous of the lower nobility, by which Szafranietz,although belonging himself to the first families ofthe country, would have been elevated. He wouldalso have met with the greatest opposition fromthe Roman clergy, who would have done theirutmost in order to prevent the accession of a Protestant, by which the cause of the Reformationwould have triumphed in Poland,t Zamoyski,* IC De Piasto creando etsi major et melior pars sentiebatur."Thuanus, Ivi. liber 8.f Gratiani gives unwillingly the most splendid testimony to

the patriotic sentiments which the Polish Protestants manifested on that occasion. et The heretics," said he, " represented in all the assemblies that there were in the countrylords of an illustrious birth, who did not cede to any foreignprince,, and that they were much better acquainted with thelaws of the country than the others. That it was far better toelect a monarch educated in the national manners, who wouldlove his kingdom as his own country, and his subjects as his

fellow-


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REFORMATION IN POLA.ND. 23who was much adverse to the election of a nativeof the country, prevented it most effectually by introducing a condition, that those who wished tobe elected to the throne, should quit the place ofthe Diet like other candidates. On this accountnobody dared openly to proclaim his pretensionsto the throne.The Diet of election opened on the 5th April, Warlike ap-pearance of the

1573. A contemporary writer, who was present Diet,at that scene, describes it as more resemblingthe camp of an army than a civil assembly. Allfellow-citizens,, than a foreign prince who would possess Poland as a kingdom got by chance. That their ancestors preferred to elect a Pole ofa low condition., named Piast, rather thansubmit to a foreigner. That they had no occasion to repentof that election, and that the state prospered under Piast s descendants during many centuries. That it was a shame tohave recourse to other nations, who were neither more valiantnor wiser than themselves, and to prefer unknown and distantprinces, who could be appreciated only by the accounts of theirpartisans, or by vague and uncertain reports, to men ofvirtue tried in times of war and peace. That it was to declarein the face of all the nations, that there was not a single Polecapable of reigning. .That it was very wrong to abandonthemselves to the rule of a king who was ignorant of thelaws, customs, and the language of the country. That theycould not obey a sovereign whose commands they should notunderstand, and that he would be unable to maintain lawswhich he did not know ; and that, in such a case, it wouldbecome necessary to forget those laws and ordinances whichhad rendered the realm flourishing, in order to learn newlaws and customs, as well as foreign manners." Vie de Com-mendoni, par Gratiani, livre vi. chap, 8.


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parties being fully armed, and several of themprovided with artillery : yet what chiefly excitedthe admiration of the foreigners was, that notwithstanding that hostile array and the excitedstate of parties, not a single sword was drawn,

Fruitless at- and not a single drop of blood was spilt.* Theto Protestant party, comprising the majority ofh

oef the the great families, proposed that the election

a regU " of the monarch should be made by a Diet com-* ft There were already at Warsaw many armed gentlemen

and many lords, accompanied by a great number of theirfriends or vassals, who had arrived from all parts of the kingdom. The plain, where they had pitched their tents, andwhere the Diet was to take place, had all the appearance of acamp. They were seen walking about with long swords attheir sides, and sometimes they marched in troops armed withpikes, muskets, arrows, or javelins. Some of them, besidesthe armed men whom they brought for their guard, had evencannons, and were as if entrenched in their quarters. Onemight have said that they were going to a battle rather than toa Diet, and that it was an array of war and not a council ofstate, and that they were assembled rather to conquer a foreignkingdom than to dispose of their own. At least, it was possibleto suppose, on seeing them, that this affair would be decidedrather by force and by arms, than by deliberation and votes.

" But what appeared to me the most extraordinary was, thatamongst so many companies of armed men, and with suchimpunity in a time when neither laws nor magistrates wereacknowledged, neither a single murder was committed, nor asword drawn; and that these great differences where the matterwas to give or to refuse a kingdom, produced nothing but a fewwords ; so much is this nation averse to spill its blood in civilcontests." Vie de Commendoni, par Gratiani* 1. iv. chap. 10.


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posed in the usual way of the senate and thenuncios, trusting with good reason to their influence amongst the higher and more enlightenedclasses of society; but this salutary advice wasdefeated chiefly by the instrumentality of Za-moyski, who insisted on the right of each nobleto give his vote personally on that occasion. Za-moyski, whose eminent services to his countryhad justly entitled him to the name of the Great,committed on that occasion a most fatal error bythrowing the most important transaction of thestate into the hands of a democratic body, which,although often animated by pure motives, couldbe easily led astray by any artful and designingleader. This measure, which may be consideredas one of the principal causes of the decline ofPoland, acted likewise in the most injuriousmanner on the Protestant cause, as the majorityof the elective assembly, composed of the smallnobles of Mazovia, who were blindly devoted tothe interests of Rome, decided the election of themonarch. Thus the most important transactionof the state was settled, not by the mature deli-berations of the best and most enlightened partof the nation, but by the excited passions of asenseless nobiliary mob.*The details of the election of Henry of Yaloisto the throne of Poland belong to the political

* Vide Heydenstein.


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history of that country, and we will contentourselves with mentioning, that Commendonihaving arrived at Warsaw, represented in aspeech to the senate, that none but a RomanCatholic should be elected. He was severelyrebuked by Zborowski, palatine of Sandomir,for intermeddling in the internal affairs of thecountry, which he had no right to do ; and hewas obliged, notwithstanding all his efforts toremain at Warsaw, to leave that place, with theother foreign ambassadors, at the time of the election. The Protestants, perceiving their inabilityto oppose the election of the duke of Anjou,resolved to exact from the new monarch themost ample securities for their rights and interests. The influence of Firley, the chief leaderof that party, prescribed conditions favourable,not only to the Protestants in Poland, but likewise to their brethren in France, and which theFrench ambassadors, Montluc and Lansac, wereobliged to sign, or to see the election of the dukeof Anjou annihilated.*By this condition, signed at Plock on the 4th

May 1573, the king of France was to grant acomplete amnesty to the Protestants of thatcountry, as well as perfect liberty of religiousexercise. All those who wished to leave the

* Vide Popelinniere ; Capefigue s Histoire de la Reforme :Thuanus.


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country were at liberty to sell their properties,or to receive their incomes, provided they didnot retire into the dominions of the enemiesof France, whilst those who had emigratedcould return to their homes. All proceedingsagainst persons accused of the conspiracy ofParis were to be cancelled. Those who hadbeen condemned, were to be restored to honourand property, and a compensation was to begiven to the children of those who had beenmurdered. Every Protestant who was condemnedto exile, or obliged to fly, was to be restored tohis properties, dignities, &c. The king was toassign in every province, towns where the Protestants might freely exercise their religion, &c.These conditions which the Polish Protestants,

being only a part of the nation, were so anxiousto secure to their brethren of France, may givean idea of the advantages which the Protestantcause in general would have derived from thefinal establishment of the Reformation in Poland.We think that it is scarcely possible to entertaina doubt, considering the great political importance of Poland at that time, and the zeal whichthe Polish Protestants evinced on every occasionto support their brethren abroad, that the triumphof the Protestant cause in Poland would haveinsured its triumph over all Europe.

After having secured the liberties of theirbrethren in France, the Protestants of Poland


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28 SKETCH OF THEno longer opposed the election of the duke ofAnjou. But when he was proclaimed on the 9thMay by the archbishop and the Roman Catholicparty, without any condition respecting the religious and many political liberties of the country,the Protestant party, headed by Firley, retiredto Grochow,* where having mustered a considerable armed force, with some artillery, they proclaimed their opposition to the election of thenew monarch, until the constitutional liberties ofthe country should be secured. After some ne-gociation, the Romanist party were obliged toaccede to the demands of the Protestants, whoagreed to the election, on condition that thereligious liberties of all Christian confessionsproclaimed by the confederation of the 6th January, should be fully guaranteed ; that the monarch should have no right to nominate hissuccessor, or undertake any important politicalmeasure, without the assent of the states. It wasstipulated also, at the same time, that should themonarch break his promises, he would by suchact forfeit his right to the throne.An embassy composed of twelve noblemen,amongst whom there were several Protestants,

* Vide Bielski and Heydenstein. Grochow is a village onthe right bank of the Vistula, about two English miles fromWarsaw. It became celebrated by a murderous battle whichtook place there, between the Russians and the Poles, on the25th February 1831.


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REFORMATION IN POLAND. 29went to Paris in order to announce to the dukeof Anjou his elevation to the throne of Poland.Thuanus describes the universal admirationwhich they excited in Paris by the splendour oftheir retinues, and even more by their learningand accomplishments.*

Their arrival produced a favourable effect onthe affairs of the French Protestants, as Montlucstrongly recommended his court to grant themthe liberties which he had promised for them tothe Polish Protestants. The siege of Sancerrewas discontinued, and the Protestants of thattown received more tolerable conditions. Although it was difficult to the court, on accountof the predominance of the Romanist party inFrance, to grant to the Protestants the favourableterms which had been promised by Montluc, itmade to them, by the edict of July 1573, severalimportant concessions. Thus all accusations andlibels against them were prohibited, the towns of

* " There was not a single one amongst them who did notspeak Latin; many knew the German and the Italian languages,and some of them spoke our own tongue with such purity, thatthey might be taken for men educated on the banks of theSeine and the Loire, rather than for inhabitants of a countrywatered by the Vistula and the Dnieper. They have quiteshamed our courtiers, who are not only ignorant themselves, butare moreover declared enemies of every thing called knowledge.They could never answer any question addressed to them bythese foreigners, otherwise than by a sign, or by blushing withconfusion." Thuanus, lib. Ivi.


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Montauban, Rochelle, and Nismes, had the freeexercise of Protestant religion, which could beprofessed privately everywhere, except within twoleagues of Paris, and the lives and properties ofthe Protestants were declared inviolable. Notwithstanding these concessions, the Protestantmembers of the embassy, although abandoned,and even

opposed bytheir Romanist

companions,insisted on the complete fulfilment of the promises given by Montluc ; but their demandsproduced no effect.*

Whilst the embassy was on its journey to

* The Polish delegates were anxious to secure a perfectequality of rights to the Protestants of France. They addressed king Charles the Ninth, on that occasion, in the following manner : " Avant que nous, principalement qui sontde la religion reformee en Pologne, fussions d avis de baillerle royaume au frere de votre majeste, nous avons ete d avisa employer tout notre travail a ce que par notre intercession etaffection tres-grande, plein de piete et de fidelite envers laFrance, les guerres civiles fussent abolies pour jamais a conditions commodes, et par une paix ferme et stable autant avanta-geuse pour Tun que pour 1 autre. Lequel point, pour cettecause, a ete soigneusement traite avec les ambassadeurs de votremajeste. La paix publique, et commune tranquillite, a eteconservee parceque nos rois ont donne liberte de conscience achacun. Nous avons couche par articles, quelques moyenscommodes de pacification,, lesquels ont ete jures par parolesexpresses au nom et en la foi de votre majeste. Voyantavec notre grand regret, que les promesses et articles qu onnous a jures n ont ete accordes a ceux de la religion, &c."Popelinniere, Histoire de la France.


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France, the Romanist party tried by its intriguesto destroy the effect of the constitutional securities given to the religious liberties of the country.Hosius argued that the confederation of the 6thJanuary was a criminal conspiracy against God,and therefore should be abolished by the king ;and he zealously recommended to the archbishopof Gnezno, to Albert Laski, and to the notoriouscardinal of Lotaringia, to prevent the newlyelected monarch from confirming by his oath thereligious liberties of Poland. But when Henryhad taken that oath, he openly recommendedto him perjury, maintaining that an oath givento heretics may be broken even without an absolution.*

William Ruzeus, confessor of Henry, was

* Hosius despatched his confidant, and afterwards his biographer Rescius to the king, to whom he addressed, in a letterdated October 19, 1573, amongst others: That he ought notto follow the example of Herod, but rather that of David,, whoto his greatest praise kept not what he had thoughtlessly sworn.It mattered not in the present case about a single Nabal, butabout thousands of souls who will be delivered into the powerof the devil. As the king had sinned with Peter, so ought heto atone with him for his sin,, amend his error, and reflect thatthe oath was not a bond of iniquity, and that there was nonecessity for him to be absolved from his oath, because according to every law, all that he had inconsiderately done wasneither binding, nor had any value, &c. &c." Friese Beytrage,&c. vol. ii. page 43.


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32 SKETCH OF THE

commissioned to explain to the monarch theduty of breaking his pledges given to the nation,and guaranteed by the sanctity of an oath.* Theclergy endeavoured to spread an opinion, thatthe above-mentioned confederation authorizedevery crime and blasphemy, and would producea general confusion and revolts similar to thoseof the peasants in Westphalia. The nobles ofthe palatinate of Plock, which formed a part ofthe strictly Romanist Mazovia, were so excitedby the representations of the clergy, that theysent a delegate to Paris with a petition to thenew monarch, not to confirm the religious libertyguaranteed by the confederation of the 6th January 1573. Solikowski, a learned and zealousRomanist prelate, addressed to Henry moredangerous advice than that of Hosius. He saidthat, submitting to the necessity, he ought topromise

and swear every thing that was demanded, in order to prevent a civil and religiouswar ; but, that once possessed of the throne,he will have every means to crush heresy evenwithout violence.The efforts of the Romanists to prevent the

new monarch from confirming by his oath thereligious liberties of the country proved, however, abortive. The delegate of the palatinateof Plock did not obtain an audience of the king,

* Vide Vita Hosii, autore Rescio. Epistolae Hosii., 198.


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and several Roman Catholic members of theembassy insisted with the Protestants on thestrict fulfilment of the conditions on whichHenry was elected to the throne of Poland.Such were Zamoyski and Herburt, whilst theProtestant members, Gorka, Zborowski, To-micki, and Prince Prunski, were determined toprevent the accession of the monarch ratherthan to give up the stipulated conditions. Thebishop Konarski presented a declaration fromthe archbishop against the above-mentionedconditions, which, however, being made withoutthe assent of the senate, was considered asa private act of the archbishop, and consequently without any legal validity. Konarskiwas obliged to give way to the unanimous opinion of the embassy, but reserved to himselfthe power of presenting the above-mentioneddeclaration to the king in person, which he didat the solemn presentation of the diploma ofelection to Henry, on the 10th September, atthe church of Notre Dame.

This act produced some confusion, as Zborovv-ski interrupted the solemnity with the followingwords addressed to Montluc : " Had you notaccepted in the name of the duke the conditionsof religious liberty, our opposition would haveprevented this duke from being elected ourmonarch." Henry feigned to be astonished, andas if he did not understand the subject of dis-

VOL. II. D


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34 SKETCH OF THEcussion ; but Zborowski addressed him, saying :" I repeat, sire, that if your ambassadors hadnot accepted the conditions of liberty to thecontending religious persuasions, our oppositionwould have prevented you from being electedking ; and that if you do not confirm those conditions, you will not be king." After this, themembers of the embassy surrounded the monarch, and Herburt read to him the formula ofthe oath prescribed by the national representatives, which Henry repeated without any opposition. The bishop Karnkowski, who had stoodaside, approached the king after he had sworn,and protested that the liberty of religious professions was not to injure the authority of thechurch of Rome, and the king gave him a writtentestimony of that protestation.

Henry left Paris in September, but arrived inPoland only on the 25th January 1574. Hetravelled on purpose very slowly, expecting thedemise of his brother Charles the Ninth, who wasin a very bad state of health, and whom he wasto succeed on the throne of France.

Although he had confirmed by his oath thereligious liberties of Poland, the fears of theProtestant party were not entirely allayed ; andthey resolved jealously to watch their antagonistsat the Diet of the coronation, where they had amajority. These fears were not without foundation ; and Gratiani, who left Cracow with the


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REFORMATION IN POLAND. 35instructions of the archbishop and several Romanist leaders, met the new sovereign in Saxony,where he represented to him that he had theright of governing Poland as an absolute monarch, and advised him in what manner hemight easily crush the religious as well as thepolitical liberties of the country, which he hadsworn in the most solemn manner to preserve.*

* Let us hear the advice of Gratiani to Henry in his ownwords : c< I assured him that the king of Poland was absolutemaster of the life and death of all his subjects. That all appealswere made to him from the magistrates of towns and provinces. That he was the only interpreter of the laws as wellas of the constitution. That the function of the senate was togive him advice, but not to prescribe anything to him. Thatthe king was to listen to their opinions, but to decide himself. That the edicts were proposed in the senate, but madein his cabinet. That he received the advice of others, but thathe himself gave orders. That, finally, the senate was the witness, but not the arbiter of the actions of the king, to whomnothing was prohibited, except injustice and violence.

" That, besides, it was impossible to obtain either anytitle of honour or pre-eminence, or even considerable wealth,except through the favour and liberality of the king. Thatthere was no other dignity than that of senator, and that itwas commonly bestowed on those who had been entrustedwith some government or financial administration, and thatthis honour was not hereditary, but distributed by the king asfavours or rewards. That the monarch was thus the masterof the honour, fortunes, and lives of his subjects, who could notexpect any dignity except from his favour. That these were themeans for moving, stopping, or regulating the affairs of thestate according to his will. That the king had the entire

D 2 disposition


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36 SKETCH OF THEThe arguments of Hosius, that the oath of

the monarch was not binding, became known aswell as his letter to the archbishop and the bishops

disposition of the finances, and that he gave no account of themto the senate, and that the treasurers addressed themselves onlyto the monarch, who created treasurers as well as senators.That it was necessary to choose senators and magistrates withgreat precaution.

That he(king Henry) would find

muchfidelity amongst Catholics ; that he ought to give the offices togood men, (i.e. those who abandoning Protestantismhad becomeRomanists,) in order to induce others to deserve the same favours.That certain cunning people advised him absolutely to conciliate the heretics, and to gain them by rewards, but that thisadvice was neither sure nor faithful, and that it would renderhis adversaries stronger, and give them means to do harm ; thatthey would suppose that good was done to them from fear andinterest, rather than from inclination. That it was a bad thingwhen nations resolved to wrest favours by force and compulsion,instead of deserving them by submission and obedience. Thatit was to be feared, that wishing to conciliate his adversaries bycivility and favours, he might alienate his friends, who wouldsee with regret the rewards due to their fidelity carried awayby others. That he ought to believe no more those who wouldmake him fear the hatred of heretics, when excluded from allpublic employment. That there was no danger from thatquarter, as they were weak, without leaders or forces ; butthat, on the contrary, the offices being reserved to the Catholics, the heretics would return by degrees to the ancient religion. That if the king once declared that honours and rewards were destined for good men, and not for the seditiousand rebels, he would soon crush that pride which the negligence of king Sigismund Augustus, and the corruption ofthe human mind, had fostered during so long a time. AFrenchman of the suite of the king here interrupted me,

saying :


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of Poland, recommending them not to subscribeto, but to act against the conditions of the confederation of the 6th January 1573, and in which

saying : Do you, then, wish that the king should directly declare war against the heretics ? Do you assert that they shouldbe expelled from the court and the country? It would be thennecessary to levy arms, and to take the field against them.f It is not my plan, replied I, * that they should be treated likeopen enemies. There is no necessity for levying troops oremploying force and arms, when the laws and discipline maysuffice. I do not wish to expel any body from the court orfrom the country. I am of opinion, that the king shouldtreat the heretics with civility, and offer them his favour, oncondition that they should abandon the new doctrines whichcause such great disorders in the state. But if they persist intheir obstinacy, it is necessary that they should be humiliated,and that at least they should know that there will be no honours for those who have abandoned the Catholic religion. Ido not know of any remedy more humane and easy/

After this, Gratiani gave some unobjectionable advice respecting the choice of the bishops ; and, after having proposedthe plan for crushing the religious as well as the political liberties of the nation, he advised the king to keep up the martialspirit of the nation, and to engage in a war with the czar ofMuscovy. The object of this advice was not, however, causedby any motive of public utility, but, as he confessed himself, bythe consideration that the nation being engaged in war andmilitary pursuits, would have no leisure for discussing themysteries of religion, i, c. have no time for intellectual pursuits.

" There was also one thing which ought not to be neglected.It is the custom to send to the general assembly deputies ofeach palatinate, whom they call territorial or provincial nuncios.They are chosen from amongst the equestrian order, becausethe low people are looked upon as slaves, and have no share

in


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38 SKETCH OF THEhe stated, that all that the king- had promised atParis to the anti-Romanists was only a feint;and that, as soon as he should be crowned, he

in the government. Each palatinate nominates one or moreof these deputies. Formerly they were sent only in order toreceive the ordinances of the senate, and to publish them intheir provinces, that all the public edicts should be known andobserved in all the parts of the kingdom ; but under the reignof Sigismund Augustus they usurped so much authority,that they governed the state absolutely like the ancient tribunesof Rome; who, having been established for the protectionof the citizens against tyrants, became tyrants themselves. Iinformed the king, that those deputies had the insolence toprescribe to the senate what he was to order, and to oppose itsordinances. That it was the source of several disorders, andthat it gave to heretics frequent opportunities to make speechesand seditious propositions. That it was important to deprivethem of that authority which they had usurped, to represstheir violence, and to manage matters so, that Catholics zealousfor the service of the sovereign and the state, should be delegated instead of turbulent and seditious people. That for thatpurpose, it was necessary to gain them over by favours, toadmit deputations, and to act in the assemblies where greatcontests were to be supported; which would have the effectthat the state would be better served, and that the most audacious would not take the place of the wisest. That if hismajesty would exhort the Catholics to shake off that idlenessand languor which kept them from the assemblies, and animatemen of honour by rewards and favours, the Catholics wouldbe the strongest ; the love of new doctrines would cool down,heresy would fall almost of itself, and everybody would remainin duty and submission." Vie de Commendoni, par Gratiani.Now, let us compare the statements of Gratiani about the

constitution


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REFORMATION IN POLAND. 39would abolish all religions contrary to that ofRome.* The bishops openly manifested theirintention to change the formula of the Parisianoath,t whilst the legate of the pope instigated theRomanist party by his intrigues to break the stipulations guaranteed by that oath. The Romanistmachinations produced their natural effect, andincreased the just suspicions of the Protestants

constitution of Poland with the description of it by Thuanus,who gives it in relating the election of the same Henry.Thuanus says of Poland : " Sic fere ut amplissimum illud

imperium regio splendore refulgeat, et regia in eo potestas quaeplerumque ad libidinem et insaniam vergens cum cuncta li-cent, omnium scelerum

historical sketch of the rise, progress, and decline of the reformation in poland vol 2.pdf

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