history of asia.docx

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History of Asia

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Detail of Chinesesilkfrom the 4th century BCE. The characteristic trade of silk through theSilk

Roadconnected various regions from China, India, Central Asia, and the Middle East to Europe

and Africa.

The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastalregions such as, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the

Eurasiansteppe.

The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, with

each of the three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys. These valleys

were fertile because the soil there was rich and could bear lots of root crops. The civilizations in

Mesopotamia, theIndus Valley, andChinashared many similarities and likely exchangedtechnologies and ideas such asmathematicsand thewheel. Other notions such as that of writing

likely developed individually in each area. Cities, states and then empires developed in these

lowlands.

The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes

they could reach all areas of the Asian continent. The northern part of the continent, coveringmuch ofSiberiawas also inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the

tundra. These areas in Siberia were very sparsely populated.

The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. TheCaucasus,Himalaya,

Karakum Desert, andGobi Desertformed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross
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with difficulty. While technologically and culturally the city dwellers were more advanced, they

could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the

lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. Thus thenomads who conquered states in the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies.

Asia's history would feature major developments seen in other parts of the world, as well asevents that would affect those other regions. These include the trade of theSilk Road, which

spread cultures, languages, religion, and disease throughout Afro-Eurasian trade. Another major

advancement was the innovation ofgunpowderin medieval China, which led to advancedwarfare through the use ofguns.

Contents

1 Prehistory 2 Bronze Age 3 Iron Age

o 3.1 Middle Easto 3.2 Indiao 3.3 Classical China

4 Medieval historyo 4.1 Islamic Middle Easto 4.2 Indiao 4.3 Medieval Chinao 4.4 Japano 4.5 Mongol Empire

5 Early modern periodo 5.1 Ming China

6 Late modern periodo 6.1 Qing China

7 Contemporary historyo 7.1 China

8 References 9 Bibliography

Prehistory

A temple area in southeastern Turkey atGbekli Tepedated to 10000 BCE has been seen as thebeginning of the "Neolithic 1" culture. This site was developed by nomadichunter-gatherers

since there is no permanent housing in the vicinity. This temple site is the oldest known man-

made place of worship. By 85008000 BCE farming communities began to spread toAnatolia,North Africa and northMesopotamia.

A report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa,Indiashows new C14 datings thatrange between 8000 BCE and 9000 BCE associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest

Neolithic site in entire South Asia.[1]
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Theprehistoric Beifudi sitenear Yixian inHebeiProvince, China, contains relics of a culture

contemporaneous with theCishanandXinglongwacultures of about 70008000 BCE, neolithiccultures east of theTaihang Mountains, filling in an archaeological gap between the twoNorthern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the

collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases.[2]

Around 5500 BCE theHalafianculture appeared in the Levant, Lebanon,Palestine,Syria,

Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia, based upon dryland agriculture.

In southern Mesopotamia were the alluvial plains ofSumerandElam. Since there was little

rainfall,irrigationsystems were necessary. TheUbaidculture flourished from 5500 BCE.

Bronze Age

Main articles:Ancient Near EastandSynoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric

cultures

The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BCE, then theBronze Agebegan about 3500 BCE,replacing the Neolithic cultures.

TheIndus Valley Civilization(IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (33001300 BCE; matureperiod 26001900 BCE) which was centered mostly in the western part of the IndianSubcontinent; it is considered that an early form of Hinduism was performed during this

civilization. Some of the great cities of this civilization includeHarappaandMohenjo-daro. The

cause of the destruction of these regions around 1700 BCE is debatable, although evidencesuggests it was caused by natural disasters (especially flooding) and Indo-European invaders.

[3]

These invaders are commonly referred to as theAryanand their dominance created theVedic

period, which lasted from roughly 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. During this period, theSanskritlanguage developed and theVedaswere written, epic hymns that told tales of Aryan gods and

wars. This was the basis for the Aryan religion, which would eventually sophisticate and develop

intoHindusim, a religion based on thecaste systemof class (which consisted of the fourvarnas),

thebrahmanpriesthood, and the developing semi-monotheism.[4]

China andVietnamwere also centres of metalworking. Dating back to the Neolithic Age, thefirst bronze drums, called the Dong Son drums have been uncovered in and around the Red River

Delta regions of Vietnam and Southern China. These relate to the prehistoric Dong Son Culture

of Vietnam. Song Da bronze drum's surface, Dong Son culture, Vietnam

In Ban Chiang, Thailand (Southeast Asia), bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100BCE.

In Nyaunggan, Burma bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts.

Dating is still currently broad (3500500 BCE).

This section requiresexpansion.(December 2009)
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Iron Age

Main article:Iron Age

Further information:Axial Age

The Iron Age saw the widespread use of iron tools, weaponry, and armor throughout the majorcivilizations of Asia.

Middle East

TheAchaemenid dynastyof thePersian Empire, founded byCyrus the Great, ruled an area from

GreeceandTurkeyto theIndus Riverand Central Asia during the 6th to 4th centuries BCE.

Persian politics included a tolerance for other cultures, a highlycentralized government, and

significant infrastructure developments. Later, inDarius the Great's rule, the territories wereintegrated, a bureaucracy was developed, nobility were assigned military positions, tax collection

was carefully organized, and spies were used to ensure the loyalty of regional officials. The

primary religion of Persia at this time wasZoroastrianism, developed by the philosopherZoroaster, which was a primitive form ofmonotheismthat introduced the concept to this area. It

banned animal sacrifice and the use of intoxicants in rituals; and introduced the concept of

spiritual salvation through personal moral action, anend time, and bothgeneralandParticularjudgmentwith aheavenorhell. These concepts would heavily influence later emperors and the

masses; more importantly, Zoroastrianism would be an important precursor for theAbrahamic

religionssuch as Christianity, Islam, or Judaism. The Persian Empire was successful in

establishing peace and stability throughout the Middle East and were a major influence in art,politics (affecting Hellenistic leaders), and religion.

Alexander the Greatconquered this dynasty in the 4th century BCE, creating the briefHellenistic

period. He was unable to establish stability and after his death, Persia broke into small, weakdynasties including theSeleucid Empire, followed by theParthian Empire. By the end of the

Classical age, Persia had been reconsolidated into theSassanid Empire, also known as the secondPersian Empire.

TheRoman Empirewould later control parts of Western Asia. TheSeleucid,ParthianandSassaniddynasties of Persia dominated Western Asia for centuries.

India

The Maurya and Gupta empires are called the Golden Age of India and were marked by

extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, art, religion, and philosophy thatcrystallized the elements of what is generally known as Indian culture. The religions ofHinduismandBuddhism, which began in Indian sub-continent, were an important influence on

South, East and Southeast Asia.

By 600 BCE, India had been divided into sixteen regional states that would occasionally feud

amongst themselves. In 327 BCE,Alexander the Greatcame to India with a vision of conquering

the whole world. He crossed northwestern India and created the provinceBactriabut could not
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move further because his army was afraid of the foot soldiers of India. Shortly prior, the soldier

Chandragupta Mauryabegan to take control of the Ganges river and soon established theMaurya

Empire. The Maurya Empire (Sanskrit: , Maurya Rjavanha) was the geographicallyextensive and powerful empire in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185

BCE. It was one of the world's largest empires in its time, stretching to theHimalayasin the

north, what is nowAssamin the east, probably beyond modernPakistanin the west, andannexingBalochistanand much of what is nowAfghanistan, at its greatest extent. India was

united for the first time in the Maurya empire. The government established by Chandragupta was

led by an autocratic king, who primarily relied on the military to assert his power.[5]

It also

applied the use of a bureaucracy and even sponsored a postal service.[5]

Chandragupta'sgrandson,Ashoka, greatly extended the empire by conquering most of modern-day India (save

for the southern tip). He eventually converted to Buddhism, though, and began a peaceful life

where he promoted the religion as well as humane methods throughout India. The Maurya

Empire would disintegrate soon after Ashoka's death and was conquered by the Kushan invadersfrom the northwest, establishing theKushan Empire. Their conversion to Buddhism caused the

religion to be associated with foreigners and therefore a decline in its popularity occurred.[5]

The Kushan Empire would fall apart by 220 CE, creating more political turmoil in India. Then in

320 CE, theGupta Empire(Sanskrit: , Gupta Rjavanha) was established andcovered much of the Indian Subcontinent. Founded byMaharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the

model of a classical civilization. Gupta kings united the area primarily through negotiation of

local leaders and families as well as strategical intermarriage.[6]

Their rule covered less land than

the Maurya Empire, but established the greatest stability.[6]

In 535 CE, the empire ended whenIndia was overrun by theHuns.

Classical China

Zhou Dynasty

Main article:Zhou Dynasty

Since 1029 BCE, theZhou Dynasty(Chinese:;pinyin:Zhu Cho;WadeGiles: Chou

Ch'ao[t t]), had existed in China and it would continue to until 258 BCE.[7]The Zhoudynasty had been using afeudal systemby giving power to local nobility and relying on theirloyalty in order to control its large territory.

[7]As a result, the Chinese government at this time

tended to be very decentralized and weak, and there was often little the emperor could do to

resolve national issues. Nonetheless, the government was able to retain its position with the

creation of theMandate of Heaven, which could establish an emperor as divinely chosen to rule.The Zhou additionally discouraged thehuman sacrificeof the preceding eras and unified Chinese

language with the spread of theMandarin Chinesedialect. Finally, the Zhou government

encouraged settlers to move into theYangtze Rivervalley, thus creating the Chinese MiddleKingdom.

But by 500 BCE, its political stability began to decline due to repeated nomadic incursions[7]

andinternal conflict derived from the fighting princes and families. This was lessened by the many
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philosophical movements, starting with the life ofConfucius. His philosophical writings (called

Confucianism) concerning the respect of elders and of the state would later be popularly used in

the Han Dynasty. Additionally,Laozi's concepts ofTaoism, includingyin and yangand theinnate duality and balance of nature and the universe, became popular throughout this period.

Nevertheless, the Zhou Dynasty eventually disintegrated as the local nobles began to gain more

power and their conflict devolved into theWarring States period, from 402 BCE to 201 BCE.

[8]

Qin Dynasty

Main article:Qin Dynasty

One leader eventually came on top,Qin Shi Huang(Chinese:, Sh Hungd), whooverthrew the last Zhou emperor and established the Qin dynasty.

[7]TheQin Dynasty(Chinese:

; pinyin: Qn Cho) was the first ruling dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 BCE to207 BCE.

[9]The new Emperor abolished the feudal system and directly appointed a bureaucracy

that would rely on him for power. Huang's imperial forces crushed any regional resistance, and

they furthered the Chinese empire by expanding down to theSouth China Seaand northernVietnam. Greater organization brought a uniform tax system, a national census, regulated roadbuilding (and cart width), standard measurements, standard coinage, and an official written and

spoken language.[10]

Further reforms included new irrigation projects, the encouragement ofsilk

manufacturing,[10]

and (most famously) the beginning of the construction of the Great Wall ofChinadesigned to keep out the nomadic raiders who'd constantly badger the Chinese people.However, Shi Huang was infamous for his tyranny, forcing laborers to build the Wall, ordering

heavy taxes, and severely punishing all who opposed him. He oppressed Confucians andpromotedLegalism, the idea that people were inherently evil, and that a strong, forceful

government was needed to control them. Legalism was infused with realistic, logical views and

rejected the pleasures of educated conversation as frivolous. All of this made Shi Huang

extremely unpopular with the people. As the Qin began to weaken, various factions began tofight for control of China.

Han Dynasty

Main article:Han Dynasty

TheHan Dynasty(simplified Chinese:; traditional Chinese:; pinyin: Hn Cho ;206

BCE220 CE) was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty andsucceeded by the Three Kingdoms (220265 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of theHan Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. One of the Han Dynasty's greatest

emperors,Emperor Wu of Han, established a peace throughout China comparable to thePaxRomanaseen in the Mediterranean a hundreds years later.

[10]To this day, China's majority ethnic

group refers to itself as the "Han people". The Han Dynasty was established when two peasants

succeeded in rising up against Shi Huang's significantly weaker successor-son. The new Han

government retained the centralization and bureaucracy of the Qin, but greatly reduced the

repression seen before. They expanded their territory intoKorea,Indochina, andCentral Asia,creating an even larger empire than the Qin.
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astyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Asia#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStearns201144-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_and_yanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius


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The Han developed contacts with the Persian Empire in the Middle East and the Romans,

through theSilk Road, with which they were able to trade many commoditiesprimarily silk.Many ancient civilizations were influenced by theSilk Road, which connected China,India, theMiddle East and Europe. Han emperors like Wu also promoted Confucianism as the national

"religion" (although it is debated by theologians as to whether it is defined as such or as a

philosophy). Shrines devoted to Confucius were built and Confucian philosophy was taught to allscholars who entered the Chinese bureaucracy. The bureaucracy was further improved with theintroduction of an examination system that selected scholars of high merit. These bureaucrats

were often upper-class people educated in special schools, but whose power was often checked

by the lower-class brought into the bureaucracy through their skill. The Chinese imperialbureaucracy was very effective and highly respected by all in the realm and would last over

2,000 years. The Han government was highly organized and it commanded the military, judicial

law (which used a system of courts and strict laws), agricultural production, the economy, and

the general lives of its people. The government also promoted intellectual philosophy, scientificresearch, and detailed historical records.

However, despite all of this impressive stability, central power began to lose control by the turnof theCommon Era. As the Han Dynasty declined, many factors continued to pummel it into

submission until China was left in a state of chaos. By 100 CE, philosophical activity slowed,and corruption ran rampant in the bureaucracy. Local landlords began to take control as thescholars neglected their duties, and this resulted in heavy taxation of the peasantry. Taoists began

to gain significant ground and protested the decline. They started to proclaim magical powers

and promised to save China with them; the TaoistYellow Turban Rebellionin 184 CE (led byrebels in yellow scarves) failed but was able to weaken the government. The aforementioned

Huns combined with diseases killed up to half of the population and officially ended the Han

Dynasty by 220 CE. The ensuing period of chaos was so terrible it lasted for three centuries,

where many weak regional rulers and dynasties failed to establish order in China. This period ofchaos and attempts at order is commonly known as that of theSix Dynasties. The first part of

this included theThree Kingdomswhich started in 220 CE and describes the brief and weak

successor "dynasties" that followed the Han. In 265 CE, theJin Dynastyof China was started

and this soon split into two different empires in control of northwestern and southeastern China.In 420 CE, the conquest and abdication of those two dynasties resulted in the first of the

Southern and Northern Dynasties. The Northern and Southern Dynasties passed through until

finally, by 557 CE, theNorthern Zhou Dynastyruled the north and theChen Dynastyruled thesouth.

Medieval history

Further information:Postclassical Era

During this period, theEastern worldempires continued to expand through trade, migration and

conquests of neighboring areas. Gunpowder was widely used as early as the 11th century and

they were using moveable type printing five hundred years before Gutenberg created his press.Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism were the dominant philosophies of the Far East during the

Middle Ages. Marco Polo was not the first Westerner to travel to the Orient and return with
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8/20

amazing stories of this different culture, but his accounts published in the late 13th and early

14th centuries were the first to be widely read throughout Europe.

Islamic Middle East

See also:Islamic cultureandScience in the medieval Islamic world

The IslamicCaliphateand otherIslamic statestook over the Middle East,Caucasusand CentralAsia during theMuslim conquestsof the 7th century, and later expanded into theIndiansubcontinentandMalay archipelago.

At the beginning of the Medieval Age in 500 CE, the Middle East was separated into small,weak states; the two most prominent were theSassanid Empirein Persia (modern-day Iran), and

the Byzantine Empire in Turkey. In the Arabian peninsula (nowSaudi Arabia), the nomadic

Bedouintribes dominated the desert, where they worshipped idols and remained in small clans

tied together by kinship.[11]

Urbanization and agriculture was very limited, save for a few regions

near the coast.MeccaandMedinawere two of these cites that were important hubs for tradebetween Africa and Eurasia. This commerce was central to city-life, where most inhabitants were

merchants.

Muhammad is shown here in a mosque and without exposing any part of his body.

Early Islamic Empire

Main article:Umayyad Caliphate

From 613 CE to 630 CE the prophetMuhammadspread the Islam faith in the Arabian desert,

culminating in his victory atMecca. He then unified the idolatrous tribes into an Islamic Empire,ruled by a religious and political leader, thecaliph. They would proceed to conquer the

Sassanids, and modern-daySyria,Palestine,Egypt, andLibya.[12]

An Arabic navy was created

that soon dominated the Mediterranean, crippled the Byzantine Empire, and put it under siege for

centuries to come.[13]

Issues in deciding the caliphs to succeed Muhammad led to theRidda warsand eventually theSunni-Shiasplit, two different sects of Islam; the Sunni eventually became

dominant and established theUmayyad Caliphate.[13]
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rg/wiki/Saudi_Arabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_archipelagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquestshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_culture


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The Umayyad were centered at their capital,Damascusin what's now Syria. With the Umayyad

came more conquest, giving them rule over central Asia, most of northernAfrica, and from

there, theIberian Peninsula(modern-daySpainandPortugal). Little conversion occurred at thistime due to the disrespect non-Arab Muslims, or mawali (Arabic: ), received from theUmayyad.ChristiansandJewswere treated with more respect as dhimmi (Arabic: ),

specifically the Ahl al-Kitab (Arabic: ) or "people of the book," referring to theHolyBiblewhich they all shared. During the Umayyad age, women's position also improved from thatof pre-Islamic Arabia; Muhammad's teachings banned adultery, encouraged marriage and

kindness to wives and daughters, and proclaimed equality of women and men "in the eyes of

God."[14]

Abbasid Empire

Main article:Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasid Empire at its greatest extent

The Umayyad Empire began to decline in the early 700's CE when its leaders became more andmore detached from their people, especially the warriors who had fought for their conquest.

[14]A

new political group, the Abbasids, joined the upset warriors, Shia, and mawali, and overthrew

the Umayyad in 750 CE during theBattle of the Zab. The remaining Umayyads fled toIberia,and established the independent, MuslimCaliphate of Crdoba. The establishment of the

Abbasid Caliphatestarted with moving the capital toBaghdadin Persia (now Iraq) in 762 CE

and with this came the application of certain Persian political institutions. This included thecreation of an absolute monarchy, which ruled without question, as well as an improved

bureaucracy, led by thewazirwho took most of the political and administrative responsibilities

the caliph previously had.[15]

The Abbasid also experienced a boom in trade, specifically that at

sea, sendingdhowsthat continued expansion, first by sending merchants and missionaries toIndiaandSoutheast Asia. Eventually conflict would arise due to a piracy issue in India, and the

Abbasid would begin to conquer the western area of India which they traded with. The first

expedition was led byTurkishgeneralQutb-ud-din Aybakand established theMamluk Sultanate

in 1206 CE, ruled by the sultan (Arabic: ) which means "authority."
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p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus


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Christian Crusaders before Saladin in Jerusalem

However, the Abbasid government soon fell to the same vices as the Umayyad. Different

factions in the royal court would fight for power, especially various groups of theTurkicpeoples. The caliph began to rely on advisors from wealthy families, which would sometimes

render him a mere puppet. This happened when the PersianBuyid dynastywas established in

934 CE. The Shia government lasted only a little over a century. They were quickly overpoweredby the Turkish people who would create theSeljuq dynastyby 1051 CE, reestablishing the Sunni

government. Nevertheless, succession issues and the squabbling factions would continue through

theFirst Crusade, launched by Christian western Europeans in 1095 CE, which was largelyignored by the more powerful Muslim princes

[16]despite its success at capturingJerusalem. The

next eightCrusadeswould succeed to varying degrees, and the Christians would lose

considerable ground when the Muslims were united underSaladinin the late 1100s CE.[16]

By

1291, after thefinal crusadeand the fall ofAcre, the Christians had lost all of the territory they

originally gained.[16]

The increasingly divided regions of the Abbasid caliphate would face new challenges in the early1200s CE, during the invasion of thecentral Asiannomadic peoples, theMongols; led by the

infamousGenghis Khan, the Mongols raided much of the eastern empire.[17]

In 1258, Genghis

Khan's grandsonHulegu Khanwould finish his grandfather's work with the sacking of Baghdadand the death of the caliph.

[17]The Mongols eventually retreated, but the chaos that ensued

throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks. In 1401, the weak and limping caliphate was

further plagued by the Turko-Mongol,Timur, and his ferocious raids. By then, another group ofTurks had arisen as well, theOttomans. Based inAnatolia, by 1566 they would conquer the

Mesopotamiaregion, the Balkans, Greece, Byzantium, most of Egypt, most of north Africa, and

parts of Arabia, unifying them under theOttoman Empire. The rule of the Ottoman sultansmarked the end of the Postclassical Era in the Middle East, and of the caliphate.

India

Chola Dynastyof south India, annexed most of south-east Asia during 10th-11th century. The

Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinentmainly took place from the 12th century onwards,

though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into the region, beginning during the
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period of the ascendancy of theRajputKingdoms in North India, althoughSindhand Multan

were captured in 8th century.

Medieval China

Postclassical China saw the rise and fall of the Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties andtherefore improvements in its bureaucracy, the spread ofBuddhism, and the advent ofNeo-

Confucianism. The Middle Ages were an unsurpassed era for Chinese ceramics and painting.

Medieval architectural masterpieces the Great South Gate in Todaiji, Japan, and the Tien-ning

Temple in Peking, China are some of the surviving constructs from this era.

Tang Dynasty circa 700 CE

Sui Dynasty

Main article:Sui Dynasty

A new powerful dynasty began to rise in the 580's CE, amongst the divided factions of China.

This was started when an aristocrat named Yang Jian married his daughter into the NorthernZhou Dynasty. He proclaimed himselfEmperor Wen of Suiand appeased the nomadic military

by abandoning the Confucian scholar-gentry. Emperor Wen soon led the conquest of the

southern Chen Dynasty and united China once more under theSui Dynasty. The emperor

lowered taxes and constructed granaries that he used to prevent famine and control the market.Later Wen's son would murder him for the throne and declare himselfEmperor Yang of Sui.

Emperor Yang revived the Confucian scholars and the bureaucracy, much to anger of the

aristocrats and nomadic military leaders. Yang became an excessive leader who overused China'sresources for personal luxury and perpetuated exhaustive attempts to reconquer Korea. Hismilitary failures and neglect of the empire forced his own ministers to assassinate him in 618 CE,

ending the Sui Dynasty.
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Miniature statue of Buddha from the Tang Dynasty

Tang Dynasty

Main article:Tang Dynasty

Fortunately, one of Yang's most respectable advisors, Li Yuan, was able to claim the throne

quickly, preventing a chaotic collapse. He proclaimed himselfEmperor Gaozu, and established

theTang Dynastyin 623 CE. The Tang saw expansion of China through conquest to Tibet in the

west,Vietnamin the south, and Manchuria in the north. Tang emperors also improved theeducation of scholars in the Chinese bureaucracy. A Ministry of Rites was established and the

examination system was improved to better qualify scholars for their jobs.[18]

In addition,

Buddhism became popular in China with two different strains between the peasantry and theelite, thePure LandandZenstrains, respectively.

[19]Greatly supporting the spread of Buddhism

wasEmpress Wu, who additionally claimed an unofficial "Zhou Dynasty" and displayed China'stolerance of a woman ruler, which was rare at the time. However, Buddhism would also

experience some backlash, especially from Confucianists and Taoists. This would usuallyinvolve criticism about how it was costing the state money, since the government was unable to

tax Buddhist monasteries, and additionally sent many grants and gifts to them.[20]

The Tang dynasty began to decline under the rule ofEmperor Xuanzong, who began to neglect

the economy and military and caused unrest amongst the court officials due to the excessive

influence of his concubine,Yang Guifei, and her family.[21]

This eventually sparked a revolt in755 CE.

[21]Although the revolt failed, subduing it required involvement with the unruly nomadic

tribes outside of China and distributing more power to local leadersleaving the government

and economy in a degraded state. The Tang dynasty officially ended in 907 CE and variousfactions led by the aforementioned nomadic tribes and local leaders would fight for control ofChina in theFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

Song Dynasty

Main article:Song Dynasty
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By 960 CE, most of China had been reunited under theSong Dynasty, although it lost territories

in the north and could not defeat one of the nomadic tribes theretheLiao Dynastyof the highlysinicizedKhitan people. From then on, the Song would have to pay tribute to avoid invasion andthus set the precedent for other nomadic kingdoms to oppress them. The Song also saw the

revival of Confucianism in the form ofNeo-Confucianism. This had the affect of putting the

Confucian scholars at a higher status than aristocrats or Buddhists and also intensified thereduction of power in women. The infamous practice offoot bindingdeveloped in this period asa result. Eventually the Liao Dynasty in the north was overthrown by theJin Dynastyof the

Manchu-relatedJurchen nomads. The new Jin kingdom invaded northern China, leaving the

Song to flee farther south and creating theSouthern Song Dynastyin 1126 CE. There, culturallife flourished.

Yuan Dynasty

Main article:Yuan Dynasty

By 1227, the Mongols had conquered theWestern Xiakingdom northwest of China. Soon theMongols incurred upon the Jin empire of the Jurchens. Chinese cities were soon besieged by the

Mongol hordes that showed little mercy for those who resisted and the Southern Song Chinesewere quickly losing territory. In 1271 the current great khan,Kublai Khan, claimed himself

Emperor of China and officially established the Yuan Dynasty. By 1290, all of China was under

control of the Mongols, marking the first time they were ever completely conquered by a foreigninvader; the new capital was established atKhanbaliq(modern-dayBeijing). Kublai Khan

segregated Mongol culture from Chinese culture by discouraging interactions between the two

peoples, separating living spaces and places of worship, and reserving top administrative

positions to Mongols, thus preventing Confucian scholars to continue the bureaucratic system.Nevertheless, Kublai remained fascinated with Chinese thinking, surrounding himself with

Chinese Buddhist, Taoist, or Confucian advisors.

Mongol women displayed a contrasting independent nature compared to the Chinese women

who continued to be suppressed. Mongol women often rode out on hunts or even to war. Kublai's

wife,Chabi, was a perfect example of this; Chabi advised her husband on several political anddiplomatic matters; she convinced him that the Chinese were to be respected and well-treated in

order to make them easier to rule.[22]

However this was not enough to affect Chinese women's

position, and the increasingly Neo-Confucian successors of Kublai further repressed Chinese andeven Mongol women.

The Black Death, which would later ravage Western Europe, had its beginnings in Asia, where itwiped out large populations in China in 1331.

Japan

During this time periodJapanwent under the process ofsinicization, or the impression of

Chinese cultural and political ideas. Japan sinicized mostly because the emperor and other

leaders at the time were largely impressed by China's bureaucracy. The major influences Chinahad on this region were the spread of Confucianism, the spread of Buddhism, and the
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