history of literature - original

8/12/2019 History of Literature - Original

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History of L iterature F inal d it ion

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acebook.com/Hamlet.Librar

Chapter One

Old English literature

The Old English language, also called Anglo-Saxon, as the

earliest !orm o! English. "t is di!!icult to gi#e exact dates !or the

rise and de#elo$ment o! a language, because it does not change

suddenly% but $erha$s it is true to say that Old English as s$oken

!rom about A.&. '(( to about " )((.

The greatest Old English $oem is *eoul!, hich belongs tothe se#enth century. "t is a story o! about +,((( lines, and it is the

!irst English e$ic. ) The name o! its author is unknon.

*eoul! is not about England, but about Hrothgar, ing o! the

&anes, and about a bra#e young man, *eoul!, !rom southern

Seden, ho goes to hel$ him. Hrothgar is in trouble. His greathall, called Heorot, is #isited at night by a terrible creature,

rendel, hich li#es in a lake and comes to kill and eat Hrothgars

men. One night *eoul! aits secretly !or this thing, attacks it,

and in a !ierce !ight $ulls its arm o!!. "t manages to reach the lake

again, but dies there. Then its mother comes to the hall in search

o! re#enge, and the attacks begin again. *eoul! !ollos her to

the bottom o! the lake and kills her there.

"n later days *eoul!, no king o! his $eo$le, has to de!end his

country against a !ire-breathing creature. He kills the animal but is

badly ounded in the !ight, and dies. The $oem ends ith a

sorro!ul descri$tion o! *eoul!s !uneral !ire. Here are a !elines o! it, $ut into modern letters0

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alegdon tha tomiddes maerne theoden

haeleth hio!ende hla!ord leo!ne

ongunnon tha on beorge bael-!yra maest

igend eccan udu-rec astah

seart o!er siothole sogende leg

o$e beunden.

The sorroing soldiers then laid the glorious $rince, their dear

lord, in the middle. Then on the hill the ar-men began to light the

greatest o! !uneral !ires. The ood-smoke rose black abo#e the

!lames, the noisy !ire, mixed ith sorro!ul cries.

The old language cannot be read no exce$t by those ho ha#e

made a s$ecial study o! it. Among the critics ho cannot read OldEnglish there are some ho are unkind to the $oem, but

*eoul!has its on #alue. "t gi#es us an interesting $icture o! li!e

in those old days. "t tells us o! !ierce !ights and bra#e deeds, o! the

s$eeches o! the leader and the su!!erings o! his men. "t describes

their li!e in the hall, the terrible creatures that they had to !ight,

and their shi$s and tra#els. They had a hard li!e on land and sea.

They did not en1oy it much, but they bore it ell.

The !e lines o! *eoul! gi#en abo#e do not ex$lain much

about this kind o! #erse, and it may be ell to say something

about it. Each hal!-line has to main beats. There is no rhyme2

"nstead, each hal!-line is 1oined to the other by alliteration +3middesimaerne % haelethlhio!endelhla!ord % beorge4 bael %

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:e kno the names o! to Old English $oets, 9AE&8O; and

9. Almost nothing no remains hich is certainly

9aedmons ork. He as a $oor countryman ho used to stay

a$art hen his !ellos sang songs to od% !or 9aedmon as

uneducated and could not sing. One night an angel a$$eared to

him in a dream and told him to sing ods $raise. :hen he oke,

he as able to sing, and $art o! one o! his songs remains.

9yneul! almost certainly rote !our $oems, ?uliana, The >ates

o1 the A$ostles,' 9hrist, and Elene. The last o! these seems to

ha#e been ritten 1ust be!ore 9yneul!s death% !or he says in it,

;o are my days in their a$$ointed time gone aay. 8y li!e-1oys

ha#e disa$$eared, as ater runs aay. 9yneul!s $oems are

religious, and ere $robably ritten in the second hal! o! the

eighth century.Other Old English $oems are Andreas and uthlac. The second

o! these is in to $arts, and may ha#e been ritten by to men.

uthlac as a holy man ho as tem$ted in the desert. Another

o! the better $oems is The &ream o! the @ood 3the rood is 9hrists

cross.5 This is among the best o! all Old English $oems.

Old English lyrics include &eors 9om$laint, The Husbands

8essage, The :anderer and The :i!es 9om$laint. &eor is a

singer ho has lost his lords !a#our. So he com$lains, but tries to

com!ort himsel! by remembering other sorros o! the orld. O!

each one he says That $assed o#er% this may do so also.

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There are many other $oems in Old English. One o! the better

ones is a late $oem called The *attle o! 8aldon. This battle as

!ought against the &anes in BB) and $robably the $oem as

ritten soon a!ter that. "t has been highly $raised !or the ords o!

courage hich the leader uses0

Latin books into Old English, so that his $eo$le could read

them. He brought back learning to England and im$ro#ed the

education o! his $eo$le.

Another im$ortant riter o! $rose as AEL>@"9. His orks,

such as the Homilies2 3BB(-65 and Li#es i! Saints2 3BB+-'5, ere

mostly religious. He rote out in Old English the meaning o! the

!irst se#en books or the *ible. His $rose styleC is the best in Old

English, and he uses alliteration to 1oin his sentences together.

hige sceal the heardra heorte the cenre mod sceal the mare the

ure maegen lytlath her lith ure ealdor eall !orheaen

god on greote a maeg gnornian

se the nu !ram this ig$legan endan thenceth.

The mind must be the !irmer, the heart must be the bra#er, thecourage must be the greater, as our strength gros less. Here lies

our lord all cut to $ieces, the good man on the ground. "! anyone

thinks no to turn aay !rom this ar-$lay, may he be unha$$y

!or e#er a!ter.

"n general it is !airly sa!e to say that Old English $rose7 camelater than Old English #erse% but there as some early $rose. The

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oldest Las ere ritten at the beginning o! the se#enth century.

Saine o! these are interesting. "! you s$lit a mans ear, you had to

$ay +( shillings. These Las ere not literature, and better

sentences ere ritten toards the end o! the se#enth century.

The most interesting $iece o! $rose is the Anglo-Saxon

9hronicle, an early history o! the country. There are, in !act,

se#eral chronicles, belonging to di!!erent cities. ;o doubt ";

AL>@E& 3D6B-B( "5 had a great in!luence on this ork. He

$robably brought the di!!erent ritings into some kind o! order.

He also translated a number o! Latin books into Old English, so

that his $eo$le could read them. He brought back learning to

England and im$ro#ed the education o! his $eo$le.

Another im$ortant riter o! $rose as AEL>@"9. His orks,

such as the Homilies2 3BB(-65 and Li#es i! Saints2 3BB+-'5, eremostly religious. He rote out in Old English the meaning o! the

!irst se#en books or the *ible. His $rose styleC is the best in Old

English, and he uses alliteration to 1oin his sentences together.

Chapter Two

Middle English literature

The English hich as used !rom about " )(( to about )(( is

called 8iddle English, and the greatest $oet o! the time as

EO>>@E< 9HA=9E@. He is o!ten called the !ather o! English

$oetry, although, as e kno, there ere many English $oets

be!ore him. As e should ex$ect, the language had changed a

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great deal in the se#en hundred years since the time o! *eoul!

and it is much easier to read 9haucer than to read anything ritten

in Old English. Here are the o$ening lines o! The 9anterbury

TalesC 3about )+D5, his greatest ork0

:han that A$rille ith his shoures sote

The droghte o! 8arche hath $erced to the rote

#Fhen A$ril ith his seet shoers has struck to the roots the

dryness o! 8arch . . .

There are !i#e main beats in each line, and the reader ill notice

that rhyme has taken the $lace o! Old English alliteration. 9haucer

as a ell-educated man ho read Latin, and studied >rench and

"talian $oetry% but he as not interested only in books. He

tra#elled and made good use o! his eyes% and the $eo$le homhe describes are 1ust like li#ing $eo$le.

The 9anterbury Tales total altogether about ),((( lines - about

hal! o! 9haucers literary $roduction. A $arty o! $ilgrims G agree

to tell stories to $ass the time on their 1ourney !rom London to

9anterbury ith its great church and the gra#e o! Thomas a*ecket. There are more than tenty o! these stories, mostly in

#erse, and in the stories e get to kno the $ilgrims themsel#es.

8ost o! them, like the merchant, the layer, the cook, the sailor,

the $loughman, and the miller, are ordinary $eo$le, but each o!

them can be recognied as a real $erson ith his or her on

character. One o! the most en1oyable characters, !or exam$le, isthe :i!e o! *ath. *y the time she tells her story e kno her as a

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oman o! #ery strong o$inions ho belie#es !irmly in marriage

3she has had !i#e husbands, one a!ter the other5 and eIually !irmly

in the need to manage husbands strictly. "n her story one o! ing

Arthurs knights + must gi#e ithin a year the correct anser to

the Iuestion :hat do omen lo#e most2 in order to sa#e his li!e.

An ugly old itch 6 knos the anser 3To rule5 and agrees to tell

him i! he marries her. At last he agrees, and at the marriage she

becomes young again and beauti!ul.

O! 9haucers other $oems, the most im$ortant are $robably

Troylus and 9ryseyde 3"+G-25, and The LegendJ o! ood

:omen 3 " +D5. The !ormer o! these is a bou t the lo#e o! the to

young $eo$le. Shakes$eare later rote a $lay on the same sub1ect,

but his 9ressida is less attracti#e than 9haucers.

The old alliterati#e line as still in use in 9haucers time,though not by him. The Fision ' o! Kiers the Kloughman, mostly

by :"LL"A8 LA;LA;&, is a $oem in this #erse. "t as

ritten by a $oor man to describe the sorros o! the $oor. "t looks

a lot older than 9haucers rhymed #erse, though the to men li#ed

at the same time. Langland sadly tells, as in a dream, ho most

$eo$le $re!er the !alse treasures o! this orld to the true treasures

o! hea#en. The characters in the $oem are not as real as 9haucers.

. The alliterati#e metre as used in se#eral other $oems,

including Sir aan an thereen night 3"+'(25, one o! the

stories o! ing Arthur and h"S nights o! the @ound Table. Like

others o! these legendary stories, it tells o! the ad#entures o! one

o! ing Arthurs knights 3in this case Sir aain5 in a struggle

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against an enemy ith magic7 $oers as ell as great strength

and cunning. Sir aain !inishes the ad#enture ith all honour.

Kerha$s the author o! aain also rote Kearl and Katience,to o! the best alliterati#e $oems o! the time. Kearl as the name

o! the $oets daughter, ho died at the age o! to% but he is

com!orted hen, in a dream, he sees her in hea#en. Katience is the

story o! ?onah, ho as thron into the sea and salloed by an

immense creature o! the sea, hich carried him to the $lace here

od ished him to go.

A good deal o! 8iddle English $rose is religious. The Ancien

@ile teaches $ro$er rules o! li!e !or anchoresses 3religious

omen5 ho they ought to dress, hat ork they may do, hen

they ought not to s$eak, and so on. "t as $robably ritten in the

thirteenth century. Another ork, The >orm o! Ker!ect Li#ing,as ritten by @"9HA@& @OLLE ith the same sort o! aim. His

$rose style has been highly $raised, and his ork is im$ortant in

the history o! our $rose.

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ere to translations 3)+DG and )+DD5, o! hich the second is

the better.

"t is sur$rising that :ycli!!e as not burnt ali#e !or his attackson religious $ractices. A!ter he as dead and buried, his bones

ere dug u$ again and thron into a stream hich !los into the

@i#er A#on 3hich itsel! !los into the @i#er Se#ern50

The A#on to the Se#ern runs, The Se#ern to the sea,

And :ycli!!es dust shall s$read abroad, :ide as the aters be.

An im$ortant 8iddle English $rose ork, 8orte & Arthur MN

Arthurs &eath4, as ritten by S"@ THO8AS 8ALO@


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rail.5 Another sub1ect as Arthurs battles against his enemies,

including the @omans. 8alorys !ine $rose can tell a direct story

ell, but can also ex$ress dee$ !eelings in musical sentences. Here

is $art o! the book in modern !orm. ing Arthur is badly

ounded0

Then Sir *edi#ere took the king on his back and so ent ith

him to the aters edge. And hen they ere there, close by the

bank, there came a little shi$ ith many beauti!ul ladies in it% and

among them all there as a Iueen. And they all had black head-

dresses, and all e$t and cried hen they sa ing Arthur.

The !irst English $lays told religious stories and ere $er!ormed

in or near the churches. 8any e#ents o! religious history ere

suitable sub1ects !or drarna?7 These early $lays, called 8iracleC

or 8ystery Klays, are in !our main grou$s, according to the cityhere they ere acted0 9hester, 9o#entry,


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:hen mankind " annoy. >orty days and !orty nights

@ain shall !all !or their unrightsA

And those " ha#e made through my mights* ;o think " to

destroy.

;OAH0 Lord, at your bidding2 " am true Since grace is only in

you,

As you ask " ill do.

>or gracious7 " you !ind.

A rongdoing * onder!ul $oers corders & kind

Although the 8iracles ere serious and religious in intention,

English comedy)G as born in them. There as a natural

tendency !or the characters in the $lay to become recogniablyhuman in their beha#iour. Hoe#er serious the main story might

be, neither actors nor audience could resist the tem$tation to en1oy

the $ossibilities o! a situation such as that in hich ;oahs i!e

needs a great deal o! $ersuasion to make her go on board the ark.C7

Other $lays, in some res$ects not #ery di!!erent !rom the8iracles, ere the 8orality Klays. The characters in these ere

not $eo$le 3such as Adam and E#e or ;oah5 % they ere #irtues

3such as Truth5 or bad Iualities 3such as reed or @e#enge5 hich

alked and talked. >or this reason e !ind these $lays duller

today, but this does not mean that the original audiences !ound

them dull. The $lays $resented moral truths in a ne and e!!ecti#eay.

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One o! the best-knon !i!teenth-century 8oralities is

E#eryman, hich as translated !rom the &utch. "t is the story o!

the end o! E#erymans li!e, hen &eath calls him aay !rom the

orld. Among the characters are *eauty, noledge, Strength,

and ood &eeds. :hen E#eryman has to go to !ace &eath, all his

!riends lea#e him exce$t ood &eeds, ho says !inely0

E#eryman, " ill go ith thee and be thy guide, "n thy most

need to be by thy side.

Another kind o! $lay, the "nterlude, as common in the

!i!teenth and sixteenth centuries. The origin o! this name is

uncertain% $erha$s the "nterludes ere $layed beteen the acts o!

long 8oralities% $erha$s in the middle o! meals% or $erha$s the

name means a $lay by to or three $er!ormers. They are o!ten

!unny, and ere $er!ormed aay !rom churches, in colleges orrich mens houses or gardens. One o! them is The >our Ks, "n one

$art ,o! this $lay, a $rie is o!!ered !or the greatest lie% and it is

on by a man ho says that he ne#er sa and ne#er kne any

oman out o! $atience.

The riters o! these early $lays are unknon until e come tothe beginning o! the sixteenth century. ?OH; HEour Ks 3$rinted about 65 and The Klay o! the :eather

3++5, in hich ?u$iter, the ing o! the ods, asks #arious $eo$le

hat kind o! eather ought to be su$$lied. Heyood rote other

"nterludes and as ali#e in Shakes$eares time.

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Chapter Three

Elizabethan poetry and prose

8any imitators o! 9haucer a$$eared a!ter his death in )6((, but

!e are o! great interest. 8ore than a century had to $ass be!ore

any !urther im$ortant English $oetry as ritten. ueen Eliabeth

ruled !rom )D to )'(+, but the great Eliabethan literary age is

not considered as beginning until )B. *e!ore that year to $oets

rote orks o! #alue.S"@ THO8AS : S=@@E< are o!ten

mentioned together, but there are many di!!erences in their ork.

*oth rote sormets.? hich they learned to do !rom the "talians%

but it as :yatt ho !irst brought the sonnet to England. Surreys

ork is also im$ortant because he rote the !irst blank G #erse in

English.

"n the !orm o! the sonnet :yatt mainly !olloed the "talian $oet

Ketrarch 3)+(6-65. "n this !orm, the )6 lines rhyme abbaabba 3D5

P G or + rhymes in the last six lines. The sonnets o! Shakes$eare

are not o! this !orm% they rhyme ababcdcde!e!gg.

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:yatt has le!t us some good lyrics. Here is $art o! a lo#ers $ra

yer to his girl0

And ilt thou lea#e me thus That hath lo#ed thee so long "nealth and oe7 among% And is thy heart so strong

As !or to lea#e me thus2

Say nay7C Say nayC

A sorro * no

Surreys blank #erse, hich has been mentioned, is !airly good%

he kee$s it ali#e by changing the $ositions o! the main beats in the

lines. 8arloes !amous rnight#7 line is blank #erse and much

!iner $oetry, and Shakes$eare im$ro#ed on it. 8ilton made blank

#erse the regular metre o! e$ic.

*e!ore and during the Eliabethan age, the riting o! $oetry

as $art o! the education o! a gentleman, and the books o! sonnets

and lyrics that a$$eared contained ork by numbers o! di!!erent

riters. A good exam$le o! these books is Tottels Songs and

Sonnets 3)5, hich contained 6( $oems by Surrey and B' by

:yatt. There ere )+ by other authors7. &id these $o$ularsonnets and lyrics ex$ress real !eelings, or ere they 1ust $oetic

exercises2 Some may be o! one sort and some o! the other. They

di!!er a good deal. Some contain rather childish ideas, as hen a

man is murdered by lo#e and his blood reddens the girls li$s.

Some are #ery !ine indeed.

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One o! the best sonnets o! the time as by 8"9HAEL

&@Aor hom, or to hom, did he

rite them2 8any o! them re!er to a young man o! good !amily,

and may be addressed to :illiam Herbert 3the Earl o! Kembroke5,

or the Earl o! Southam$ton. At the beginning o! the )'(B

collection, it is said that they are !or 8r. :. H. Other $eo$le

mentioned in the sonnets are a girl, a ri#al $oet, and a dark-eyed

beauty. Here is one o! Shakes$eares sonnets0

:ho ill belie#e my #erse in time to come,

"! it ere !illed ith your most high deserts72 Though yet,

Hea#en knos, it is but7 as a tornb7 :hich hides your li!e, and

shos not hal! your $arts. "! " could rite the beauty o! your eyes,

And in !resh numbers7 number all your graces The age to come

ould say, This $oet lies,

Such hea#enly touches neer touched earthly !aces. So should

my $a$ers, yelloed ith their age,

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*e scorned like old men o! less truth than tongue% And your true

rights be termed E a $oets rage> And stretched metre o! an

antiIue2 song.

*ut ere some child o! yours ali#e that time

madness

old

The $oet ho introduced the Eliabethan age $ro$er as

E&8=;& SKE;SE@. "n )B he $roduced The She$herds

9alendar, a $oem in tel#e books, one !or each month o! the year.

S$enser as no doubt making ex$eriments in metre and !orm,

examining his on abilities. The $oems are uneIual, but those !or

A$ril and ;o#ember are good. They take the !orm o! discussionsbeteen she$herds , and are there!ore $astorals ' - the best

$astorals ritten in English u$ to that time. There are #arious

sub1ects0 $raise o! ueen Eliabeth, discussions about religion,

the sad death o! a girl, and so on. The nation elcomed the book%

it as ex$ecting a great literary age, and acce$ted this ork as its

beginning.

S$ensers greatest ork, The >aerie .ueene 3)DB-B'5, as

$lanned in tel#e books, but he rote little more than the !irst six.

The ueene is either ueen Eliabeth or lory as a $erson. There

are tel#e knights re$resenting di!!erent #irtues, and ing Arthur

is gentlemanliness. The knights ad#entures are the basis !or anallegory , but this is not clear. The greatness o! the ork is not in

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its thought or in its story. "t is in the magic !eeling in the air, the

onder!ul music o! the #erse, the beauty o! the sound. >e $eo$le

no read the hole thing% $erha$s too much seetness at once is

more than the mind and s$irit can bear.

S$enser in#ented a s$ecial metre !or The >aerie ueene. The

#erse has nine lines% o! these the last has six !eet, the others !i#e.

The rhyme $lan is ababbcbcc. This #erse, the S$enserian Stana

D, is 1ustly !amous and has o!ten been used since. Here is an

exam$le0

Long thus she tra#eled through deserts ide,

*y hich she thought her andring knight should $ass,


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honour o! the double marriage o! the daughters o! the Earl o!

:orcester, contains the re$eated line, Seet Thames run so!tly

till " end my song. S$enser also rote DD sonnets hich ere

$ublished in )Bith the E$ithalamion - under the title,

Amoretti.

The Eliabethan age $roduced a sur$rising !lo o! lyrics.

Lyric $oetry gi#es ex$ression to the $oets on thoughts and

!eelings, and !or this reason e tend to $icture the lyric $oet as arather dreamy un$ractical $erson ith his thoughts turned

inards. As a descri$tion o! the Eliabethan lyric $oets, nothing

could be !urther !rom the truth. :e kno !e details o! S$ensers

li!e, but his !riend S"@ KH"L"K S"&;E< as a true Eliabethan

gentleman o! many acti#ities -- courtier, statesman, $oet, soldier.

"t is $robably true that this man, acce$ted as the $attern o! nobilityin his time, re!used a cu$ o! ater hen he lay dying on the

battle!ield o! Qut$hen, saying that it should be gi#en to a ounded

soldier lying near to him. Sidneys book o! sonnets, Astro$hel and

Stella, as $rinted in )B) a!ter his death. 8ost o! the $oems o!

another great Eliabethan, S"@ :ALTE@ @ALE"H, soldier,

sailor, ex$lorer, courtier, and riter, ha#e been lost, but the short

$ieces hich remain sho a real gi!t !or $oetic ex$ression.

Some o! the best lyrics o! the time ere in the dramatic orks.

9haracters on the stage ere gi#en songs to sing to $lease the

audience and to gi#e some relie! hen necessary. "n Shakes$eares

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Tel!th ;ight, !or exam$le, there is a #ery seet lyric0 3sec $age

665

o mistress mine, here are you roaming2

Shakes$eares longer $oems, Fenus and Adonis and Lucrece,

arc both on the sub1ect o! lo#e. The !ormer o! these as $robably

his !irst $ublished B ork. "n both $oems there is a .kind o!

coldness, as i! Shakes$eare as only riting according to the

rules, but ithout much !eeling.9H@"STOKHE@ 8A@LO:E, the !amous dramatist, as also a

!ine lyric riter. The Kassionate-# She$herd to his Lo#e

3$ublished in )BB5 starts like this0

9ome li#e ith me and be my lo#e, And e ill all the

$leasures $ro#e That hills and #alleys, dales7 and !ields :oods orstee$y mountain yield.

A ri#er-#alleys

Sir :alter @aleigh rote another $oem as the girls anser0

"! all the orld and lo#e ere young And truth in e#ery

she$herds tongue, These $retty $leasures might me mo#e To li#e

ith thee and be thy lo#e.

As the songs and sonnets o! the great Eliabethan age $assed

sloly aay, the immense lyrical tide began gradually to lose its

!orce. The age that !olloed, the ?acobean age, as less !resh -

more interested in the mind than in heart or eye. A grou$ o! $oets,knon as the 8eta$hysical7 Koets, rote #erse hich as

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generally less beauti!ul and less musical, and hich contained

tricks o! style and unusual imagesC to attract attention. These

$oets mixed strong !eelings ith reason, and the mixture is

strange.

?OH; &O;;E is the greatest meta$hysical $oet but it is

di!!icult to !ind a com$lete $oem by him hich is !aultless. He

rote many good things, but no $er!ect $oem. His songs and

sonnets are $robably his !inest ork, but he is best studied in

collections o! #erse by #arious $oets. He rote a lot o! $oor #erse

hich these collections omit.

&onne as a layer and a $riest, and he rote religious $oetry,

though it is not his best. "n metre &onne o!ten $ut the main beat

on ords o! little im$ortance% yet he had his good Iualities. Some

o! his beginnings, such as o and catch a !alling star, are !ine. Hecan say e!!ecti#e things in a !e ords0 " am to !ools " kno

>or lo#ing and !or saying so.


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"t is time no to turn to the $rose o! this age, hich took se#eral

#ery di!!erent !orms. The translation o! Klutarchs Li#es o! the

;oble recians and @omans 3)B5, S"@ THO8AS ;O@TH is

im$ortant. "t is on the hole ritten in !ine and noble English, and

it had a ide in!luence on Eliabethan $rose. "t as used by

Shakes$eare as a storehouse o! learning. Shakes$eare used Iuite

extensi#e ex$ressions !rom it in ?ulius 9aesar, 9oriolanus and

Antony and 9leo$atra. ;orth as one o! the best translators, ith

a good command o! English ords and the ability to ea#e theminto $oer!ul sentences. He did not translate directly !rom the

reek, but !rom a >rench translation by Amyot o! Auxerre.

"n )DB @"9HA@& HAL=robisher, besides se#eral others. Hakluyt le!t a lot o!

un$ublished $a$ers, and some o! these came into the $ossession o!

Kurchas.

SA8=EL K=@9HAS $ublished the Hakluyt $a$ers under the

title, Kurchas his Kilgrims 3" 'G5, containing A History o! the

:orld in Sea Foyages and Land Tra#el. This book deals ith

#oyages to "ndia, ?a$an, 9hina, A!rica, the :est "ndies and other

$laces. To other books by Kurchas ha#e titles hich are almost

the same, Kurchas his Kilgrimage, or @elations o! the :orld andthe @eligions Obser#ed in All Ages 3" ')+5 and Kurchas his

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Kilgrim, or The History o! 8an 3)')B5. Another im$ortant history

book o! this time as Holinsheds 9hronicles07 3)5. Though it

is knon by his name, se#eral riters ere res$onsible !or the

material in it.

A kind o! no#el) began in the Eliabethan age% Lylys Eu$hues

3" D and " D(5 started a !ashion hich s$read in books and

con#ersation.

?OH; L


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o! ad#enture about men o! bad character. KicaresIue no#els ere

!irst ritten in S$ain and then co$ied elsehere. The interest o!

the ad#enture is sometimes s$oilt by long s$eeches hich are

made 1ust hen e ant the s$eaker to do something instead o!

talking.

These Eliabethan no#els are o! little #alue on the hole, and

!e $eo$le read them no. They did not lead on to the great

no#els o! later years. They ere a !alse start, and died out.

The $rose o! >@A;9"S *A9O; is im$ortant. His Essays2

es$ecially are $o$ular still. They !irst a$$eared in "B and then

ith additions in " ')G and )'G. The sentences in the earlier

essays are short, shar$ and e!!ecti#e% the style o! the later essays is

rather more !loing. Some o! the best-knon sayings in English

come !rom *acons books, and es$ecially !rom the Essays.

Here are a !e, ith the title o! the essay0

8en !ear death as children !ear to go in the dark. 3&eath5 All

colours ill agree in the dark. 3=nity in @eligion5 @e#enge is a

kind o! ild 1ustice. 3@e#enge5

:hy should " be angry ith a man !or lo#ing himsel! better than

me2 3@e#enge5

9hildren seeten labours7 but they make mis!ortunes more

bitter. 3Karents and 9hildren5

"! a man be gracious to strangers, it shos he is a citien o! theorld. 3oodness5

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The remedy is orse than the disease. 3Troubles5

Stay a little, that e may make an end the sooner. 3&es$atch5

9ure the disease and kill the $atient.>7 3>riendshi$5

That is the best $art o! beauty hich a $icture cannot ex$ress.

3*eauty5

Some books are to be read only in $arts% others to be read, but

not curiously% and some !e to be read holly. 3Studies5

A ise man ill make more o$$ortunities than he !inds.

39eremonies and @es$ects5

Other books by *acon include A History i! Henry F"" 3)'GG5,

hich as ritten in a !e months. The Ad#ancement o1 Learning

3)'(5 considers the di!!erent ays o! ad#ancing knoledge, and

the di#isions o! knoledge, such as $oetry and history. The ;e

Atlantis 3)'G'5 contains social ideas in the !orm o! a story. This

story is o! a 1ourney to an imaginary island, *ensalem, in the

Kaci!ic Ocean. *acon rote se#eral other books in English and

Latin.

The Authoried t2 Fersion ! 3A.F.5 o! the *ible a$$eared in)')).

The history o! the English *ible is im$ortant. "n Old English

se#eral translations o! $arts o! the *ible ere made, but the !irst

com$lete translation as :ycli!!es. :"LL"A8 T


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belie!s, but he is remembered !or his care!ul and im$ortant ork

on the translation. The Authoried Fersion de$ended a great deal

on Tyndales ork. Se#eral other translations ere made in the

sixteenth century, including a com$lete *ible 3)+5 by 8iles

9o#erdale.

A meeting as held in )'(6 to consider a ne translation.

>ortyse#en translators ere a$$ointed, and they orked in

grou$s on di!!erent $arts o! the *ible. The ork as !inished in

)')) and the result, de$ending chie!ly on :ycli!!e and Tyndale,

as called the Authoried Fersion, though in !act no one

authoried it.

The language is beauti!ul, strong and $ure, #ery unlike

Eu$huism.

8ost English riters are in!luenced in some ay or other by the

ords o! the A.F.

Here are a !e sentences !rom Ecclesiastes, 9ha$ter )G0

@emember no thy 9reator7 in the days o! thy youth, hile the

e#il days come not, nor the years dra nigh * hen thou shaltsay, " ha#e no $leasure in them% hile the sun, or the light, or the

moon, or the stars, be not darkened, nor the clouds return a!ter the

rain.

A maker * near

Timber or &isco#eries 3)'6(5 by the dramatist *en ?onson, is acollection o! notes and ideas on #arious sub1ects. =ntil ?onson

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rote this book, nothing had a$$eared to make clear the true ork

o! a critic, his aims and limitations. ?onson says that a critic ought

to 1udge a ork as a hole, and that the critic himsel! must ha#e

some $oetic abilities. ?onson is the !ather o! English literary

criticism. His critical ideas are not limited to this book, but

a$$ear elsehere. He has some interesting things to say. He

thought that &onne, !or not kee$ing o! accent M$ro$er beat4,

deser#ed hanging. He as not $leased ith the S$enserian stana

or ith S$ensers language. :hen he as told that Shakes$earehad ne#er blotted a line 3N crossed a line out5, he ished that he

had blotted a thousand. ?onsons ideas ere much in!luenced by

the classics, GG and this ex$lains much o! hat he says.

Chapter Four

Elizabethan drama

The chie!literary glory o! the great Eliabethan age as itsdrama, but e#en be!ore it began se#eral $lays a$$eared hich

shoed that a great de#elo$ment had taken $lace. They are not

#ery good $lays, but in general the comedies are better than the

tragedies.

The !irst regular English comedy as @al$h @oister &oister3 )+25 by ;"9HOLAS =&ALL, headmaster o! :estminster

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School, ho $robably rote it !or his boys to act. "t is in rough

#erse and contains the sort o! humour- that may be !ound among

country $eo$le. Another comedy as ammer urtons ;eedle,

acted at 9ambridge =ni#ersity in )'', also in rough #erse. "t is

about the loss and the !inding o! a needle ith hich ammer

urton mends clothes. uarrels, broken heads, and a drinking

song are im$ortant $arts o! it.

Lylys $rose comedy 9am$as$e and his allegorical $lay

Endimion are an im$ro#ement on this. They ere $er!ormed in

!ront o! ueen Eliabeth, $robably by boy actors. These boys,

knon as 9hildren o! Kauls, no doubt caused a lot o! !un hen

they $layed the $arts o! great men such as Alexander the reat, or

the $hiloso$her, + &iogenes.

The $lay 9am$as$e contains the charming 3and no !amous5song0

9u$id2 and my 9am$as$e $layed At cards !or kisses% 9u$id

$aid.

A od o! Lo#e

9u$id loses one thing a!ter another to 9am$as$e, and at last he

o!!ers his eyes0

At last he set her both his eyes%

She on, and 9u$id blind did rise. o Lo#e, has she done this to

thee2 :hat shall, alasC7, become o!* me2A ho sad " * ha$$en to

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The !irst regular English tragedy as orboduc, in blank #erse,

$er!ormed in "'6. The !irst three acts ere ritten by THO8AS

;O@TO;, the other to by THO8AS SA9F"LLE. "t is #ery

dull, and is about ing orboduc o! England and his !amily. 3This

man a$$ears in S$ensers >aerie ueene as orbogud.5 The blank

#erse is $oor stu!!, and nothing is done on the stage exce$t some

mo#ements in silence. The story o! the $lay is told.

The S$anish Tragedy 3" BG5 by THO8AS


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kings, hom he hi$s and curses hen they do not go !ast

enough. He shouts angrily0

:hatC 9an ye dra but7 tenty miles a day2 A only

:hen they get tired, they are taken aay to be hanged, and then

to s$are kings ha#e to $ull the carriage. Tamburlaine dri#es on

to *abylon, and on arri#al gi#es orders !or all the $eo$le there to

be droned. His li!e is #iolent in other ays. He cuts an arm to

sho his son that a ound is unim$ortant. He shouts !or a ma$.i#e me a ma$, he cries, then let me see ho much is le!t !or me

to conIuer all the orld.

The $lay as ell recei#ed, but the #iolence o! the language

and o! the action, and the terrible cruelty, are serious !aults.


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and in re#enge he begins a li!e o! #iolence. He $oisons his on

daughter, Abigail, and causes her lo#er to die too. He hel$s the

Turks hen they attack 8alta, and so they make him go#ernor%

but he decides to kill all the Turkish o!!icers. He arranges that the

!loor o! a big room can be made to !aC " suddenly, and then in#ites

them to a meal in it. He ho$es thus to destroy them hile they are

eating, but an enemy makes his secret knon, and he himsel! is

thron don belo the !loor into a #essel o! boiling ater. His

last ords are0

&ie, li!eC >ly, soulC Tongue, curse thy !ill and dieC

The language o! The ?e o! 8alta is not alays so !ierce%

sometimes the beauty o! sound and rhythm 3and again o!

$ro$er names5 is #ery !ine0

" ho$e my shi$s

" sent !or Egy$t and the bordering isles Are gotten u$ by ;ilus

andering banks% 8ine argosies7 !rom Alexandria

Loaden ith s$ice7 and silks, no under sail, Are smoothly

gliding9 don by 9andy2 shore To 8alta through our8editerranean Sea.

A big shi$s ( $lant ith shar$ taste c mo#e smoothly & 9rete

The so!tness o! the last line suggests #ery ell the Iuiet

mo#ement o! a sailing shi$ in the old days.

&r. >austus as $robably acted in )DD. The $lay is based onthe ell-knon story o! a man 3>austus5 ho sold his soul to the

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de#il so as to ha#e $oer and riches in this li!e. 8arloes

>austus agrees to gi#e his soul to the de#il, 8e$histo$heles, in

return !or tenty-!our years o! s$lendid li!e. &uring these years

the de#il must ser#e him and gi#e him hat he ants. The end o!

the $lay, hen death is near and >austus is !illed ith !ear, is a

highlight o! terrible descri$tion.

One o! the things that >austus orders the de#il to do !or him is

to bring back !rom the dead the beauti!ul Helen o! Troy, the cause

o! the Tro1an ar. :hen >austus sees her, his delight esca$es

!rom his li$s in these ords0

:as this the !ace that launched7 a thousand shi$s And burnt the

to$less toers o! "lium*2

Seet Helen, make me imrnortalr ith a kiss. 3isses her.5 Her

li$s suck !orth my soul% see here it !liesC

9ome, Helen, comeC i#e me my soul again ...

(, thou art !airer than the e#ening air,

9lad& in the beauty o! a thousand stars.

A sent !orth * Troy 9 undying & clothed

Such beauti!ul language is #ery di!!erent !rom the rough #erse

o! orboduc.

8arloes Edard the Second 3)B+5, $erha$s his best $lay,

deals ith English history. "t is $ossible that he hel$ed

Shakes$eare ith the riting o! $arts o! Henry the Sixth and other

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early $lays. 9ertainly 8arloes riting set an exam$le !or other

dramatists in the great Eliabethan age in to im$ortant ays0 the

use o! $oer!ul blank #erse lines to strengthen the drama, and the

de#elo$ment o! character to heighten the sense o! tragedy. :hen

Shakes$eare added to these his on mastery o! $lot ' and his

human sym$athy, the drama reached its greatest heights.

8arloe as killed in a Iuarrel at a Thames-side inn be!ore he

as thirty years o! age. "! he had li#ed longer, he ould $robably

ha#e ritten other s$lendid $lays. Shakes$eare certainly thought

so.

The order in hich the $lays o! :"LL"A8 SHAESKEA@E

ere ritten is uncertain. "n !act, e kno #ery little about his

li!e. He as born and educated at Strat!ord-on-A#on, married

Anne Hathaay in )DG, and later ent to London, here heorked in a theatre. "t is knon that he as an actor and dramatist

by )BG.

Shakes$eares earliest ork is $robably seen in certain historical

$lays. Kerha$s he began his ork as a dramatist by im$ro#ing the

ork o! other riters% the three $lays hich tell the story o! Henrythe Sixth may be an exam$le o! this. "n @ichard the Third 3"B+25

and the later @ichard the Second 3"B25 e see Shakes$eare

gradually disco#ering his $oers and mastering his art. "n the

smooth blank #erse o! @ichard the Third, the sense usually ends

ith the line0

Oh, " ha#e $assed a miserable night,

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So !ull o! ugly sights, o! ghastlyA dreams, That, as " am a

9hristian !aith!ul man,

" ould not s$end another such a night Though t ere to buy aorld o! ha$$y days. A terrible

"n @ichard the Second there is rather more !reedom. Although

the line usually ends at a natural $ause, there are times hen the

sense $ushes through !rom one line to the next0

>or ods sake, let us sit u$on the ground And tell sad stories o!the death o! kings ... All murdered% !or ithin the hollo cron

That rounds7 the mortal * tem$les7 o! a king ee$s &eath his

court

A surrounds * ha#ing only a mans li!e 9 side o! the head

The rhythm o! the blank #erse is still Iuite strictly obser#ed%

Shakes$eare has not yet de#elo$ed the masters !reedom hich

brings such !reshness and $oer to his later #erse $lays% but the

start is here.

@omeo and ?uliet 3)B6-5 is the !irst o! Shakes$eares great

tragedies. The $lot o! this story o! $ure and tragic lo#e is knon inall $arts o! the ci#ilied orld. The deaths o! @omeo and ?uliet are

necessary0 their !amilies are enemies, and death is the only ay

out o! their ho$eless situation. The tragedy is dee$ly sad and

mo#ing, but ithout the shock o! the terrible tragedies that

!olloed later.

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The !irst o! the comedies as $robably A 9omedy o! Errors

3)BG+25% its $lot de$ends on the likeness o! tins and the

likeness o! their tin ser#ants, ith the resulting con!usion. The

order o! the early comedies a!ter this may be The Taming o! the

Shre D, The To entlemen o! Ferona, and Lo#es Labours

Lost. The real ste$ !orard comes ith A 8idsummer ;ights

&ream 3)B-'5, hich shos Shakes$eares groing $oer in

comedy. The di!!erent stories o! this light-hearted $lay are mixed

together ith great skill. The !eelings o! the lo#ers are ne#eralloed to tire the audience% something really !unny alays

interru$ts them in time. *ut there is true sym$athy in the treatment

o! character, and a great deal o! beauty in many descri$ti#e lines.

The next $lay e should notice is The 8erchant o! Fenice

3)B'-5."n this, Antonio, a merchant, borros money !rom Shylock to

hel$ his !riend *assanio, ho ants to marry the rich and

beauti!ul Kortia. Shylock hates Antonio and only agrees to lend

the money on condition that, i! it is not re$aid at the right time,

Antonio shall $ay a $ound o! his !lesh. :hen Antonios shi$s are

recked, and to e#eryones sur$rise he cannot $ay the money,

Shylock demands his $ound o! !lesh. The case is taken to court,

and Antonio has no ho$e. Then suddenly Kortia, dressed as a

layer, a$$ears in court. At !irst she tries to $ersuade Shylock to

ha#e mercy, but she does not succeed, e#en ith the !amous

s$eech about mercy0

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"t Mmercy4 dro$$eth as the gentle rain !rom hea#en =$on the

$lace beneath% it is tice blessed0

"t blesseth him that gi#es and him that takes T is mightiest inthe mightiest% it becomes2 The throned monarcb better than his

cron.

A suits * king

Then Kortia hersel! becomes hard0 Shylock may ha#e his !lesh

but not one dro$ o! blood% there is nothing abou t blood in theagreement. As Shylock cannot take the !lesh ithout s$illing

some blood, Antonio is sa#ed.

The story is nonsense - no one belie#es that li#ing !lesh can

!orm $art o! an agreement at la - but the $lay is great. "t is called

a comedy, though Shylock is, in !act, badly treated. He has beencalled the !irst great Shakes$earian character, the !irst great tragic

!igure.

As


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about the characters that as not to be seen in earlier $astoral

$oetry and $lays. "t is true that nature at its most cruel is seen as

kinder than men in courts and tons0

*lo, blo, thou inter ind, Thou arr7 not so unkind

As mans ingratitude7

A you are * shoing that he is not grate!ul% unthank!ulness

*ut Touchstone is not $ersuaded0

Ay, no am " in Arden% the more !ool ". :hen " as at home, "

as in a better $lace% but tra#ellers must be content.

8uch Ado About ;othing 3)BD-B5, a ell-balanced comedy

ith good s$eeches, is also built on lo#e a!!airs% yet there is a dark

side o! the $lay hich is there but almost hidden. The a$$earanceo! a sel!ish young man ho brings sorro to others is re$eated in

the e#en darker comedy, Alls :ell that Ends :ell, the date o!

hich is uncertain.

Tel!th ;ight 3"'((25 has been called the $er!ection o! English

comedy. The hole $lay is ali#e ith humour and action. The

skill in the changes !rom bright to dark, !rom gentle to se#ere, is

matched by the skill in the arrangement o! the #erse and $rose.

The &uke Orsino belie#es that he is in lo#e ith the Lady Oli#ia,

but he is more in lo#e ith lo#e. "! music be the !ood o! lo#e, he

says at the beginning o! the $lay, $lay on. There are tins again,

and they cause con!usion hen the girl dresses like her brother.To knights, Sir Toby *elch and Sir Andre Aguecheek, $ro#ide

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amusement ith their !oolish $lans and their drinking. The $lay

contains se#eral songs. Here is one0

(, mistress mine, here are you roaming#2 (, stay and hear%your true lo#es coming, That can sing both high and lo.

Tri$7 no !urther, $retty seeting% ?ourneys end in lo#ers

meeting, E#ery ise mans son doth kno.

:hat is lo#e2 T is not herea!ter% Kresent mirth2 hath $resent

laughter% :hats to come is still unsure.

"n delay there lies no $lenty%

Then come kiss me, seet and tenty, ourth 3"B-D5 introduced the

!at knight Sir ?ohn >alsta!! to the orld. Krobably his im$ortance

in the $lay is greater than Shakes$eare at !irst intended% but he

gre to like the man, and so did his audiences, although >alsta!! is

certainly not a model o! knighthood. The young Krince Henry

3later to become ing Henry the >i!th5 astes hours drinking and

1oking ith >alsta!!, ho is $roudly $enniless, delight!ully rude,

!atly icked, onder!ully un$leasant to look at, boast!ully late !or

battles, and a cheer!ul coard ho carries a bottle e#en on the

battle!ield. :hen Henry becomes king, >alsta!! ex$ects to be

gi#en a $osition o! honour 3and an endless su$$ly o! re!reshment5by his old com$anion. :hat a shock he getsC " kno thee not old

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man is ing Henrys anser to his greeting. >all to thy $rayers.

8uch has been ritten about the cruel treatment o! >alsta!! but

Henry as king, cannot ha#e the !at old knight as a com$anion.

>alsta!! is heart-broken. Henry allos him some money, but

considers the a!!airs o! England more im$ortant than the a!!airs o!

Sir ?ohn >alsta!!.

Henry the >i!th as $er!ormed in " BB. "t is !illed ith the lo#e

o! country and the s$irit o! ar. Those ho anted to see >alsta!!

again ere disa$$ointed0 he is not there. "t is said that ueen

Eliabeth, s$eaking !or her $eo$le, demanded another $lay hich

ould sho >alsta!! in lo#e% and that Shakes$eare there!ore rote

The 8erry :i#es o! :indsor 3"(C25 in to eeks. "t is a $leasant

$lay, but ithout great im$ortance.

"t is con#enient no to consider the three @oman tragedies, andthen the !our great tragedies. ?ulius 9aesar 3" BB25 is $robably the

best Shakes$earian $lay to read !irst. "n the earliest $lays there is

not enough thought to !ill the language% the later $lays are di!!icult

because so much thought is $ressed into the language that it is not

#ery clear. "n ?ulius 9aesar the thought and the language are about

balanced. "ts structure2 is also clear0 the rise !rom the introduction

to the crisisC 3the killing o! 9aesar5 in Act """, and the gradual !all

to the tragic end o! the $lay 3the deaths o! the cons$irators)G5.

>urther, ?ulius 9aesar is not so dark and hea#y as 9oriolanus, nor

so loose as Antony and 9leo$atra.

The hero-7 is *rutus, ho 1oins 9assius and the other

cons$irators in the $lan to kill 9aesar. They belie#e that he ants

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to make himsel! king. 8uch o! the $lay is no !amous. *e!ore a

large crod o! @oman citiens Antony makes his great s$eech

o#er the body o! 9aesar. " t begins0

>riends, @omans, countrymen, lend me your earsC " come to

bury 9aesar, not to $raise him.

The e#il that men do li#es a!ter them%

The goon is o!t interred/ ith their bones.

So let it be ith 9aesar ...

A buried


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The main sub1ect o! Antony and 9leo$atra 3)'('-5 is Antonys

lo#e Ror the Egy$tian Iueen. He returns to @ome !rom Egy$t to

meet Octa#ius 9aesar, hose sister, Octa#ia, he marries.

9leo$atra is 1ealous, and Antony returns to Egy$t. Octa#ius

!ollos ith shi$s and men, and de!eats Antony at Alexandria.

Hearing 3!alsely5 that 9leo$atra is dead, Antony !alls on his

sord, is carried to 9leo$atra, and dies in her arms. She then takes

her on li!e by alloing a snake to bite her.

9oriolanus 3)'(5 concerns the li!e and death o! 9aius 8arcius

9oriolanus, a $roud @oman commander ho leads his armies

against the Folscians and beats them. On his return to @ome, he

ishes to become one o! the consuls 3rulers5 o! the city% but to

succeed in this aim, he must ask the $eo$le !or #otes. His $ride

makes this im$ossible0 he cannot beg !or #otes or !or anythingelse. He is dri#en !rom @ome !or insulting the $eo$le, comes back

ith a Folsican army to attack his on city, is met there by his

i!e and his mother, and is $ersuaded to lead the army aay. The

Folscians then kill him Ror !ailing in his duty to them.

"n each o! these tragedies, the !atal eakness o! character, and

the tragic course o! e#ents, hich together lead a great man to

ruin, are clear enough. *rutus is not a $ractical man. He lo#es

@ome more than he lo#es his !riend, 9aesar% but he is thron into

a situation here he must deal ith $ractical li!e and ar. He

makes se#eral bad mistakes. >or exam$le, he allos Antony to

s$eak to the $eo$le a!ter himsel!% and the crod remembersAntonys s$eech better because it is later. A $ractical man ould

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s$eak last to an uneducated crod. He uses reasons to sho the

crod that the murder as necessary. Antony more isely stirs u$

their !eelings.

"n the next $lay Antony is ruined because o! his lo#e o! com!ort

and lo#e. 9oriolanus is ruined by his terrible $ride. "! he had

humbly asked !or #otes, the $eo$le ould gladly ha#e chosen him

as consul% but he scorns their dirty bodies and their stu$id minds.

This recks his on li!e. 8any men are not $ractical% many men

lo#e com!ort% many men are $roud. *ut they esca$e destruction

because the course o! e#ents hel$s to hide their eaknesses.

"n Hamlet 3)'((- "5, the $rince o! that name sus$ects that his

dead !ather, ing o! &enmark, has been murdered by his uncle,

9laudius. 9laudius has become king and has married Hamlets

mother. The ghost o! Hamlets dead !ather a$$ears to him in thecastle o! Elsinore and tells him about the murder. Hamlet decides

on re#enge% but then he begins to think too much, and to hesitate.

:as the ghost telling the truth2 Hamlet must try to !ind $roo! o!

the murder. "n the crisis in Act """, Hamlet has his $roo!. *ut still

he hesitates. The $lay still holds our attention, and Hamlet kee$s

our sym$athy, but the end is certain and una#oidable.

Hamlets tragic eakness is hesitation, inability to act hen

action is needed. He is too much o! a thinker.

"n ing Lear 3"'('25 e see an old king thron out o! his home

by to icked daughters, and treated so badly that he goes madand dies. "t is $erha$s Shakes$eares greatest ork, reaching into

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the dee$est $laces o! the human s$irit% but as a $lay on the stage it

is #ery di!!icult, i! not im$ossible, to act. Lears eakness is his

o$enness to !iatter#.l7 He gi#es his kingdom to the to e#il

daughters ho !latter him, and nothing to the youngest girl, ho

tells the truth but lo#es him best.

"n 8acbeth 3)'(-'5 the hero, 8acbeth, must be considered

together ith his i!e, Lady 8acbeth. Three old itches tell

8acbeth that he ill recei#e high honours and then become king.

The high honours come, and he decides to hel$ !ate to make him

king. ing &uncan stays ith him at his castle, and he and Lady

8acbeth murder the ing% but &uncans sons, 8alcolm and

&onalbain, esca$e. 8alcolm brings an army against 8acbeth, ho

is killed. Lady 8acbeth is already dead. Here are some ords o!

8acbeth hen he hears o! her death0She should ha#e died herea!ter 7%

There ould ha#e been a time !or such a ord. Tomorro and

tomorro and tomorro

9ree$s in this $etty $ace7 !rom day to day

To the last syllable7 o! recorded time%

And all our yesterdays ha#e lighted !ools

The ay to dusty death. Out, out, brie! candle7C Li!es but a

alking shado, a $oor $layer,

That struts and !rets E his hour u$on the stage And then is heardno more% it is a tale

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Told by an idiot7, !ull o! sound and !ury,7 Signi!yingH nothing.

A A!ter this * slo s$eed 9 $art o! a ord ( short li!e

E alks $roudly and orries > !ool anger 7meaning

9om$are these lines ith the lines on $. 6) !rom @ichard the

Third. The 8acbeth s$eech has the ring o! $oer, but the metre is

treated ith the !reedom o! a master, and the sense runs !reIuently

$ast the end o! a line.

l"t "S i a tale "

" TOld " by an 7id " lot, !ull " o! sound " and !ury "

Othello 3)'(6-5 is the story o! a bra#e 8oorish commander in

9y$rus ho has a beauti!ul i!e, &esdemona. "ago, an e#il old

soldier, has seen 9assio raised in rank abo#e him, and tries tomake Othello belie#e that 9assia and &esdemona are lo#ers.

Othello too easily belie#es this, and kills &esdemona. Some critics

ha#e said that Othello has no !atal eakness% bu t such unI

uestioning 1ealousy is great eakness, e#en i! it comes !rom a

mind too noble to doubt e#il suggestions.

The main last $lays o! Shakes$eare are usually called the

romances. They are 9ymbeLine 3)'(B-)(5, The :inters Tale

3)')(-) "5, and The Tem$estJ 3)' " " - " G5. "t is generally agreed

that The Tem$est is his last com$lete $lay. All these orks are

coloured ith the idea o! !orgi#eness. There is still ickedness in

these orlds, but it is not

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the !inal ord o! the $lays. one is the #iolence o! the great

tragedies. "nstead e ha#e ha$$ier things - beauti!ul islands and

beau ti!ul girls0 "mogen in 9ymbeLine, Kerdita in The :inters

Tale, and 8iranda in The Tem$est. A s$eech in the last o! these

$lays seems to sho that Shakes$eare had decided to rite no

more. This is $art o! it0

Our re#els7 no are ended. These our actors As " !oretold *

you, ere all s$irits and

Are melted into air, into thin air ..

:e are such stu!!

As dreams are made on, 9 and our little li!e "s rounded ith a

slee$.

A amusements * told 3you5 to ex$ect 9 o!

The immense $oer and #ariety o! Shakes$eares ork ha#e led

to the idea that one man cannot ha#e ritten it all% yet it must be

true that one man did. There is usually more in the language o! the

later $lays than at !irst meets the eye. They must be read again and

again i! e ant to reach don to the bottom o! the sense. "! ane $lay is !ound and su$$osed to be by Shakes$eare, e can

decide hether it belongs to his later ork. "! it does, no one 0


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a great in!luence on it. His best knon $lay is E#ery 8an in his

Humour 3)BD5. A humour meant a Iuality made into a $erson, a

s$ecial !oolishness, or the chie! strong !eeling in a man. This is

one o! ?onsons eaknesses as a dramatist. His characters are

alking humours, and not really human. "n this $lay itely, a

merchant, has a $retty i!e and his humour is 1ealousy. He

sus$ects a young man, noell, o! ha#ing ideas about the $retty

i!e. noells !ather also has a humour0 it is anxiety about his

sons beha#iour. *obadill, a coardly soldier, is one o! ?onsonsbest-dran characters.

?onson rote about tenty $lays alone, and others ith other

$layrights. His tragedy Se1anus as $layed. at the lobe Theatre

in )'(+ by Shakes$eares com$any. Fol$one the >ox, a comedy,

as also acted at the lobe, and at the to old uni#ersities in)'('.

?onson as also one o! the best $roducers o! masIues at this or

any other time. These masIues are dramatic entertainments ith

dancing and music, hich are more im$ortant than the story and

the characters.

?onson as $roud and rude. He said, in e!!ect, Here is my $lay.

"ts good. "! you dont like it, thats your !ault. He scorne2 much.

o! the other dramatic ork o! the time, but not Shakes$eare s. O!

him ?onson said0

Soul o! the AgeC

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The a$$lauseC delightC the onder o! our stageC 8y

Shakes$eare, riseC " ill not lodge7 thee by 9haucer, or S$enser,

or bid *eaumont lie

A little !urther, to make thee a room.

Thou art a moniment ithout a tomb7,

And art ali#e still, hile thy book doth li#e, And e ha#e its2

to read, and $raise to gi#e.

A $lace 3you beside5 * gra#estone c gra#e & skill

?onson belie#ed in the unities o! $lace, time and action. That is

to say, he thought that the scenes o! a $lay ought all to be in one

$lace, or at least not too !ar !rom each other. "! the audience ere

su$$osed to tra#el a !e hundred miles beteen one scene and the

next, he did not think it reasonable. The unity o! time meant that

the e#ents o! a $lay ought not to s$read o#er more than tenty-

!our hours% and most.o!his on $lays !ollo this rule. The unity o!

action meant that nothing outside the main story should be

alloed intothe.$lay. He crossed out a !ine s$eech in the original

E#ery 8an in his Humour because it as in $raise o! $oetry anddid not suit the rest o! the action.

Among his other $lays are E#ery 8an out o! his Humour

3)BB5, E$icoene, The Silent :oman 3r'(B5, The Alchemist07

3r')O5 and *artholome >air 3r')65. They are all remarkable

$lays, but it is hard to !ind a single ordinary $erson in them.

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Other dramatists o! the time include ?OH; :E*STE@, ho

de$ended a lot on #iolence, re#enge, murder, rong-doing, and so

on. His best to $lays are The :hite &e#il 3)' " " 25 and The

&uchess o! 8 al!i 3)')65, both o! hich are !rightening. He is not

a!raid o! shoing almost unbearable su!!ering% yet his ork

contains grou$s o! ords that stay long in the mind. Among these

are, The !riendless bodies o! un buried men, !rom The :hite

&e#il, and " am &uchess o! 8al!i still and " kno death hath ten

thousand se#eral doors !or men to take their exitsC7, !rom The&uchess i! 8al!i.

>@A;9"S *EA=8O;T and ?OH; >LET9HE@ together

rote a number o! $lays at this time, and $erha$s >letcher also

orked ith Shakes$eare. :ith *eaumont he $roduced The

night o! the *urning Kestle7 3)'(5, a comedy hich hel$s themodern reader to understand the theatre and stage o! those days.

The to men also rote tragedies, such as The 8aids Tragedy

3)') "5.

Chapter Five

John Milton and his time

"t is generally agreed that the English $oet second a!ter

Shakes$eare is ?OH; 8"LTO;, born in London and educated at

9hrists 9ollege, 9ambridge. A!ter lea#ing the uni#ersity, he

studied at home in Horton, *uckinghamshire 3)'+G-5, and as

grate!ul to his !ather !or alloing him to do this instead o!$re$aring !or a $ro!ession. He li#ed a $ure li!e, belie#ing that he

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had a great $ur$ose to com$lete. At college he as knon as The

Lady o! 9hrists.

"t is con#enient to consider his orks in three di#isions. At !irst

he rote his shorter $oems at Horton. ;ext he rote mainly $rose.

His three greatest $oems belong to the last grou$.

At the age o! G+ he had still done little in li!e, as he admits in a

sonnet0

Ho soon hath time, the subtle7 thie! o! youth Stolen on his

ing my three-and-tentieth yearC 8y hasting days !ly on ith

!ull career7

And my late s$ring no bud2 or blossom2 shoeth. A secretly

cle#er * at !ull s$eed 9 young !loer ( !ull !loer

Among his other sonnets, he rote one on his on blindness0

:hen " consider ho my light is s$ent

Ere7 hal! my days, in this dark orld and ide, A be!ore 3" ha#e

li#ed5And that one talent7 hich is death to hide

Lodged ith me useless, though my soul more bent7 To ser#e

thereith2 my 8aker, and $resent

8y true account, lest he returning chide 7

&oth od exact7 day-labour, light denied2

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" !ondly7 ask. *ut Katience, to $re#ent

That murmur7, soon re$lies, od doth not need Either mans

ork or his on gi!ts% ho best *ear his mild yokel, they ser#ehim best0 his state "s kingly% thousands at his bidding5 s$eed7

And $ost0 oer land and ocean ithout rest% They also ser#e ho

only stand and ait.

* ability 3to see5 9 ishing & ith it E blame me > demand

!oolishly H com$laint " ser#ice ? orders run L rush

8iltons studies at Horton ere dee$ and ide. One o! his

notebooks contains $ieces taken !rom eighty riters - reek,

Latin, English, >rench and "talian. At the same time he as

studying music.

L Allegro 3the ha$$y man5 and "" Kenseroso 3the thought!ul

man5 3both )'+G5 are usually considered together. 3The ord

Kenseroso should be Kensieroso in good "talian.5 "n the !irst the

$oet describes the 1oys o! li!e in the country in s$ring% outside in

the !ields in the morning, but at home in the e#ening, en1oying

music and books. "n the second $oem, hich is set in the autumn,he studies during the day and goes to a great church in the e#ening

to listen to the s$lendid music.

9omus 3)'+65, also ritten at Horton, is a masIue, and Arca6es

3"'++25 $art o! one. The music !or these as ritten by Henry

Laes, a musician to ing 9harles ). Lycidas 3)'+5 is a

sorro!ul $astoral on the death by droning o! Edard ing, ho

had been a student ith 8ilton at 9ambridge. "n one $art the $oet

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argues that some men might think it useless to study hard, but the

ho$e o! !ame dri#es the s$irit onards0

:ere it not better done, as others use, To s$ort ith Amaryllisin the shade, Or ith the tangles2 o! ;eaeras hair2 A con!usion

>ame is the s$ur7 that the clear s$irit doth raise 3That last

in!irmity7 o! noble mind5

To scorn delights and li#e laborious2 days. * dri#ing !orce c

eakness & hard-orking

8iltons $rose orks ere mainly concerned ith church

a!!airs, di#orce and !reedom. 8any o! them are #iolent in

language, and ha#e neither literary #alue nor interest !or modern

readers. The arguments about religion e may neglect entirely.

The di#orce $am$hlets7 ere mainly the result o! his on hastymarriage 3)'6+5 to 8ary Koell, a girl o! se#enteen. 3"t as not a

success.5

His best $rose ork is $robably the Areo$agitica 3)'665, A

S$eech !or the Liberty o! =nlicensed Krinting. This is good

riting, and it contains little o! the #iolent language o! the other$am$hlets. 9alm reasoning and smooth ords go together, and the

style is !airly sim$le. 8iltons sincere belie! in the im$ortance o!

!reedom o! riting and s$eech !ills the book ith honest !eeling.

Here are three sa yings taken !rom it0

O$inion in good men is but knoledge in the making. He ho

destroys a good book kills reason itsel!.

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A good book is the $recious li!e-blood o! a master s$irit.

The English ci#il + ar beteen 9harles " and Karliament

39romell5 began in )'6G and lasted until )'6'% and it as!olloed by the second ci#il ar, )'6D-). &uring these years

8ilton orked hard at his $am$hlets, su$$orted 9romell, and

became a minister o! the go#ernment. His eyesight began to !ail,

and by )' " he as totally blind. He became un$o$ular hen

9harles "" as made king 3)''(5, but it as !rom this time

onards that he rote his three greatest orks.

He considered se#eral sub1ects !or his great $oem, and at one

time anted to rite on ing Arthur% but he !inally chose the !all

o! the angels, the story o! Adam and E#e, and their !ailure to kee$

ods commands. This great e$ic $oem, Karadise 6 Lost 3!irst

$rinted in )'' and sold !or )(5 as $lanned in ten books, butritten in tel#e. The scene is the hole uni#erse, including

Hea#en and Hell. 8iltons s$lendid #oice can be heard here at its

best, in the great blank #erse, strengthened by his immense

learning and ornamented by all the skill o! a master $oet. Hell is

described like this0

A dungeon7 horrible7, on all sides round

As one great !urnace2 !lamed - yet !rom those !lames ;o light,

but rather darkness #isible2

Ser#ed only to disco#er sights o! oe

@egions7 o! sorro, dole!ul! shades, here $eace And rest can

ne#er dell7, ho$e ne#er comes That comes to all.

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A $rison * terrible c !ierce !ire ( hich can be seen E sorro >

$laces sad H li#e

Karadise Lost contains hundreds o! remarkable thoughts $ut intomusical #erse. The !olloing are some o! these0

The mind is its on $lace, and in itsel!

9an make a hea#en o! hell, a hell o! hea#en.

3*ook ", G6.5

*etter to reign7 in hell than ser#e in hea#en.

A rule 3*ook ", G'+.5

>or ho ould lose

Though !ull o! $ain, this intellectual7 being These thoughts that

ander through eterniry72

A o! the mind * endless time 3*ook G, )6'.5

Long is the ay

And hard, that out o! hell leads u$ to light.

3*ook G, 6+G.5 So !areell7 ho$e, and ith ho$e !areell !ear.

A good-bye 3*ook 6, )(D.5

Like 8arloe, 8ilton understood the beauty o! $ro$er names.

There are many exam$les o! this in Karadise Lost. Here are three0

Thick as autumnal lea#es that stre7 the brooks7 "nFallombrosa, here the Etrurian shades

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High o#er-arched emboer7

A co#er * streams c !orm a roo!

All ho since ...

?oustedA in As$ramont or 8ontalban, &amaseo, or 8aroeeo, or

Trebisond,

Or hom *iserta sent !rom A!rie shore :hen 9harlernain ith

all his $eerage !ell *y >ontarabbia.

A !ought as knights do * nobles 3*ook ", DG5

As hen to them ho sail

*eyond the 9a$e o! Ho$e and no are $ast 8oambic, o!! at

sea north-east inds blo Sabaean odours7 !rom the s$icy7 shore

O! Araby the *lest.

A smells * seet-smelling 3*ook 6, )B5

Karadise @egained 3$ublished )' "5 is more se#ere, less

s$lendid than Karadise Lost5 yet occasionally it also shos the

same use o! names. These call u$ rich images !or the reader to

hom the# are !amiliar and add to the $oer and beauty o! the

sound hen the lines are read aloud0

O! !aery damsels7 met in !orest ide *y knights o! Logres* or

o! Lyories7, Lancelot, 9 or Kelleas, 9 or Kellenore. 9

c s$irit-like girls * countries in the stories o! ing Arthurknights o! mg Arthurs @ound Table *ook ).5

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Samson Agonistes 3)' "5, a tragedy on the reek model,

describes the last days o! Samson, hen he is blind and a $risoner

o! the Khilistines at aa. He is !orced to go aay to $ro#ide

amusement !or the Khilistine lords% but later a messenger arri#es to

say that Samson has $ulled don the hole theatre on their heads

and his on. 8ilton had no been blind !or about tenty years,

and about three years later he died. Samsons sorros no doubt

reminded him o! his on, and some o! the lines o! Samson

$robably re!lect 8iltons $ersonal !eelings0

A little onard lend thy guiding hand To these dark ste$s, a

little !urther on.

o dark, dark, dark, amid the blae2 o! noon "rreco#erably7 dark,

total ecli$se7,

:ithout all ho$e o! day.

And " shall shortly7 be ith them that rest. A brightness *

ithout cure c darkening & soon

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Out u$on itCA " ha#e lo#ed Three hole days together, And am

like to lo#e thee more "! it $ro#e. !air eather.

Acurse *is

@O*E@T HE@@"9 as considered by the men o! his on

time to be the best li#ing lyric $oet. He rites ell about the

English country and its !loers. His lo#e songs are also seet0

" dare not ask a kiss%

" dare not beg a smile% Lest ha#ing that or this,

" might gro $roud the hile.

;o, no, the utmost7 share O! my desire shall be Only to kiss that

air

That lately kissed thee.

A greatest

3TO ELE9T@A5

it, the ability to use language in a cle#er and amusing ay% a

it, a $erson res$ected !or this ability% ad1. itty.

At a bout this time E&8=;& :ALLE@ rote some o! the

earliest heroic cou$lets, a !orm o! #erse hich as idely used in

the next hundred and !i!ty years.

"n this metre a cou$let is a $air o! lines, rhyming and o! !i#e

iambic !eet. :aller rote His 8a1estys Esca$e in the metre,$robably about )'G. He has been honoured !or in#enting the

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heroic cou$let but there are other $oets !or hom the claim is

made. They include Shakes$eare, ho rote in Othello, long

be!ore :allers $oem0

She that as e#er !air and ne#er $roud%

Had tongue at ill, and yet as ne#er loud% ;e#er lacked gold

and yet ent ne#er gay,

>led2 !rom her ish, and yet said, ;o " may. She that, being

angered, her re#enge being nigh,* *ade2 her rong stay, and herdis$leasure !ly.

A ran aay * near c ordered 3OTHELLO Act G, Scene ".5

*e!ore lea#ing the $oetry o! the $eriod ' e should notice the

$oem 9oo$ers Hill, ritten by S"@ ?OH; &E;HA8 and

$ublished in )'6G.

"n beteen descri$tions o! the English countryside are

&enhams thoughts on #arious sub1ects. >our lines on the @i#er

Thames are ell knon0

o could " !lo like thee and make thy stream 8y great exam$le,

as it is my theme/7l

Though dee$, yet clear% though gentle, yet not dull% Strong

ithout rage% ithout oer!loing !ull.

A sub1ect

A small book in $rose, 8icrocosmogra$hie 3)'GD5 by ?OH;EA@LE, o!!ered character studies o! ordinary $eo$le. "t is

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[ ]im$ortant because the descri$tion o! characters o! this sort as a

basis !or characterriting in the no#el, not yet born.

S"@ THO8AS *@O:;E, a doctor, rote in his di!!icult,learned and $olished style on #arious sub1ects. His @eligio 8edici

3)'6G5 is a book on religion but includes o$inions on many other

sub1ects. Fulgar Errors, his longest ork, is a study o! the

mistaken belie!s o! the $oorly educated, such as the idea that an

ele$hants legs ha#e no 1oints.

The $eriod $roduced a number o! #ery interesting biogra$hies.

A good exam$le is the li!e o! his !riend ?ohn &onne, the $oet,

ritten in )'6( by "QAA :ALTO;. "t as ritten in excellent

$rose, but it is also interesting as a sources o! in!ormation on the

social history o! the time. The ork by "aak :alton that is still

idely read and lo#ed is the 9om$leat Angler 3)'+5, a $rosediscussion o! the art o! ri#er !ishing hich includes lo#ing

descri$tions o! ri#erside scenery and breaks o!! !or #erse and

songs and then !or ad#ice on $re$aring and cooking the !ish0

This dish o! meat7 is too good !or any but anglers, * or #ery

honest men.

A cooked !ish * men ho !ish ith rod and line

The closing o! the theatres in )'6G meant that no im$ortant

drama as $roduced in the years be!ore )''(

58

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