history of dirhem in egypt from fatimids

8/7/2019 History of Dirhem in Egypt From Fatimids

1/39

Paul Balog

History of the Dirhem in Egypt from the Fimid Conquest until

the collapse of the Mamlk Empire.In: Revue numismatique, 6e srie - Tome 3, anne 1961 pp. 109-146.

Citer ce document / Cite this document :

Balog Paul. History of the Dirhem in Egypt from the Fimid Conquest until the collapse of the Mamlk Empire. In: Revuenumismatique, 6e srie - Tome 3, anne 1961 pp. 109-146.

doi : 10.3406/numi.1961.1704

http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/numi_0484-8942_1961_num_6_3_1704
http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/author/auteur_numi_105http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/numi.1961.1704http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/numi_0484-8942_1961_num_6_3_1704http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/numi_0484-8942_1961_num_6_3_1704http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/numi.1961.1704http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/author/auteur_numi_105


2/39

Paul BALOGHISTORY OF THE DIRHEM

IN EGYPTFROM THE FTIMID CONQUEST

UNTIL THE COLLAPSEOF THE MAMLUK EMPIRE358 H 922 H968 AD 1517 AD

PL XII.

ABBREVIATIONS TO THE REFERENCESANS = George . Miles, Fatimid Coins, Numismatic Notes and Monographs, No. 121, TheAmerican Numismatic Society, N. Y., 1951.Bergmann = Karl v. Bergmann, in Sitzungsberichle der . Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien,1873, p. 158-162.BGA = Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum, d. M. J. de Goeje, I-VIII, Leiden, 1870-1894.BIE = Bulletin de l'Institut d'Egypte, articles by Paul Balog, XXXIII, 1951, XXXIV, 1952,XXXV, 1953.BM = Catalogue of Oriental Coins in th e British Museum, by Stanley Lane-Poole, vol. IV,1879.BM Suppl. = Vol. IX of the above, 1889.Khed. = Catalogue of Arabic Coins in th e Khedivial Library in Cairo, 1897, by Stanley Lane-Poole.L = Vol. Ill of the Catalogue des Monnaies Orientales la Bibliothque Nationale Paris, 1896,by Henri Lavoix.Maqrizi-Sacy = Trait des Monnoies Musulmanes, traduit de l'arabe de Makrizi... in Magasinencyclopdique, VI, p. 472-507, 1796. Suite du Trait des Monnoies Musulmanes, traduitde l'arabe de Makrizi... in Magasin encyclopdique, I, p. 38-98, 1797. Both translated byAntoine Isaac Sylvestre de Sacy.Maqrizi-Sacy Reprint = Extracts in Institut Franais d'Archologie Orientale (IFAO), Bibliothque des Arabisants Franais, 1905. Edited by Emile Chassinat.0strup = C. 0STHUP, Catalogue des Monnaies Arabes et Turques au Muse National de Copenhague, 1938.QDAP = The Quarterly of th e Department of Antiquities of Palestine.RT = J. Farrugia de Candia, Monnaies Fatimites au Muse du Bardo in Revue Tunisienne,1936.RT Suppl = As above, bu t Premier Supplment, 1948.


3/39

110 P. BALOGSauvaire = Henri Sauvaire, Matriaux pour servir Vhistoire de la Numismatique et de laMtrologie Musulmanes, Journal Asiatique, 1882-1887.Soret = Frdric Soret, Lettre M. le Conseiller d'tat de Dorn, Troisime Lettre sur les Md

ailles Orientales indites de la Collection de M. F. Soret. No. 88, Bruxelles, 1856, Impr.E. Devroye, and Lettre M. C. J. Tornberg sur Quelques Monnaies des Dynasties Alides,in Revue Archologique, 1856.A remarkable study of the development of Egypt's monetarysystem during the Middle Ages, from the Arab conquest untilthe fall of the Mamldk empire, was made by Michel de Boiiard in1939 1. Based on extensive research in Medieval and modern literary sources, this publication presents a clear picture of the evolution of economic life, and the political factors which played animportant part therein. We are told what the country's originalresources were and what caused its riches to be ceaselessly drained.M. de Bouard's paper deals with every aspect of the slow butinexorable process of impoverishment and the continuous effortsof consecutive governments to remedy the difficulties constantlyarising. M. de Botiard's references are fully comprehensive and onecan safely say that the author has made an excellent work on thissubject. Of course, this study is entirely based on a critical analysis and synthesis of the numerous notes handed down by theMedieval Arab historians, but some information gained frommodern numismatic works and catalogues of coin collections isalso profitably used. A special merit of the work is the welldefined

and set out role played by all the three metals gold, silver andcopper in the monetary history of Egypt.Important contributions to the knowledge of the monetaryevolution in the Muslim Middle East were also made by A. S. Ehren-kreutz. His Extracts from the Technical Manual of Mansur IbnB'ar is of great value to the knowledge of the minting technique,affinage, etc., used during the Ayyubid period 2 ; furthermore, hestudied the fiscal administration of the same epoch and the subsequent monetary changes 3. In other publications, Ehrenkreutzdeals with the gold coinage only * 5.1. Board (Michel de), Sur rvolution montaire de l'Egypte mdivale. In L'Egypte Contemporaine, XXX, No. 185, May 1939, p. 427-459.2. Ehrenkreutz (Andrew S.), Kashf al asrr al ilmiya fi dar al darb al misriya, by Mansuribn 'ara al Dahabi al Kmili( Extracts from th e Technical Manual on th e AyyubidMint in Cairo.In Bulletin of th e School of Oriental and African Studies, XV, 1953, p. 502-514).3. Ehrenkreutz (Andrew S.), Contributions to the knowledge of th e fiscal administration ofEgypt in th e Middle Ages. In Bulletin of th e School of Oriental and African Studies, XVI, 1954,p. 502-514.4. Ehrenkreutz (Andrew S.), The standard of fineness of gold coins circulating in Egypt atth e time of th e Crusades. JAOS, LXXIV, 1954, p. 162-166.5. Ehrenkreutz (Andrew S.), JAOS, LXXVI 1956, p. 178-184.


4/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 111Another paper, although on a somewhat different subject, mustbe mentioned here, as it contains notes on the rapid debasement

of the dirhem : The System of payment in Mamlk MilitarySociety , by David Ayalon 4 This study too is based on literarysources alone.When dealing with the economic or monetary history of MuslimEgypt, one should bear in mind that this country was, until theFtimid conquest in 358 H, only a province of the Khalifate. Duringthe whole Umayyad and 'Abbasid period, Egypt had no independent coinage ; its currency was that of the Khalif. It is truethat, by 181 H, silver, and from 170 H onwards, also gold, wereminted in Cairo, but these issues were not different from any otherissues of the Khalifate. After the Arab conquest, however, therewas a new factor in the economic status of Egypt : the annualtribute, always as heavy as it was possible to squeeze out of thepopulation, was the first step in the slow bleeding of the countrywhich received nothing in return from the Khalif.A first step towards independence was taken by Ahmad IbnTuln, who was appointed a full governor in 258 H. However, thefirst gold issue bearing his name did not come out until 266 H, sothat his complete independence should be reckoned as from thatdate only.Another attempt towards independence was made by Muhammadl Ikhshd, numismatically under the same circumstances,although under the Ikhshidids the weight of gold coins was notany more that of the legal dinar.The situation changed drastically when Egypt fell under Ftimidrule. From that time on, the country was completely independent,its economic and political links with the Khalifate were severedand, because of the newly introduced sh'ia doctrine, the pondraland monetary systems were reformed.Although in 567 Saladin abolished the Ftimid Khalifate andreturned to the allegiance of the 'Abbsids, Egypt henceforthremained an independent, sovereign state. In 569 H, after Mahmudibn Zengui's death, not only did Saladin declare himself absolutemaster of Egypt which fact is clearly expressed on his coinage but his recognition of the Baghdad Khalifate became only an actof pure courtesy. Saladin's rule in Egypt, however, brought noperceptible economic change to the population ; although the cir-

1. Ayalon (David), The system of payment in Mamluk military society. In Journal of the Economic and Social History of th e Orient, I, pt. 1, 1957, p. 37-65 and I, pt. 3, 1958, p. 257-296.


5/39

112 P. BALOGdilating Ftimid coinage was gradually replaced by currencystruck in Saladin's name, this coinage did not differ essentiallyin its appearence and contents from the Ftimid silver.There is no doubt that, in order to understand the state of theeconomic and monetary evolution of the Ayyubid period, it isnecessary to study first the preceding Ftimid epoch, of which itis but a continuation. The same applies to the transition from theAyyubid rule to that of the Mamluks.It is therefore necessary to examine the course of the economiclife in Egypt as a whole, from the arrival of the Ftimids to thecollapse of the Burji Mamluk empire, so that a true and coherentpicture can be obtained.On the other hand, it was thought useful, or even necessary,to complete the information gathered from the historians whichwas about the only knowledge we had so far by as full an examination as possible of the coin material itself. Just as coin epigraphy contributes important data to history, so does a study ofweight, fineness of metal, frequency or rarity of certain denominations, and abundance or scarcity of entire emissions, add toour understanding of the state of wealth at any given time. It alsoenables us to grasp the true nature of countermeasures taken intimes of crisis, often insufficiently or erroneously explained byhistorians. For example, literary sources state that the round dirhem struck in 622 H by Kmel Muhammad contains 2/3 silverand 1 /3 copper. A chemical examination of the coins, of which wehave described a large number 1 2, now establishes a proportion of1/3 silver to 2/3 copper in the alloy. Direct examination of the coins when the number of specimens allows a large scale enquiry alsopermits to avoid such errors as may occur by individual interpretation f historical notes. For example, when speaking of KmelMuhammad's reform of 622 H, Hans L. Gottschalk, in his excellent work Al Malik al Kamel von Egypten und seine Zeit 3(p. 129) believes that the reform consisted of a debasement of theexisting silver coinage. This author thought that the current silverof the period was the so called Kmeli dirhem of pure silver, whichwas withrawn in 622 H and replaced by the new issue of a lesser

1. Balog (Paul), tudes Numismatiques de l'Egypte Musulmane, BIE, XXXIII, 1951, p. 19-30 .2. Balog (Paul), tudes Numismatiques de l'Egypte Musulmane III, BIE, XXXV, 1952,p. 416-424.3. Gottschalk (Hans L.), Al Malik al-Kdmil von Egypten und seine Zeit, 1958, Otto Harra-sowitz, Wiesbaden.


6/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 113quality alloy. We now know (cf. chapter on Ayyubid silver of thispaper) that the emission of good quality, normal flan dirhems ofthe Syrian type, was repeatedly attempted by the Cairo mint sinceSaladin's days, but always unsuccessfully. As there was little silverleft in the government coffers, the fine silver coins were rapidlyhidden by the public, and the low-grade dirhems waraq continuedto circulate.At this point it must be recalled that, as it is now well known,Saladin had to sanction officially a situation which already existed.Under the last Ftimids, gold became scarce and lost its standingas a monetary standard. Silver was then adopted as the officialstandard by which currency was counted and exchanged, and goldbecame a commodity with no fixed value ; it was purchased andsold at a daily fluctuating market price.Consequently silver became the currency standard by whichwe should judge the state of the monetary situation and its changesduring subsequent periods, lasting through the Ayyubid dynastyand the entire Mamluk period.To our knowledge, no research has yet been made on the chemicalcomposition of Ftimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk silver, nor has anyenquiry been conducted as to whether these coins belong to certain denominations or not, such as the dirhem and its fractions ;in other words, whether some order could be brought into whatappears to be a complete pondral anarchy.Fortunately, during our many years' residence in Egypt, we hadoccasion to collect a large enough coin material of these periods toenable us to melt down some of it in order to establish the finesilver content. For high quality silver alloys, the conservativemethod i. e. the mesasurement of specific gravity gives reliableresults. When, however, the alloy is of poorer quality, the specificweight method becomes completely unreliable. As an appreciablenumber of the coins with which we are now dealing are made ofmore or less base metal, it was necessary to use the assay method.For this purpose, the coins had t;o be melted down, with the addition of lead, in a crucible. When, in the heating process, the lead* and the inferior metals had been absorbed by the crucible, theremaining pure silver was weighed \The number of coins which could be used for this purpose wasnaturally restricted. In cases where coins were numerous, more

1. Caley (Earle R.), Estimation of composition of ancient metal objects. Analytical Chemistry,24, 1952, p. 676-681.Revue Numismatique, 1961. s


7/39

114 P. BALOGassays were made ; when the coins were scarce or even rare, onlyone or two were examined.

While our tables of fine silver content give only a relativelysmall number of figures and there are many gaps, we feel that ageneral idea on the matter can be arrived at.We have endeavoured to note the weight of as many coins aspossible of our collection, and of the BM, ANS, L and Farrugiade Candia (Bardo Museum, Tunis). Not only did we want to findout whether the coins had weights approaching those of the legaldirhem and its fractions, but the pure silver content of the coinscould only be calculated from the total weight of the piece and thepercentage of silver it contained.FATIMIDS

The writings of Medieval Arab authors contain several noteson the progress of the economic life in Ftimid Egypt and mentionfrequent times of crises and difficult periods, as well as the counter-measures taken by the government to remedy the ensuing hardships to the population. Chroniclers often attribute to naturalcalamities, such as the failure of crops caused by an especially lowNile, or an outbreak of epidemics, the direct cause of the financialdistress. In most cases, they fail to recognise its true reasons inthe continuous deterioration of the country's general resources.We are told, for example, that at one given time, the dinar wasworth 16 dirhems, or that, on another occasion, it was exchangedfor 35 dirhems. It is however left entirely to the reader's imaginationo find out why the value of apparently one and the same silvercoin fluctuated to such an extent in such a short interval (436 Hand 441 H). No chronicler ever mentions how the weight orthe fine silver content of the dirhem had, in such cases, beenaltered.The following notes on the exchange rate between dinar anddirhem, written by various Medieval authors, are well known.They all concern Egypt under Ftimid rule :

Abu Dinar reports that the dinar struck by al M'uizz, the founder f Cairo, had the value of 15 and 1/2 dirhems 4 Between 3631. Sauvaire, I, p. 275, 2nd para. Maqrizi, Historia Monetae Arabicae, p. 35 f. and 112 f.- Khitat, II, p. 6. Maqrizi-Sacy Reprint, p. 36 . Maqdisi, BGA, III, p. 24012.


8/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 115H and 365 H, the same exchange rate is recorded by Maqrizi S buta note by al Maqdisi (al Moqaddisi) simply says that, for some(undetermined) time after Jawhar's occupation of Egypt, the valueof the Ftimid dirhem was week 2.Then we are told that, in 371 H 3 as well as in 390 H 4, the dinarwas worth twenty dirhems. Five years later however, in 395 H, acrisis started, which proved not only a long, but also a serious one.The circulating silver at that time is said to have consisted of z'aida and qat'a (cut) pieces, but no description is given, andit is entirely left to our imagination to find out what their truenature was. They are said to have caused much hardship to thepublic.Anyway, the dirhem rapidly lost its value. In 397 H already,the rate of exchange was one to 26 , reaching soon one to 34 5. In399 H, the crisis culminated in complete confusion, so that thecorrupted dirhems had to be withdrawn and were forcibly replacedby new coins at the rate of 4 old dirhems against one new coin.It is not clear from the text whether there was a new emission, orwhether simply old full value coins hoarded in the state cofferswere again put into circulation. Their rate of exchange was fixedat one dinar to 18 dirhems 6.No information is forthcoming for the following 39 years ; thenwe are told of a slight improvement. In 436 H, under the wizirateof 'AH b. Ahmad al Jarjari, the value of the dirhem rose from 1 :18 to 1 : 16 7. Quatremre gives a slightly different value for thesame year, i. e. 16 1/4 dirhems to the dinar 8.Barely five years later, in 441 H, Mustansir is said to have issueda new type of dirhem, 35 to the dinar 9. This sudden drop in thevalue of the dirhem is in no way explained by the historian, thoughit no doubt constituted a serious loss to the public and must havecaused much bitterness.As can easily be seen from the above, the value of the dirhem inrelation to the dinar and consequently its purchasing power

1. Description de l'Egypte, II, p. 6.2. BGA, I, p. 240.3. Zeitschrift d. Deutschen Morgenland. Ges., XI, p. 239.4. Amedroz (H. F.), Kitab al Wuzara, p. 395.5. Sauvaire I, p. 276-7. Maqrizi, Description de l'Egypte, II, p. 193. Khitat I, p. 41619and 47915.6. Maqrizi, Trait des Famines, Paris Ms. sup. ar . No. 1938, fol. 6r & v. Maqrizi, Hist.Mon. Arab., p. 36 f. , 113 f.7. Maqrizi, Descr. de l'Egypte, p. 416 and 419.8. Mmoire Gographique sur l'Egypte, II, p. 374.9. Ibn Hazary-Dozy, p. 290.


9/39

116 P. BALOGfluctuated considerably during the Ftimid administration inEgypt. The Medieval Arab historians generally fail to give anexplanation to the technical sides of the problem ; the actualweight of the coins, as well as the denominations which chieflycomposed the issues, are not mentioned, and the fineness of thealloy is noted only very exceptionally, and then mostly incorrectly 1.As already mentioned in the introduction, our intention was toinvestigate the amount of pure silver which the government wasable to put into the dirhem at each new issue. In order to establishthis amount, we had to estimate the pure silver content and theweight of as many Ftimid silver coins as possible. We therebyhoped to find a pattern showing how the silver coinage was keptadjusted to the continuous decrease of silver stocks.For a long time, a serious obstacle to such an investigation wasthe relatively great scarcity of Ftimid silver. It is true that thegreat collections (BM, ANS, L, Bardo, etc.) contain an appreciable number of Ftimid dirhems ; these, however, could neverbe sacrificed for the estimation of their pure silver content by adestructive method. Nor were any such coins available for thesame purpose from private collections.Fortunately, Ftimid silver is not now as rare as it used to be.In the first place, the weights of nearly all the coins in the abovementioned collections are noted, as are those in our possession.These coins chiefly represent the period after al Mustansir's reign.Consequently, a list of 164 Ftimid silver coins was drawn up inchronological order, each coin in the column of the denominationto which it belongs, in order to show whether a specific issue wasbased on the full dirhem or on one of its fractions. We know, ofcourse, that, especially during the later period, the Ftimid silverflan was rather carelessly prepared, not only with respect to itsfinish, but also to its weight. Inaccurate as the weight may be,these coins all the same, within a certain limit, belong to one orthe other denomination. We have, therefore, incorporated thecoins into four series, that of the full dirhem, the half dirhem, thequarter and the eighth. The limit between the different fractionswas fixed by us arbitrarily ; the weights are really individual, and,for any transaction on a larger scale, these coins could never havebeen accepted by count, but only by weight.

1. Sauvaire, I, p. 208-9. Maqrizi-Sacy, p. 44 . Maqrizi, MS P. 1938, Sries Arabes,ol. 44>\


10/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 117As regards the fine silver content, public collections still cannotafford to destroy some of their specimens for assaying. It is there

forefortunate that, during the long years of our coin collecting,we have accumulated a certain number of specimens which couldbe used for chemical estimation of their fine silver content. A lthough their number is necessarily small and only five of the Kha-lifs are represented, the conclusions to be drawn from the experiment are valuable. It is hoped that, as more material becomesavailable, more assays will be performed and that, in due time, theentire Ftimid period will be covered.While until now only thirteen coins have been committed to thefurnace of the assayer, the results show a definite tendency ofdebasement of the alloy.

It is interesting to note that the fine silver content, under oneand the same ruler, varies considerably from specimen to specimen.One has the impression that silver, being less precious than gold,was prepared with less accuracy, or that the much praised abilityof the Medieval minter did not reach a very high standard of skill,at least as regards silver.The following tables present a series of 164 silver coins withrecorded weight :Ftimids.

Weight of the silver coins in grams :

Al Mahdi297-322 H

1 /Idrh.Ref. WeightL. 77 2.50BM. 9 2.65

1/2Ref.RT. 4L. 76L. 78BM. 6BM. 7BM. 8BM. 10BM. 11BM. 102Khed.10711072

DRH.Weight

1.431.301.401.271.361.321.231.58d 1.231.401.30

1/4 DRH.Ref. Weight

1/8 DRH.Ref. Weight


11/39

118 P. BALOG

Al Qaim322-334 H

Al Man sr334-341 H

Al Mu'izz341-365 H

All Mu'izz

Al 'Aziz365-386 H

1/1 DRH.Rf. Weight

ANS. 73 2.57ANS. 68 2.96

RT. 33 2.70

1/2 DRHRf. WeightRT. 15RT. 16L. 85ANS. 9ANS. 10ANS. 11BM. 14RM. 15ANS. 16RT. 21RT. Suppl.130strup 1940ANS. 69ANS. 70ANS. 71ANS. 72ANS. 74ANS. 75RT. 32T. 43RRT. 44RT. 45RT. 46RT. Suppl.19BM. 48BM. 490strup194719481949L. 129L. 130L. 131BM. 72ANS. 116ANS. 117ANS. 118

1.401.451.450.911.371.751.251.221.391.371.451.351.391.441.401.411.471.271.351.371.201.251.431.201.291.461.311.301.351.401.401.451.331.261.351.31

1/4 DRH.Rf.

0strup1937

ANS. 121ANS. 122ANS. 123

Weight

0.70

0.730.670.61

1/8 DRH.Rf. Weight

L. 86 0.39


12/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 119

Al 'Aziz365-386 H

Al IIkim386-411 H

Al Zhir411-427 HAl Mustansir427-487 H

1/1 DRHRf. Weight

ANS. 177(double drh.ANS. 178(double drh.ANS. 179ANS. 191

ANS. 257ANS. 258BM. 193 f

4.77)4.40)2.363.15

2.742.052.92

1/2 DRH.Rf. WeightANS. 119ANS. 120ANS. 1240strup19521953RT. 53RT. 58RT. 59RT. 60RT. 61BM. 104L. 209L. 210L. 211L. 212 .L. 213L. 214ANS. 176ANS. 180ANS. 182ANS. 183ANS. 185ANS. 1860strup195819591960RT. 68RT. 71RT. 72BM. 123 h0strup1964BM. 193ANS. 386(billon)ANS. 388(billon)ANS. 390

1.351.281.371.051.361.401.401.201.271.401.451.231.081.421.420.930.981.301.791.121.051.411.101.391.860.901.351.401.501.101.311.621.941.581.30

1/4 DRH.Rf. Weight

BM. 105

ANS. 181ANS. 184

L. 253ANS. 389L. 408 '0strup1984

0.65

0.660.80

0.73

0.770.780.82

1/8Rf.

BM. 103BM. 106

L. 215

RT. 73L. 254

DRH.Weight

0.190.32

0.25

0.240.30


13/39

120 P. BALOG

Al Mustanir427-487 H

Al Must'ali487-495 HAl Amir495-524 HAl Muntazar525-526 HAl IIafiz526-544 H

Al Zafir544-549Al 'Adid555-567 H

1/1 DRH.Rf. Weight

SoretBergmannBalogunpubl.

Balogunpubl.BIE.XXXIII.7.BIE.XXXV16.

2.693.002.79

2.25

3.602.10

1/2 DRH.Rf.(billon)ANS. 3870strup1983L. 404L. 405L. 406L. 407L. 409BIE.XXXIII

0strup19951996

BIE.XXXIIIBIE.XXXV.3-6.fromto7-11.fromto13.BIE.XXXVBIE.XXXIII4.5.6.BIE.

Weight1 1.46

1.251.581.651.031.461.451, 1.93

1.210.99

2. 1.793. 1.231.221.301.571.741.081.07

1.881.011.27

1/4 DRH.Ref. Weight

BIE.XXV 1. 0.672. 0.68

BIE.

1/8 DRH.Ref. Weight

BIE.XXXV 14. 0.42


14/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 121

Al 'Adid555-567 H

1/1Ref.

17.18.Balogunpubl.1.2.3.

4.

DRH.Weight

2.192.20

2.252.722.573.25

1/2Ref.XXXV3.5.6.7.8.9.10.

11.12.13.14.15.

DRH.Weight

1.260.931.211.351.401.431.431.451.491.491.811.99

1/4 DRH.Ref. WeightXXXV1. 0.742. 0.764. 0.74

1/8 DRH.Ref. Weight

Ftimids.Repartition of different denominations :

Al MahdiAl QimAl MansrAl M'uizzAl 'AzTzAl HakimAl ZhirAl MustansirAl Must'aliAl AmirAl MuntazarAl HfizAl ZfirAl f Adid

1/1 DRH234212118

24

1 /2 DRH11842014192111212115

120

1/4 DRH1

412

23

13

1 /8 DRH1

41

1

7

TOTAL1310423143161412216226

164Average (approximative) weight of the Ftimid dirhem.1/1 dirhem ( 24 coins) : 2.61 1/4 dirhem (13 coins) : 0.751/2 dirhem (120 coins) : 1.38 1/8 dirhem ( 7 coins) : 0.30


15/39


16/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 123Finally, the silver content of al 'Adid's coins dropped to an evenlower level, as, although the weight of the money was about the

same, it only contained 25 to 30 % pure silver. No more eloquentindication of the great shortage of silver in the country can beimagined than this extreme debasement of the currency.AYYUBIDS

The first report in literary sources on the silver coinage of theAyybids shows that, in the month of Shawl 583 H, Saladinwithdrew from circulation the then current black dirhems ordirhems waraq and issued the so-called Nsiri dirhems, containingequal parts of silver and copper . This notice also indirectly meansthat Saladin continued to circulate silver essentially similar to thelatest Ftimid issues, as far as 583 H. The new Nsiri coins werereported to remain in circulation well within the reign of KmilMuhammad.In D al Qda 622 H came the famous reform of Kmil Muhammad,hen the entire silver currency was withdrawn and replacedby the new round dirhems (mostadirah). This new coin was supposed to contain two thirds of silver and one third of copper 2.Nevertheless, the black dirhems must have remained in circulation,because Maqrzi relates that around 640 H one Nsiri dirhem wasworth three dirhems waraq 3.The only other important literary work on the matter is a technical manual composed by a retired official of the Ayyubid mintin Cairo 4. This treatise has precious information on many a detailof the minting procedure. Ibn B'ara's treatise describes, amongothers, the manufacturing of the flans. Modern authors oftentried to identify the dirhem nuqra, but failed to do so. Originally nuqra (^3) meant an ingot of silver (or gold), or else non-minted silver (or gold) \ The expression dirhem nuqra has beendiscussed in detail by Grohmann ; as, however, Ibn B'ara'smanuscript was not yet published, the exact meaning, as used in

1. Maqrizi, Hist. Mon. Arab., p. 37-39. Sauvaihe, I5, p. 58 f. and I?, p. 300 f.2. Maqrizi, Hist. Mon. Arab., p. 39 , p. 117 f. Khitat I, p. 11021 f. SuyOti, Husn alMuhadara. II, p. 22623 f. Sauvaire, I2 p. 245, I5, p. 29-31 and offprint from J. A., I, p. 208-209..3. Maqrizi, Descr. de l'Egypte, I, p. 367.4. Cf. reference No. 2.5. Dozy, Supplment aux Dictionnaires Arabes, p. 710. Sauvaire, I, p. 240-243.6. Grohmann (Adolf), Einfuhrung und Chreslomathie zur Arabischen Papyruskunde, p. 213.


17/39

124 P. BALOGAyyubid Egypt, necessarily escaped him. Some confusion is causedby the fact that at different times, and probably in different countries, the name had different meanings.For Egypt under Ayyubid rule, however, Ibn B'ara gives anexact description of the technique by which the flan of the dirhemnuqra was produced : the molten silver was poured over a woodencone (covered with charcoal) from which it cascaded into a basinof water placed underneath. The resulting small ingots, each afrozen drop of irregular shape and, of course, individual volume,were then, after appropriate heating but without further adjustment, directly struck in the dies. The resulting globular dirhemsare now well known x ; they belong to the reigns of Kmil Muhammad,leh Ayyb, Mu'azzam Toronshh and to the early BahriMamluk period (Ashraf Msa under Aibak and Shajar al Durr).Fortunately, we can now compare the few notes left to us by thechroniclers with the information obtained from the examinationof a great number of coins. The results are shown on the followingtables in chronological order, with the individual weight recordedand the coins listed according to denominations. The percentageof pure silver content is also given on a separate table.

Ayylbids.Silver, weight in grams.CAIRODirhems waraq.

(BIE XXXV, 1953, p. 408-411)Saladin

I. For Mahmud b. Zengui :1 . 33 0 . 821.20 0.690.92(BIE XXXIII, 1951, p. 27 )

II. As sovereign :a) under the Khalif al Mustadi :2.28 1.26 0.80 0.361.19 0.75

1. Balog, BIE, XXXIII, 1951 and XXXV, 1952. NC, XV, 1955, p. 201


18/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 1251.1.1.1.1.0.0.1.

3015141212989104b) under the Khalif al2.15 1.1.0.0.1.

1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1,111.1111111111011111110

0404989324.4232,26.48,16,73,67,96.99.94.47.77.34.34.40.38.35.14.37.00.10.97.07.00.22.69.28.37.36.99

AzTz 'Othmn111.30.34.18

0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.

000

65657866586653,7283,76.69,65

.77.75.820.47


19/39

126 P. BALOG0.96 0.851.491.741.591.591.581.461.221.231.071.191.310.90

Mansr Muhammad1.52 0.811.181.151.211.42

'Adel I1.82 0.761.140.99

Kmel Muhammad1.19 0.751.811.351.091.231.17Globular dirhems :

0.96 0.90 0.490.76 0.440.73

(BIE XXXV, 1953, p. 417-420)With Khali al Nasir :

2.54 1.86 0.802.24 1.65 0.701.61 0.68


20/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 127With Khalif al Mustadi :1.791.591.320.93With Khalif al Mustansir :1.92 0.551.881.581.000.99(Balog, unpublished)With Khalif al Nasir :

4.32 2.96 1.92 0.781.68 0.661.16 0.65With Khalif al Mustansir :3.12 2.00 0.851.751.361.100.93'Adel IISaleh Ayyub(BIE XXXV, 1953, p. 421-423)1.62 0.901.00 0.760.97

(Balog unpublished)2.392.19

TORONSHH(BIE XXXV,2.73

2.001.931.831.821.31

1953, p. 423)0.73(Balog unpublished)2.40 1.771.67


21/39

128 P. BALOGApproximative weight of the waraq and globular dirhems.struck in Cairo.

(81 specimens examined).Double dirhem ( 1 coins) 4.32 gramsFull dirhem ( 3 coins) 2.46Half dirhem (54 coins) 1 . 43Quarter dirhem (23 coins) 0 . 70Percentage of fine silver content :

CAIRODirhems waraq. % fine silverSaladinI. For Mahmud b. Zengui 33.2II. As sovereign 30 , 29 , 29 28 , 28 , 27,

'Aziz 'Othmn 28 , 28 , 28 , 26Mansr Muhammad 27 8'Ade'l I . ..." 28Kmel Muhammad 20 , 29 , 28 5 , 28

Globular dirhems.30, 28.5, 28, 27, 26, 25.5, 23'Adel II. Sleh Ayyb 28.5, 27.4, 26

Normal flan dirhems.Sleh Ayyb(BIE, XXXIV, 1952, p. 26-28) 74.61. 2.36 grams2. 2.893. 2.724. 2.755. 2.97

N. B. The fine silver content of the Cairo normal flan dirhems of Saladin(BM. 867ZZ) and of 'Adel I (L. 608) is not known.


22/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 129SYRIA

All coins on normal flan.245 coins in BM, BIE, and Balog unpublished coins.Fine silver content :

Saladin'Azz 'Othmn'Adel IKamel Muhammad'Adel IISaleh AyybToRONSHAHSaleh Ism'aTlasir ysufCrusader imitations

ofSleh Ism'aTl. . NUM

BER OFCOINS3829297830137254019

AVERAGEWEIGHT2.802.702.663.002.842.85

2.772.762.722.802.62

MINT

AleppoDamascusDamascusDamascusDamascus636 Hafter 643 HHamhDamascusHamhDamascusDamascus Damascus

FINE SILVERo/o949490, 89, 88.4, 88, 8786

83, 7886, 81, 80, 7980 , 80807689, 81, 8076, 73.2, 72.279, 77, 76, 76

From the above tables, it becomes immediately clear thatSaladin did not change the quality of the Ftimid silver coinage.In the first place, he allowed that the Ftimid black dirhem shouldcontinue to circulate freely. Secondly, although he struck silverof his own, the latter had exactly the same aspect and compositionas its Ftimid prototype.As already mentioned, in 583 H Saladin issued a new dirhemcalled Ndsiri, which was supposed to contain silver and copper inequal parts, and was meant to replace the unsatisfactory blackdirhem. The latter should have been withdrawn from circulation x.That such a Nsiri dirhem has really been issued is shown bya unique normal flan dirhem of Syrian style struck in Cairo in586 H (BM 867 7L). Another unique specimen, issued in Cairo bySaladin's brother al 'Adel I in 600 H (L. 609), and five normal flan

1. Maqrizi, Hist. Mon. Arab., p. 37-39 and 114-117.Revue Numismatique, 1961.


23/39

130 P. BALO GCairo dirhems of Sleh Ayyub around 645 H or 646 H (BIE,XXXIV, 1952, p. 26-28), are further proof that such coins of fineralloy have been periodically issued. Maqrzi's assertion, however,that the Nsiri dirhems successfully and completely replaced thedirhems waraq (black dirhems) is to be accepted with much caution :much too few of these normal flan dirhems (struck in Cairo) havebeen preserved in order to ascertain whether they were isolated,shortlived attempts which failed because of the general shortageof silver, or whether there was a great quantity in circulation whichlater disappeared.I believe, however, that the first alternative is the correct one.Not only have but one or two Ndsiris been preserved, of the wholeAyyubid period, but the black dirhems continued to circulate insuch quantities that, without any doubt, they must have constituted the bulk of the entire silver currency. They were issued bySaladin, by 'Azz 'Othmn, then by Mansur Muhammad and 'AdelI, and even by Kmel Muhammad until 622 H. More often thannot, the dirhems waraq were the only silver coins issued.Not only did the Ayybid black dirhem retain the externalaspect of the Ftimid dirhem waraq, but it also contained the samepercentage of fine silver. As already stated, al 'Adid's dirhem hadan average fine silver content of around 28 %. A glimpse at thetable of fine silver percentage of the Ayyubid coins shows that aTlthe emissions, from Saladin to Kmel, contain about the sameamount of fine silver, i. e. an average of 28 %.As already stated, in 622 H al Kmel Muhammad introducedhis famous monetary reform ; he withdrew the entire silver currencythen in circulation and struck new round dirhems (mostadrah).It is not clear what the immediate reason for the introduction ofthis reform was. No deterioration of the coinage can be detectedduring the period preceding 622 H, and the black dirhems of KmelMuhammad were in no way worse than those issued by 'Adel I,Mansur Muhammad, 'Azz 'Othmn or Saladin himself. Thereform was probably the final result of continuous difficultiescaused by the worthless coinage.However, the reform of 622 H was nothing but a huge fraud.Instead of being better, the average silver content of the rounddirhem was now even a little less than that of the dirhem waraq.As far as can be ascertained from the largely fluctuating figures(between 23 and 30 %), the average was around 27 %, so that infact the reform changed the aspect of the coins, but not theirintrinsic value.


24/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 131Nevertheless, the introduction of the globular dirhem was successful and thereafter constituted the only Egyptian silver cur

rency up to the end of the Ayyubid dynasty. We have globulardirhems not only of Kmel Muhammad, but also of Sleh Ayyband Mu'azzam Toronshh, all with a silver content of around27%.To the Ayyubid kings, who ruled simultaneously over Egyptand Syria, the colossal incongruity between the excellent Syriansilver and the inordinately debased Egyptian coinage must havecaused many a disturbing problem. The proof of it is that repeatedattemps were made by Saladin * (cf. also : BM. 867/z), 'Adel I(L. 608) and Sleh Ayyub (BIE, XXXIV, 1952, p. 26-28) to issuenormal flan dirhems in Egypt. These dirhems imitate the aspectof the Syrian coin of superior quality and also try to attain itsfineness. The only specimen which has been assayed has, however,a pure silver content of 74.6 % only, about ten per cent less thanthe Syrian prototype.It appears from the evidence of these coins that the regularcoinage in Ayyubid Egypt consisted, probably exclusively, ofdirhems waraq until 622 H, and of globular dirhems (mustadra)after that date. The repeated attempts to introduce the Syriantype dirhem seem to have failed.It should be mentioned however that the matter is not easy tounderstand from Maqrzi's records. Sauvaire, in his Matriaux 2,says that Kmel Muhammad, in 620 (!), suppressed the dirhemswaraq and issued round dirhems called Kmeli ; made of 2/3 silverand 1/3 copper, these coins were produced in Cairo until the amirMahmud the ustdr (in 781 H) replaced silver with copper issues.On the next page, Sauvaire continues to identify the round dirhems of 622 H with the dirhems Kmeli, and repeats that they werein general use during the remaining Ayyubid period, and evenunder the Bahri Mamluks.We believe therefore that there is some confusion in the text ofMaqrizi, and Sauvaire does nothing to clear it up. From the testimony of the coins themselves, we conclude that in AyyubidEgypt the globular dirhems remained the current coinage and probably the only one. Its content was one-third silver to two-thirdsof copper, and not the reverse, as recorded by Maqrizi.The ultimate reason for the impoverishment of Egypt, which

1. Maqrizi, Hist. Mon. Arab., p. 37-39 and 114-117.2. Offprint, I, p. 208-210.


25/39


26/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 133On the other hand, the money brought to Syria was lavishlyspent there by the army for local supplies, as well as by the soldiers

themselves for their own necessities and luxuries. As a direct consequence, when Egypt's economy was on the verge of ruin, that ofSyria was definitely flourishing, its coinage stable and of high quality.The table of weights and fine silver content of the Syrian Ayyubidcoinage shows that, from Saladin to Sleh Ism'ail, the weight ofthe dirhem is always around 2.80 grams and the fine silver contentbetween 80 and 94 %. Only during al Nsir Yusuf's occupation ofDamascus (648-658 H) was the fine silver content of the dirhemlowered to 72-76 %, at a time of political troubles, when theremaining small part of Ayybid Syria was breaking up altogether.MAMLKS

More notes on Mamluk coinage have come down to us in theMedieval Arab literature than either on Ftimid or Ayyubid currency.The first sultan mentioned was Baibars I ; according to Maq-rizi S the Zheri dirhems, struck in 658 H, contained 70 % puresilver and 30 % copper.This author also states that, between 658 H and 676 H, the dinarwas worth 28 1 /2 dirhems 2, and gives the same figure for 660 H 3.A flagrant discrepancy is however found for the same year 660 Hin Quatremre 4, who relates an exchange rate of 20 dirhems to thedinar. This rate of exchange seems to have been maintained underNsir Muhammad's reign also 5.No mention is made in the chronicles of the copper coinage orthe relationship between silver and copper during the Ftimid orthe Ayyubid administration of Egypt. It is therefore the first timethat, in Qalqashandi e, the exchange rate between dirhem and fels

is discussed ; during the reign of Nsir Muhammad b. Qalun,*the dirhem brought 48 fels, which is a rather low purchase valuefor the copper coin.1. MS P. 1938, fol. 44'. Maqrizi-Sacy, Reprint, p. 39 .2. Descr. de l'Egypte, p. 345-6.3. Ibidem, II, p. 298. Maqrizi-Sacy, p. 45 . Sauvaire, I, p. 288.4. Histoire des Sultans Mamelouks, II, 2nd part, p. 167.5. Descr. de l'Egypte, I, p. 226.6. Subh al 'Asha, III, p. 443.


27/39

134 P. BALOGSuyuti x states that in 740 H the course of the dinar was officially fixed at 25 dirhems; this order had however to be with

drawn very soon and in 741-742 H already, the rate 1 to 20 wasagain restored 2. This ratio was violently upset in the same year(742 H) when, after the looting of the amir Qawsan's palace, so muchgold went into circulation, that one mithql of gold fetched 11dirhems only 3. But, however rich the loot, it was not large enoughto upset the balance for long. A notice later in the same year mentions once more the earlier ratio of 1 to 20 between gold and silver.From that time on the ratio between the dinar and the dirhem(1 to 20) remained stable for a long period : there are notices tothis effect for the years 745 4, 746 \ 751 to 753 6, 757 to 760 7, andfinally, for 761 H 8.Then suddenly, in 770 H, the exchange rate fell to 1 : 30, and thereis no explanation for this crisis.The next notice, in Maqrizi 9, says that, in 781 H, the Kdmeliand Zdheri dirhems, which continued to circulate until that date,were now altered by the emission of the Mahmudi dirhems.This happened under the wizirate of Barquq, during Mansr 'Ali'ssultanate. As no silver of Mansur 'Ali's reign, struck in Cairo, hasbeen preserved, we do not know what really the Mahmudi dirhems were ; they are said, nevertheless, to have caused muchharm to the public.Towards the end of his first reign, in 789 H, Barquq, now thesultan, ordered his wizr, Jarkas al Khalili, to strike dirhems ofa new type10. The dirhems of this issue seem to have been valuedat the rate of thirty to the dinar.The situation worsened considerably when, in 794 H, Barquqordered his ustdr, Mahmd b. 'Ali, to issue large quantities ofcopper fuls ; the copper had to be imported from Europe andpaid for with silver, with the effect that the striking of dirhemspractically ceased.When Faraj succeeded his father Barquq, the dinar/dirhem

1. Husn al Muhadara, 2nd part, p. 163.2. escr. de l'Egypte, II, p. 35 .3. Ibidem, II, p. 73 .4. Ibidem, II, p. 231 and 309.5. Ibidem, II, p. 231.6. Ibidem, II, p. 61 .7. Ibidem, II, p. 316.8. Ibidem, II, p. 212.9. Maqrizi-Sacy, Reprint, p. 39 .10 . Ibn Fubt, MS Vienna, vol. IX, fol. 3*, . 16 f . and fol 4v, 11. 4-3 from bottom.


28/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 135exchange rate was still 1 to 30 . Silver however became veryscarce, and copper was the only currency available in sufficientquantities. Silver, virtually non-existent, now became money ofaccount and was expressed in terms of fels 2. Dirhem-fels (in Arabic dirhem min al fulus) simply means thenumber of copper coins equivalent to the dirhem(money of account).This may explain the confusion which sometimes has resultedwhen modern authors speak of the rapid deterioration of thedirhem. Actually, it was not the silver dirhem which lost its valuewith such rapidity, but the copper fels referred to in its relationto the dirhem. Even to-day, in the popular tongue in Egypt, darhim means coins , pennies , and not necessarily silver coins .In any case, when Faraj came into power, the economic situationmust have been greatly troubled, as we read that, in 806 H, inCairo, the mithql of gold was valued at 151 dirhems-fels, whereasat the same time in Alexandria, it was worth 300. In 807 H, Farajdecreed that the dinar was to be valued at 100 dirhems 3 and in808 H, in both cities, the mithql-fels exchange rate was 1 to 250 4.Things went from bad to worse. Faraj made two attempts tosave the currency : one in 803 or 804 H, when he tried to re-establishthe ancient standard of the gold-dinar, and the second in 810 H,this time introducing a new gold coin of 3.40 grams, a monetarysystem based on the Venetian zecchino. Both attempts failedbecause of the complete lack of precious metals.In 815 H, al Muayyad Shaikh, the new sultan, struck dirhemsof pure silver ; 30 of these coins were exchanged against a dinarof gold 5. Two years later, in 817 H, the sultan issued an orderto strike dirhems (Muayyadi); on the 24th Safar 818 H, the newsilver was put into circulation and the population rejoiced at theabundant emission of dirhems of such excellent quality e.At the beginning of 856 H, the dirhem has once more dropped to320 per dinar. The ratio even reached the level of 370 to one, when,in 862 H, Ainl fixed it at 300 to the dinar 7, but barely a year later,the dinar was already worth 460 dirhems 8.

1. Descr. de l'Egypte, II, p. 292.2. Maqrizi, Nuqd, d . Constantinople, 1292 AH, p. 15 , 11. 15 ff.3. Abvj'l Mahsn, VI, 272.4. Khitat, II, p. 420.5. Suyuti, Husn al Muhdara, 2nd part, p. 167 (in Sauvaire, I, p. 316).6. Cf. Rf. 54 .7. Ibn Iys, II, p. 57 .8. Ibidem, II, p. 61 .


29/39

136 P. BALOGWe have but little information on the dirhem during the following period. The few existing notes deal mostly with the copper

issues and their often enforced course. The effect of the artificiallyfixed exchange rate on the economic life can be easily imagined.In 873 H, for instance, one ratl of the newly issued copper coinssold for 24 dirhems nuqra ( nuqra here probably stands for thereal silver coin), instead of 36, as was usual previously, causingmuch prejudice 1.In 881 H, the half dirhem was worth 18 pieces of copper ; therewere however two tariffs, one in silver and the other in billon (?) ;confusion and complaints ensued 2. In the same year, silver couldonly be accepted by weight because of the constant filing and cutting around the edges of the coins 3.Finally, in 903 H, the circulation of the new fuls increased tosuch an extent, that a half dirhem (nusf al fidda) fetched 14 coppercoins *.Until a short time ago, to many an author it seemed that theMamluks did not follow any metrological system at all in theircoinage. If, therefore, Lane-Poole went so far as not even to notethe weight of Mamlk coins in his Catalogue of Islamic Coins inthe Khedivial Library, this had a certain justification, as it wasreally difficult to establish any order, when apparently each coin

had a different individual weight.We have studied Mamluk coins for over ten years and agreethat the gold issues have quite irregular, individual weights.This is, however, directly due to the fact that the Bahri Mamluks, just as their predecessors, the Ayyubids, established the silverdirhem as their coin standard instead of the dinar. Gold, as hasalready been pointed out, became only a commodity, which hada fluctuating daily market price. The dirhem was the real unit,the currency standard, by which all transactions were carriedout.Following our studies, we came to the conclusion that the Bahridirhem did not have the exact weight of the legal dirhem. Nevertheless, one should take into consideration a certain negligencein the often hurriedly carried out minting. On the whole, in spiteof many fluctuations and irregularities, one can observe that the1. Ibn Iys-Wiet, Inst. Franais d'Arch. Orientale, Le Cairo, 1945, II, p. 21.2. Ibidem.3. Ibidem, p. 138.4. Ibidem, p. 436.


30/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT

Bahri mamllks.Approximative average weight of 556 specimens :

137

Shajar al DurrASHRAF MSA . .AlBAKMansr 'Ali ....QutuzBaibars IBaraka Qn. . . .SalamishQalmKhallKetbughLJNBaibars IINsir MuhammadNasir Ahmad . .Sleh Ismal' . .Kmel Sh'abn .MUZAFFAR I.lJJI.Nsir Hassan. . .SLEH SLEH .MansrmadASHRAF Sh'aBN.Mansr 'Ali. . . .Sleh I.Iajji ....

FULIber ofcoins

4118839121846151462431276111322

12112224

j DIRHEM

Weight

3.502.302.752.872.522.762.773.002.822.872.853.102.752.933.432.632.662.633.002.804.30

(double ?)4.00(double ?)

2.734.71(double ?)2.203.75(double ?)3.10375 full dirhems

HALF

ber ofcoins

195621214151267111

131

DIRHEM

Weight

1.421.341.671.431.581.501.331.331.50 1.571.751.561.68

1.701.75

160 half dirhems

QUARTER DIRHEM

ber ofcoins

21102321

Weight

0.760.920.830.900.930.530.73

21 quarters


31/39

138 P. BALOGBurji " ks.

Approximative average weight of 427 specimens

BarquqFarajMust'ainMuayyad ShaikhMuzaffar AhmadSleh MuhammadBarsbi

JaqmaqAlNLKhshqadam. . . .QitbiNsir MuhammadQNSH AL GhRI

FULLumber fcoins

41611123

34

DIRHEM

Weight4.00(double ?)2:684.30(double ?)2.682.63

2.08(1/2 + 1/4)

89 full dirhems

HALFumber fcoins

815121223

1540461533

513

DIRHEMWeight

1.501.651.351.301.401.151.621.03(1/4 + 1/8)1.661.501.451.421.421.19

319 half dirhems

QUARTER DIRHEMumber fcoins

2

9

2

2122

Weight0.75

0.64

0.77

0.800.750.730.45

20 quartersindividual coins all belong either to the denomination of the fulldirhem, or to one of its fractions.This order was not clear regarding the Burji Mamluk coinage.In the manuscript of my Mamlk Coins , which, for some timenow is in preparation for printing, I believed that silver coinsstruck by consecutive sultans were gradually and constantly reduced n weight.


32/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 139Fortunately, an important hoard of al Muayyad Shaikh's silverwas recently acquired by us. This hoard, composed of over two-

hundred full dirhems and fractions, enabled us to correct ourincomplete knowledge on the subject. We are now convinced thatthe Burji Mamluks, as well as the Bahris and before them theAyybids, followed the classical dirhem system in the manufactureof their silver coinage. As, however, silver became more and morescarce, the emissions were constantly reduced in volume, andfinally, the authorities had to be content with the issuing of thehalf and quarter dirhem, in ever decreasing numbers.The following tables present the approximative average weightof the different denominations, the number of coins with knownweight, and the fine silver content expressed in percentage of anumber of specimens. Naturally, the assays were restricted innumber, as silver Burji coins are rather scarce.

Mamlks.Fine silver content of the dirhem, in percent.There is no difference of alloy between the Syrian and Egyptian issues.

Bahri.o/oAibak ' 74Baibars I. 77 , 73 , 66 , 66 62Baraka Qn 77Khalil 67Nsir Muhammad dirhems waraq 78, 73, 68, 66, 66, 66, 65, 64, 52.4, 49.5, 46normal flan 74, 74, 72.5, 68, 65.2Nsir Hassan 68Saleh sm'al : . 70, 69, 68, 66Kmel Sh'aban 63MUZAFFAR HaJJI 64.4Armenian Trams overstruck

by Nsir Muhammad b.Qaln '. 77.2, 73.6, 73.6Burji.

o/oMuayyad Shaikh 94.5, 92.5, 91.5, 90, 90Barsbai 96, 95.5, 95, 94.5, 92Ainal 96, 96, 96, 95.5, 95,5 95,5 95,5Qitbi 95, 92.5, 92, 90, 82.7


33/39

140 P. BALOGHereunder we shall endeavour to make good use of the abovedata covering the entire Mamluk period.

Bahri period.The financial policy of the Ayyubids, as already described above,was dictated by the prevailing conditions, namely, by a disastrousdeficit in precious metals in Egypt, and an ever increasing wealthof gold and silver in Syria. As soon as the early Bahri Mamluksconsolidated their rule, they reversed their line of conduct as far asEgypt was concerned and a marked improvement is to be observed.The first Mamluk rulers, Shajar al Durr, and the Ayyubid princeling Ashraf Musa (a puppet of Aibak's), issued globular dirhems

only, similar to the Ayyubid prototype silver struck in Cairo.Regarding these, we have no data on their fine silver content, inview of the extreme rarity of the specimens. Although the coinagecontinued to imitate the Ayyubid emissions under Aibak, MansurcAli and Qutuz, the silver was, from now on , of the Syrian normalflan type. The only coin of this period which could have been analysed, a dirhem of Aibak's, contains 74 % pure silver.Baibars I introduced what was to become the Mamluk coinageproper. Although the bulk of the emissions consisted mostly of fulldirhems, enough half dirhems, and, to a lesser extent, quarters,were struck for the needs of household transactions. Not only thefull dirhems, but also the fractions were near enough to the legalweight, with a certain fluctuation tolerated. The abundance ofBaibars's silver coins in all the modern collections is a testimonythat during his 18 years of reign, he issued currency profusely.The silver content of his coins is high, but there are importantfluctuations between the individual specimens ; the fineness variesbetween 62 and 77 %. It should be noted here that a dirhem ofBaraka, son of Baibars, contains 77 % silver, and one of Khall,son of Qaln, only 67 %.During the entire Bahri period, the full dirhem appears withthe same frequency. The half dirhem is also frequent from thebeginning to the end of the dynasty, but the quarter is much morescarce and has apparently been altogether discontinued afterSleh Ism'ail. The weight of the full dirhem is more or less equalto the legal dirhem, and so is that of the fractions. They couldhave been accepted by count for small so-called household purchases. The fluctuations were nevertheless important enough, sothat, in large transactions, the coins had to be weighed.


34/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 141What has been said of the fine silver content of the coins of Bai-bars I generally applies to the entire Bahri period. The alloy of

the Bahri dirhem usually contains between 62 and 78 % fine silver.Special mention must be made of Nsir Muhammad's coinage.His normal flan dirhems do not differ in silver content from allthe other Bahri coins. But he also issued square flan coins, manufactured in exactly the same way as the dirhems waraq of theFtimids and Ayyubids, only they are larger and their weight isnot different from that of the normal flan dirhems. (They are ofthick fabric.) These square coins have a much wider range offluctuation of the fine silver content than any other Bahri issue ;besides specimens of as high a silver content as 78 %, the wholegamut of percentages appears right down to 46 %.Could it be that the enforced low exchange rate of 740 H (whenthe dinar was equal to 25 dirhems , and the economic crisis whichfollowed, were caused by the poor silver content of the square flandirhems waraq struck during that year ?A few heavy dirhems were issued towards the end of the Bahridynasty ; one would be tempted to classify these as double dirhems,were it not for their much lighter weight (between 3.75 and 4.71).In spite of the fluctuating individual weight of the coins and therelatively wide limits of the fine silver content, the Bahri Mamluksilver coinage is a tremendous improvement over the Ayyubid

globular dirhem. Also, notwithstanding the various differencesin weight, it certainly belongs to the traditional dirhem system.Finally, we have noted the fine silver content of three Armeniantrams which have been overstruck by Nsir Muhammad. Theyprove that the alloy used for the Armenian coinage was at leastequivalent to that circulating in the Mamluk empire. They alsoprove that they were badly needed to replenish the always dangerously empty treasury of Nsir Muhammad. The Armenian trams,captured in Sis in one of Nsir Muhammad's raids, or paid as atribute by the Armenians over a period of many years, were over-struck in great quantities by the Mamluks.Burji period.

The pressing shortage of silver felt by the public during the reignof Barquq is not quite faithfully reflected by modern collections,which contain about thirty coins, a not negligible number for this1. Cf. Rf. 1 on p. 134.


35/39

142 P. BALOGperiod, with weight recorded, comprising dirhems, halves and quarters. Although unfortunately no estimation of the fine silver content could have been made, the coins, by their aspect, colour andtouch, do not suggest a low grade alloy. If there was any crisis, itcertainly was not due to the silver coins themselves, but rather totheir absence from circulation. The same applies to Barquq's sonand successor, Faraj, of whose coinage at least a dozen specimensare known.There is, however, no reason to doubt the chroniclers, who unanimously state than an acute shortage of silver caused severe discomfort, and even an alarming crisis in the country. The greaterwas therefore the rejoicing of the population when al MuayyadShaikh, upon his election to the sultanate, brought with him fromSyria enough silver to set the circulation afloat x.We have excellent proof of the abundance and high quality ofMuayyad Shaikh's new silver from an important hoard which wasin the possession of a Cairo dealer for a certain time, but came toour knowledge towards the end of 1960 only. This treasure is composed exclusively of 222 silver coins struck by Muayyad Shaikh ;the bulk of the treasure is made up of half dirhems, numberingmore than half of the total, but there is also a number of full dirhems. The weight of the specimens although the approximativeaverage of the full dirhem is a little short of the legal weight(2.68 grams) is clearly within the system of the legal dirhem.Repeated assays show a surprisingly fine quality alloy in thecoins of al Muayyad Shaikh. The fine silver content remains between 90 and 94.5 %, a result never achieved since the emancipation of Egypt from the Khalifate, and the more remarkable asthe precious metal was now quite scarce.The next two sultans left only a few half dirhems, but then theyonly reigned during a very short time. Barsbi continued to strikesilver in great enough quantity ; he however reduced the weightof the coins. Instead of the full dirhem, he issued combinations ofdifferent fractions, such as the half + quarter dirhem, and the quarter eighth dirhem; but he also struck straight halves and quarters.As already mentioned, al Muayyad Shaikh reduced the weightof his dirhem by about ten per cent for the benefit of the publictreasury. This measure was also adopted by Barsbi, who reducedthe weight of his coins even more : in the first place, by substitutinghe dirhem by a combination of fractions, and then, by cutting

1. Cf. Rf. 3 and 4 p. 135.


36/39

HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 143down the theoretical weight of the new coin. Consequently, Bars-bi's new coinage has the following denominations and weights :

1/2 + 1/4 (3/4) drh. = theoretical : 2.175, in practice : 2.08 grams1/2 drh. = theoretical : 1.45, in practice : 1.62 grams1/4 + 1/8 (3/8) drh. = theoretical : 1.09, in practice : 1.03 grams1/4 drh. = theoretical : 0.725, in practice : 0.77 grams.Barsbi thought it necessary to mark the newly introduceddenominations on his coins, an innovation in Mamluk silver coinage. The 3/4 pieces are inscribed: ^^^^ and the 3/8 frac

tions show : (Jt^j (^j- Only part of the emissions have thedenomination engraved in the field, the others do not carry it.It should also be noted that the denomination does not alwayscorrespond with the actual weight, an error for which, most probably, the negligent mint official is responsible. Similar errors arenot infrequent on earlier Islamic coins.After Barsbi's death, silver was continuously issued until theend of the dynasty. The scarcity of silver is nervertheless noticeable, because from now on , the largest denomination is the halfdirhem. We have halves and quarters of Jaqmaq, Ainl, Khush-qadam, Qitbi and his son, Nsir Muhammad's reigns, all of themof satisfactory weight. Only under Qnsuh al Ghri are the coinsreduced in weight, which is certainly due to the general disorganisation during the last years before the final disaster.The fine silver content, in spite of the growing difficulties, alwaysremains on an exceptionally high level. Three coins of Ainl contain between 95.5 and 96 % silver, and five specimens struck byQitbi show a similar result : four coins have between 90 and95 % silver, only one is as low as 82.7 %.There can be no doubt that, during the final stages of the Bahridynasty, as well as under the entire Burji rule, the silver dirhemwas a coin of high intrinsic value. The weight, although somewhatfluctuating, was always near the legal limit, and the fineness, instead of losing its former high level, became even better in latertimes. There is, therefore, no explanation why at the end of theBahri and the beginning of the Burji rule, the silver coin shouldso catastrophically lose its value, as is recorded by the chroniclers.According to Ayalon *, the dirhem, in the course of an extremelyshort time, dropped from 20 dirhems to 460 dirhems to the dinar.

1. Cf. Rf. 1 on p. 111.


37/39

144 P. BALOGOn the evidence of the coins, the disastrous drop in the exchangerate, 1 dinar = 460 dirhems is absurd, at any time, if we think ofthe dirhem in terms of the real silver coin. If, however, we acceptthe undoubtedly correct statement of the Medieval chronicler,that silver vanished from circulation and was replaced almost completely by copper, then the collapse of the exchange rate is understandable. Dirhem does not mean any more a real circulating silverpiece, but merely money of account.As money of account, the dirhem was used to express the corresponding number of copper fulus, hence the expression used bythe historian : dirhem-fels, in Arabic dirhem min al fuls. Fromthere, it was only one step to drop the word fulus and substitutethe expression of dirhem to any coin, even copper, as can still be

heard in the popular tongue in Egypt when speaking about smallchange, or coins in general. Therefore, when the Medieval authormentioned that the mithql (dinar) of gold was exchanged against460 dirhems, he really meant 460 copper coins. This would correspond to : 1 mithql gold = 20 silver dirhems = 20 x 24 copperfulus (480).Summary.

The Ftimids issued, at the beginning of their reign in Egypt,an abundant silver coinage of good quality (81-88 % fine), consisting of dirhems and halves. The latter were in fact the coinswhich circulated in greatest numbers. Soon enough, under alHkim, the alloy has been adulterated (66-70 %) and under alZhir it dropped to 48 % fine. The debasement continued throughal Mustansir's rule (from 44 to 34 %) and reached its deepest levelat the advent of al 'Adid (31 to 25 %).This steady worsening of the currency is a sure sign of increasingimpoverishment of the country.There was no improvement in the silver coinage under the greatSaladin and his successors, the Ayybid dynasty. On the contrary,the scarcity of funds has been officially acknowledged by the abandonment of the gold standard and introduction of silver as thestandard of currency.A curious anomaly has, however, developed : although Egyptand Syria belonged under the same rule, the latter country grewricher, in contrast with Egypt, which steadily lost its stock of precious metals. Accordingly, at the same time at which the Egyptiancurrency became poor in quality, that of Syria stayed on an excellent evel. From time to time the Ayyubids attempted to intro-


38/39


39/39

146 P. BALOG17. Nsir Muhammad.18. Armenian tram, overstruck by Nasir Muhammad.19. Cairo silver of Ashraf Sh'aban.20. Dirhem of BarqCiq, struck in Cairo by his wizr Jarkas al Khalli.21. The fine silver dirhem of Muyyad Shaikh.22. Dirhem of Barsbi.23. Ainal's dirhem.24. A silver coin of Qitbai.25. Dirhem of Qnsh al Ghuri.

history of dirhem in egypt from fatimids

Documents