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Biotechnology

Dr. Abdul Jabbar Assistant Professor MUST, Mirpur

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Biotechnology is the application of scientific and

engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and services.

OR

using scientific methods with organisms to

produce new products or new forms of organisms and eliminating the existing products.

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• To understand more about the processes of inheritance and gene expression

• To provide better understanding & treatment of

various diseases, particularly genetic disorders • To generate improved plants and animals for

agriculture and efficient production of valuable biological molecules

Goals of Biotechnology

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Biotechnology Biotechnology is multidisciplinary/ interdisciplinary in nature and involves • Microbiology • Cell & Molecular biology • Immunology • Virology • Biochemistry • Physical & Organic chemistry • Genetics • Engineering • Bioinformatics etc.

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Stages of Biotech

• Ancient • Classical • Modern

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Ancient Biotech • Begins with early civilization • Not known when biotech began exactly • Domestication is seen by scientists as the

beginning of biotechnology • Developments in agriculture and food

production and their preservation • Cheese is one of the first food products

made through biotechnology

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Classical Biotech • Makes wide spread use of methods from

ancient, especially fermentation • Methods adapted to industrial or large

scale production of important products • Produce large quantities of food products

and other materials in short time • Meet demands of increasing population • Many methods developed through

classical biotech are widely used today

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Modern Biotech

• Manipulation of genetic material within organisms which is also known as genetic engineering

• Roots involved the investigation of genes • Based on genetics and the use of related

sciences and technologies

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Genetics

• Study of heredity • Most work has focused on animal

and plant genetics • Genes – are determinants of

heredity

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Genes

• Carry the genetic code • Short segment of DNA which

control the synthesis of a polypeptide (protein) or mRNA.

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Heredity • How traits are passed from parents to

offspring • Members of the same species pass the

characteristics of that species • Differences exist within each species. • These differences are known as

variability • Heredity & variability are used in modern

biotechnology

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Recombinant DNA • Genetic material is moved from one

organism to another • Materials involved are quite small • Challenging and often controversial • Many have opposing or negative

views of biotechnology

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People in Biotechnology

Zacharias Janssen • Discovered the principle of the

compound microscope in 1590 • Dutch eye glass maker

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Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

• Developed single lens microscope in 1670’s

• First to observe tiny organisms and document observations

• Work led to modern microscopes

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Gregor Mendel • Austrian Botanist and monk • Formulated basic laws of heredity • Experimented with peas • Studied inheritance of seven pairs of

traits • Bred and crossbred thousands of plants • Determined that some traits were

dominant and other recessive • Findings were published in 1866

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Walter Sutton

• Determined in 1903 that chromosomes carried units of heredity identified by Mendel

• Named “genes” in 1909 by Wilhelm Johannsen, Danish Botanist

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Thomas Hunt Morgan

• Studied genetics of fruit flies • Early 1900’s • Experimented with eye color • His work contributed to the

knowledge of X and Y chromosomes • Nobel Prize in 1933 for research in

gene theory

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Ernst Ruska

• Build the first electron microscope in 1932

• German electrical engineer • Microscope offered 400X

magnification

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Alexander Fleming • Discovered penicillin in 1928 • First antibiotic drug used in treating human

disease • Observed that bacteria close to the molds

(Penicillium genus) were dead • Extracting and purifying the molds took a

decade of research • Penicillin first used in 1941 • Penicillin credited with saving many lives

during WWII when wounded soldiers developed infections.

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Norman E. Borlaug

• Developed wheat varieties producing high yields

• Semi dwarf varieties • Developed wheat variety that would

grow in climates where other varieties would not

• Credited with helping relieve widespread hunger in some nations

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Mary Clare King

• Research into nature of DNA during late 1900’s

• Determined that 99% of human DNA is identical to chimpanzee

• 1975 found similar gene pools between humans and chimpanzee made it possible to research hereditary causes of cancer

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Ian Wilmut

• Cloning of a sheep named Dolly in 1997

• Produced from tissue of an adult sheep

• Previous cloning efforts had been from early embryos

Friedrich Miescher 1869, first isolated a substance from the nucleus of cells that he called “nuclein.” His student, Richard Altmann, called the substance “nucleic acid” due to its acidic nature. Biochemists identify two types of nucleic acids, later called RNA and DNA.

Frederick Griffith

In 1928, Frederick Griffith carried out experiments on pneumonia bacteria in mice. Discovery: something in heat-killed virulent (pathogenic) bacteria could be transferred to live, harmless bacteria and make them virulent.

Oswald Avery Avery continued working with Griffith’s findings in hope of discovering what factor in bacteria carried the trait of virulence. Isolated proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids and applied them to non-virulent bacteria. Only nucleic acids (DNA) caused a change.

Avery, MacLeod, McCarty Experiment

Erwin Chargaff Chargaff studied DNA itself, in hopes of providing some clues about its structure. Discovered that there are always equal amounts of the bases Adenine and Thymine, and equal amounts of Cytosine and Guanine. Chargaff proposed that these bases pair with one another in some way.

Rosalind Franklin (X-Ray Diffraction studies of DNA)

Helical

Double stranded

10 base pairs per turn

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Research in France and England

Led to discovery of structure of DNA

Her early research was used to produce an

atomic bomb

Set up X ray diffraction lab

Photographs of DNA showed that it could

have a double helix structure

Rosalind Franklin

Watson and Crick James Watson and Francis Crick were also working on discovering the structure of DNA. Applied Chargaff’s rule, assumed that A always pairs with T and C with G. The DNA ladder forms a spiral, or helical structure, with the two sides held together with hydrogen bonds. Had major impact on genetic engineering carried out today

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James Watson and Francis Crick

• Collaborated research at Cambridge University in England to produce the first model of DNA structure in 1953

• Described DNA dimensions and spacing of base pairs

DNA Nucleotide

O O=P-O O

Phosphate Group

N Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or T)

CH2

O

C1 C4

C3 C2

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Sugar (deoxyribose)

Nitrogenous Bases • PURINES 1. Adenine (A) 2. Guanine (G) • PYRIMIDINES 3. Thymine (T) 4. Cytosine (C) 5. Uracil (U)

• Adenine always pair with Thymine

• Guanine always pair with Cytosine

• Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be about the same.

G C

T A

• Adenine must pair with Thymine

• Guanine must pair with Cytosine

• Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be about the same.

G C T A

DNA structure

DNA is made up of four bases. RNA also has four bases, but has uracil instead of thymine.

3’ end

5’ end 5’ – 3’ polarity

EVOLUTION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY TIMELINE

Prior to 1750 Plants and animals used for food

Plants and animals domesticated, selectively bred for desired characteristics Microorganisms used to make cheese, beverages, and bread by fermentation

1797 1838

Edward Jenner Schleiden & Schwann

Used living microorganisms to protect people from disease Proposed cell theory

1859 Charles Darwin

Hypothesized that animal and plant populations adapt over time to best fit the environment

1864 Louis Pasteur

Proved existence of microorganisms Showed that all living things are produced by other living things

1865 Gregor Mendel

Investigated how traits are passed from generation to generation - called them factors

1869 Johann Meischer Isolated DNA from the nuclei of white blood cells

1893 Koch, Pasteur Fermentation process patented

Lister Diphtheria toxin isolated

1902 Walter Sutton

Coined the term "gene" Proposed that chromosomes carry genes (factors which Mendel said that could be passed from generation to generation)

1910 Thomas H. Morgan

Proved that genes are carried on chromosomes "Biotechnology" term introduced

1928 Frederick Griffiths

Noticed that a rough kind of bacterium changed to a smooth type when unknown "transforming principle" from smooth type was present

1928 Alexander Fleming Discovered antibiotic properties of certain molds

1941 George Beadle Proposed "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis

Edward Tatum

1943-1953

Linus Pauling

Described sickle cell anemia calling it a molecular disease DNA is identified as the genetic material

1944 Oswald Avery

Performed transformation experiment with Griffith's bacterium

Mid-1940's Penicillin produced

1950 Erwin Chargaff

Determined that there is always a ratio of 1:1 adenine to thymine in DNA of many different organisms

1952 Alfred Hershey

Used radioactive labeling to determine that it is the DNA

Margaret Chase

not protein which carries the instructions for assembling new phages

1953 James Watson Determined the double helix structure of DNA

Francis Crick

1956 Dangr Sequenced insulin (protein) from pork

1957 Francis Crick Explained how DNA functions to make protein

1958 Coenberg Discovered DNA polymerase

1960 Isolation of m-RNA 1965 Classification of the plasmids

1966 Marshall Nirenberg Determined that a sequence of three nucleotide

Severo Ochoa bases determine each of 20 amino acids

1971 Discovery of restriction enzymes

1972 Paul Berg Cut sections of viral DNA and bacterial DNA with same restriction enzyme Spliced viral DNA to the bacterial DNA

1973 Stanley Cohen Produced first recombinant DNA organism by

Herb Boyer

introducing an antibiotic resistance gene into E.coli bacteria Beginning of genetic engineering

1978 Stanford University First successful transplantation of mammalian gene

1979 Genentech, Incorporat-ion

Produce human growth hormone and two kinds of interferon DNA from malignant cells transformed a strain of cultured mouse cells - new tool for analyzing cancer genes

1983 First transfer of foreign gene in plants

1986 First field trials of DNA recombinant plants resistant to insects, viruses, bacteria

1988 First living mammal was patented 1993 2003

Flavor saver tomatoes sold to public Human Genome Project was completed providing information on the locations and sequence of human genes on all 46 chromosomes