history of moldova

8/2/2019 History of Moldova

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History of Moldova 1

History of Moldova

The history of Moldova can be traced to the 1350s, when the Principality of Moldavia, the medieval precursor of

modern Moldova and Romania, was founded. In 1812, following one of several Russian-Turkish wars, the eastern

half of the principality, Bessarabia (where most of today's Moldova is located), was annexed by the Russian Empire.

In 1918, Bessarabia briefly became independent as the Moldavian Democratic Republic and united with Romania. In1940 it was annexed by the Soviet Union, joined to the Moldavian ASSR, and became the Moldavian Soviet

Socialist Republic until the dissolution of the USSR. In 1991 the country declared independence as the Republic of

Moldova.

Prehistory

During prehistoric times there was a succession of cultures that flourished in the land of present-day Moldova from

the end of the Ice age up through the Neolithic Age, the Copper Age, the Bronze Age, and the beginning of the Iron

Age, when historical records begin to be made about the people who lived in these lands. These cultures included the

Linear Pottery culture (ca. 55004500 BC), the Yamna culture (ca. 36002300 BC), and the Cucuteni-Trypillianculture (ca. 55002750 BC). During this period of time many innovations and advancements were made, including

the practice of agriculture, animal husbandry, kiln-fired pottery, weaving, and the formation of large settlements and

towns. Indeed, during the Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture, some of the settlements in this area were larger than

anywhere on Earth at the time, and they predate even the earliest towns of Sumer in the Mesopotamia. The area,

stretching from the Dnieper River in the east to the Iron Gate of the Danube in the west (which included the land

now in Moldova), had a civilization as highly advanced as anywhere else on Earth during the Neolithic period.[1]

The question as to why this area did not remain at the forefront of technological and social development lies in the

subsequent history of its geographical location at the end of the mostly peaceful Neolithic period, this area became

a highway for invaders from the east moving into Europe. By the time the historical written record begins to cover

this area, it has already seen a number of invasions sweep over it, leaving social and political upheaval in their wake.This trend was to continue on a fairly regular basis up until the 20th century. With so much destruction, it was

difficult for the residents of this area to recover from each successive invasion before encountering the next wave to

wash over them. However, the few societies in this area that managed to survive for a while through these turbulent

centuries left behind a culture and history that are rich and dramatic.

Cucuteni-Trypillia Culture

The Roman provinces of Dacia (purple) and

Moesia Inferior (green)

The lands of the lower Danube in Roman times,

Droysens Historical Atlas, 1886
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Antiquity and early middle ages

In recorded antiquity Moldova's territory was inhabited by several tribes, mainly by Dacians, and at different periods

also by Bastarnae, Scythians and Sarmatians. Between the I and VII centuries CE, the south was intermittently under

the Roman, then Byzantine Empires. Due to its strategic location on a route between Asia and Europe, Moldova was

repeatedly invaded, among others, by the Goths, Huns, Avars, Magyars, Kievan Rus', Pechenegs, Cumans, and the

Mongols. The First Bulgarian Empire and the colonists of the Genoa Republic also left a trace in this region.

Principality of Moldavia

Stephen the Great and

Cpriana monastery

The medieval Principality of Moldavia was established in 1359 and covered the so-called

CarpathianDanubeDniester area, stretching from Transylvania in the west to the

Dniester River in the east.[2] Its territory comprised the present-day territory of the

Republic of Moldova, the eastern 8 of the 41 counties of Romania (a region still called

Moldova by the local population), the Chernivtsi oblast and Budjak region of Ukraine. Its

nucleus was in the northwestern part, the ara de Sus ("Upper Land"), part of which later

became known as Bukovina. The name of the principality originates from the MoldovaRiver.

Moldavia and the modern boundaries

The foundation of Moldavia is attributed to

the Vlach noblemen Drago of Bedeu, from

Maramure, who had been ordered in 1343(1345 according to other sources) by the

Hungarian king Louis of Anjou to establish

a defense for the historic Kingdom of

Hungary against the Tatars, and Bogdan I of

Cuhea, Maramure, who became the first

independent prince of Moldavia, when he

rejected Hungarian authority in 1359. The

greatest Moldavian personality was prince

Stephen the Great, who ruled from 1457 to

1504.

Soroca in the 1780s

Stephen III was succeeded by increasingly weaker princes, and in 1538

Moldavia became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, to which it owed a

percentage of the internal revenue, that in time rose to 10%. Moldavia

was forbidden to have foreign relations to the detriment of the Ottoman

Empire (although at times the country managed to circumvent this

interdiction), but was allowed internal autonomy, including sole

authority over foreign trade. Turks were legally forbidden to own land
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or build religious establishments in Moldavia. Prince Vasile Lupu had secured the Moldavian throne in 1634 after a

series of complicated intrigues, and managed to hold it for twenty years. Lupu was a capable administrator and a

brilliant financier, and soon was the richest man in the Christian East. Judiciously placed gifts kept him on good

terms with the Ottoman authorities.[3][4]

In the XVIII century, the territory of Moldavia often became a transit or war zone during conflicts between the

Ottomans, Austrians, and Russians. In 1774, following a victory in a war against the Ottomans, Russia became aprotector of the Christian Moldavia, still a vassal of the Ottoman Empire at the time. [5] In 1775, the Habsburg

Monarchy annexed ca 11% of the territory of Moldavia, which became known as Bukovina. By the Treaty of

Bucharest following the Russo-Turkish War (18061812), Russia has annexed further 50% of its territory, which

became known as Bessarabia.

Part of the Russian Empire

Gubernya of Bessarabia, 1883

With the notable exception of Transnistria, the territory of

today's Republic of Moldova covers most of the historical

region of Bessarabia. Until 1812, the term "Bessarabia"

referred to the region between the Danube, Dniester, the

Black Sea shores, and the Upper Trajan Wall, slightly

larger than what today is called Budjak. By the Treaty of

Bucharest of May 28, 1812 between the Ottoman Empire

and the Russian Empire concluding the Russo-Turkish

War, 1806-1812 the latter annexed the eastern half of

the Principality of Moldavia.[6] That region was then

calledBessarabia.[7]

Initially, after being annexed by the Russian Empire,

Bessarabia enjoyed a period of local autonomy until 1828.Organized as an imperial district (oblast), it was governed

by a "provisional government" with 2 departments: a civil

administration and a religious administration, the former

led by the aged Moldavian boyar Scarlat Sturdza, the

latter by the metropolitan archbishop Gavriil

Bnulescu-Bodoni. On top of these was the Russian

military administration of Governor General Harting.

However, already in 1813, the civil administration was

handed to the Governor General. In 1818, reform-minded

Russian tsar Alexander I passed a Settlement of the

establishment of the region of Bessarabia which divided

the legal power between the tsar-appointed Governor General (Bakhmetiev) and a 10-memberHigh Council of the

Region with 4 members appointed by the tsar and 6 elected by the local nobility. In lieu of the older 12 lands, the

region was divided into 6, later 9 counties. In 1828 however, the conservative tsar Nikolai I abrogated the Settlement

and passed a new regulation which endowed the Governor General with supreme power, with the regional council

having only advisory functions and meeting twice a year. Article 63 of the regulation stated that all administrative

personnel must know and perform their duties in Russian. Nevertheless, Romanian language would occasionally

appear in documents up to 1854.[8]

At the end of the Crimean War, in 1856, by the Treaty of Paris, two districts of southern Bessarabia Cahul andIsmail were returned to Moldavia, and Russia lost access to the Danube river. In 1859, the Principalities of
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Moldavia and Wallachia united and formed the Kingdom of Romania, a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire.

In 1870, the institution of zemstva was instated in the Bessarabian oblast. Cities, communes, counties, and the entire

region would elect each a local council representing noblemen, merchants and peasants. They had substantial

authority in economic and sanitary areas, including roads, posts, food, public safety. On the other hand, political

(including justice courts of all levels) and cultural matters remained an exclusive domain of the Governor General

and were used as a vehicle of Russification. With the accomplishment of these introductions, in 1871, Bessarabiawas transformed into a governorate.[9]

The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War 18771878 and the subsequent signing of the Treaty of

Berlin granted independence to the Kingdom of Romania.[6] Although the treaty of alliance between Romania and

Russia specified that Russia would defend the territorial integrity of Romania and not claim any part of Romania at

the end of the war, the southern part of Bessarabia was re-annexed to Russia. In exchange, Romania was given

Dobruja, which was at the time part of the Ottoman Empire.[10]

Mzrache Church in the 19th century

Public education was entrusted to the religious establishment of the

region, which since 1821 had only Russian archbishops. Dimitrie

Sulima (Archbishop in 18211855), and Antonie Shokotov

(18551871) allowed the parallel usage of both Romanian and Russianin church, and did not take any measures to infringe upon the linguistic

specifics of the region. With the appointment of Pavel Lebedev

(18711882), the situation changed radically, and the language of the

locals was soon purged from the church. To prevent the printing of

religious literature in Romanian, Lebedev closed down the printing

press in Chiinu, collected from the region and burned the already

printed books in Romanian (in Slavonic Cyrillic alphabet). The following archbishops Sergey Lapidevsky, Isakyi

Polozensky, Neofit Novodchikov eased some of Lebedev's measures to help quell the serious dissatisfaction of the

population. The next Archbishop Iakov Pyatnitsky (18981904) discovered that his desire to popularize a Christian

culture and a moral education faced a language barrier, and in 1900 convinced the Russian High Synod to allow the

publication of religious pamphlets in Romanian, while his follower Archbishop Vladimir allowed the printing of

books, and from 1908 even of a regular religious journal "Lumintorul" by Constantin Popovici and Gurie Grosu.

The last Russian Archbishops, Serafim Chichyagov (19081914), Platon (19141915) and Atanasy (19151918)

tried to preserve the privileged status of the Russian language in the church in Bessarabia, but did not introduce any

new anti-Romanian measures. Left by the last Russian Archbishop on June 23, 1918, the archbishopric was entrusted

to the Bishop Nicodem de Hui from Romania, who appointed a local Archbishop Dionisie Erhan. Then the Clerical

Congress on February 21, 1920 elected Gurie Botoneanu as the highest church official in Bessarabia, which

afterwards was restored from Archbishop to Metropolitan.[11]
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Gavriil Bnulescu-Bodoni

Under the protection of Gavriil Bnulescu-Bodoni and Dimitrie Sulima a

theological school and a seminary were opened in Chiinu, and public

schools throughout the region: in the cities of Chiinu, Hotin, Cetatea Alb,

Briceni, Bender, Bli, Cahul, Soroca, Orhei, at the monasteries of Dobrua

and Hrjauca, and even in several villages (Rezeni, Mereni, Volcine,

Nisporeni, Hrtop). In 1835, the tsarist authorities declared a 7-year deadlineto transfer the education from Romanian to Russian. Although the measure

was implemented more gradually, since 1867, Romanian was purged entirely

from the education. This had the effect of keeping the peasant population of

Bessarabia backward, as witnessed by the fact that in 1912 Moldavians had a

literacy rate of only 10.5%, lowest among all ethnic groups of the region

(63% for Bessarabian Germans, 50% for Bessarabian Jews, 40% for

Russians, 31% for Bessarabian Bulgarians), with a record low 1.7% literacy

rate for Moldavian women. Of the 1709 primary schools in Bessarabia in

1912, none was in the language of the main ethnic group.[12]

During 18121914, a series of colonizations were made in Bessarabia by the Russian authorities. German colonists

from Switzerland (canton Lausanne), France, and Germany (Wrttemberg) settled in 27 localities (most newly

settled) in Budjak, and by 1856 Bessarabian Germans were 42,216. Russian veterans of the 18281829 war with the

Ottomans were settled in 10 localities in Budjak, and 3 other localities were settled by Cossacks from Dobrudja

(which got there from the Dniepr region some 50 years earlier). Bessarabian Bulgarians and Gagauz arrived from

modern eastern Bulgaria as early as the second half of the 18th century. In 1817, they numbered 482 families in 12

localities, in 1856 115,000 people in 43 localities. The above settlements were performed under the supervision of

the Tsarist authorities. Ukrainians had arrived Bessarabia since before 1812, and already in 1820s they made up 1/3

of the population of the most northern Hotin county. In the following decades more Ukrainians settled throughout

the northern part of Bessarabia from Galicia and Podolia. Jews from Galicia, Podolia and Poland also settled in

Bessarabia in the 19th century, but mostly in the cities and fairs; in some of these they eventually became a plurality.

In 1856, there were 78,751 Bessarabian Jews. There was even an attempt by the Russian authorities to create 16

Jewish agricultural colonies, where 10,589 people would settle. However within less than 2 generations, most of

them sold the land to the local Moldavians and moved to the cities and fairs.[13]

Chiinu water carrier

Upon annexation, after the expulsion of the large Nogai Tatar

population of Budjak (Little Tartary),[14] the population of Bessarabia

was predominantly Romanian.[15] The colonization of the region in the

19th century, generated by the need to better exploit the resources of

the land,[16] and by the absence of serfdom in Bessarabia,[17] lead to an

increase in the Russian, Ukrainian, Lipovan, and Cossack populationsin the region; this, together with a large influx of Bulgarian

immigrants, saw an increase of the Slavic population to more than a

fifth of the total population by 1920.[18] With the settling of other

nationals such as Gagauz, Jews, and Germans, the proportion of the Moldovan population decreased from around

86%[19] to 52% according to some sources,[20] or to 70% by others[21] during the course of the century. According to

the Imperial Russian census of 1897, the capital Kishinev had a Jewish population of 50,000, or 46%, out of a total

of approximately 110,000.[22]
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Moldavian Democratic Republic and Union with Romania

Declaration of unification

of Bessarabia and Romania

After the Russian Revolution of 1905, a Romanian nationalist movement started to

develop in Bessarabia. While it received a setback in 19061907, the movement

re-emerged even stronger in 1917.[23]

Sfatul rii members

To quell the chaos brought about by the Russian revolutions of

February and October 1917, a national council, Sfatul rii, was

established in Bessarabia, with 120 members elected in county

meetings of peasants, and by political and professional organizations

from Bessarabia. On December 15, 1917, the Council proclaimed the

Moldavian Democratic Republic, as part of the Russian Republic, then

formed the government of Moldavia. At the request of the Sfatul

rii,[24][25][26] approved by the Allies and the Russian White general

Dmitriy Shcherbachov, commander-in-chief of the Russian forces on

the Romanian Front, on January 26, 1918, Romanian troops entered

Bessarabia to help maintain security, which had deteriorated due to

large numbers of deserters from the Russian Army.[27] [28] The presence of the Romanian army in Bessarabia has

caused tension within the Council, with some of its members, notably Ion Incule, president of Sfatul rii and

Pantelimon Erhan, head of the provisional Moldavian executive protesting against it.[29] In particular they feared that

big land owners-dominated Romanian Government could use the troops to prevent the envisaged Agrarian reform, a

cornerstone priority of the Bessarabian government.[30]

After this, the Council declared the independence of the Moldavian Democratic Republic on February 6 [O.S. January

24] 1918. Under pressure from the Romanian army,[31][32] on April 9 [O.S. March 27] 1918, Sfatul rii, by a vote of 86

to 3, with 36 abstentions, approved the Union of Bessarabia with Romania. The union was recognized by Britain,France and Italy, but not by the Soviet government, which claimed the area as the Bessarabian Soviet Socialist

Republic, and argued the union was made under conditions of Romanian military occupation by a Council that had

not been elected by the people of Bessarabia in elections.[33]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bessarabian_Soviet_Socialist_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bessarabian_Soviet_Socialist_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Union_of_Bessarabia_with_Romaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Style_and_New_Style_dateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Style_and_New_Style_dateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pantelimon_Erhanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ion_Incule%C5%A3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bessarabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dmitriy_Shcherbachovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_Whitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_Democratic_Federative_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldavian_Democratic_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sfatul_%C5%A2%C4%83riihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_Revolution_%281917%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_Revolution_%281917%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ASfatul_%C5%A2%C4%83rii_members%2C_1918.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sfatul_%C5%A2%C4%83riihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_Revolution_of_1905http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AUnification_of_Romania_&_Bessarabia.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Union_of_Bessarabia_with_Romaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Union_of_Bessarabia_with_Romania


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Interwar period

After 1918 Bessarabia was under

Romanian jurisdiction for the next 22

years. This fact was recognized in the

1920 Treaty of Paris[34] which,

however, has never come into forcesince it was not ratified by Japan.[35]

The newly communist Russia did not

recognize the Romanian rule over

Bessarabia.[36] The Bessarabian Soviet

Socialist Republic was proclaimed on

May 5, 1919 in Odessa as a

"Provisional Workers' and Peasants'

Government in exile" and established

on May 11, 1919 in Tiraspol as an

autonomous part of Russian SFSR.[37]

Furthermore, Russia and later, the

Soviet Union, considered the region to be Soviet territory under foreign occupation and conducted numerous

diplomatic attempts to reclaim it. No diplomatic relations existed between the two states until 1934. During that

time, both countries subscribed to the principle of non-violent resolution of territorial disputes in the Kellogg-Briand

Treaty of 1928 and the Treaty of London of July 1933. Meanwhile, the neighboring region of Transnistria, part of

the Ukrainian SSR at the time, was formed into the Moldavian ASSR after the failure of the Tatarbunary Uprising in

1924.[38]

Stephen the Great Monument in

Downtown Chiinu

The land reform, implemented by Sfatul rii in 19181919, resulted in a rise

of a middle class, as 87% of the region's population lived in rural areas.Together with peace and favorable economic circumstances, this reform

resulted in a small economic boom. However, urban development and industry

were insignificant, and the region remained primarily an agrarian rural region

throughout the interwar period.[39] Certain improvements were achieved in the

area of education, the literacy rate rising from 15.6% in 1897[40] to 37% by

1930; however, Bessarabia continued to lag behind the rest of the country, the

national literacy rate being 60%.[39] During the inter-war period, Romanian

authorities also conducted a program of Romanianization that sought to

assimilate ethnic minorities throughout the country. The enforcement of this

policy was especially pervasive in Bessarabia due to its highly diversepopulation, and resulted in the closure of minority educational and cultural

institutions.[41]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romanianizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ruralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Land_reformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AStephen_the_Great_Monument.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Downtown_Chi%C5%9Fin%C4%83uhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephen_the_Great_Monumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tatarbunary_Uprisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldavian_ASSRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ukrainian_SSRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transnistriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=London_Convention_on_the_Definition_of_Aggressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kellogg-Briand_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kellogg-Briand_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_SFSRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiraspolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Odessahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bessarabian_Soviet_Socialist_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bessarabian_Soviet_Socialist_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Paris_%281920%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AGreater_Romania.svg


8/18


Museum of Fine Arts, 1939

On 1 January 1919 the Municipal Conservatory (the Academy of

Music) was created in Chiinu, in 1927 the Faculty of Theology, in

1934 the subsidiary of the Romanian Institute of social sciences, in

1939 municipal picture gallery. The Agricultural State University of

Moldova was founded in 1933 in Chiinu. The Museum of Fine Arts

was founded in 1939 by the sculptor Alexandru Plmdeal. GurieGrosu was the first Metropolitan of Bessarabia.

The first scheduled flights to Chiinu started on 24 June 1926, on the

route Bucharest Galai Iai Chiinu. The flights were operated

by Compagnie Franco-Roumaine de Navigation Arienne CFRNA,

later LARES.[42]

The first society of the Romanian writers in Chiinu was formed in 1920, among the members were Mihail

Sadoveanu, tefan Ciobanu, Tudor Pamfile, Nicolae Dunreanu, N.N.Beldiceanu, Apostol D.Culea. Writer and

Journalist Bessarabian Society took an institutionalized form in 1940. The First Congress of the Society elected as

president Pan Halippa as Vice President Nicolae Sptaru, and as secretary general Nicolae Costenco.

Viaa Basarabiei was founded in 1932 by Pan Halippa. Radio Basarabia was launched on 8 October 1939, as the

second radio station of the Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company. The Capitoline Wolf was opened in 1926 and in

1928 the Stephen the Great Monument, by the sculptor Alexandru Plmdeal, was opened.

World War II and Soviet era

Ukrainian SSR in 1933, after the Peace of Riga and the

consolidation of USSR. Note the rose border line

showing the Soviet claim over the former Russian

Governorate of Bessarabia

After the establishment of the Soviet Union in December 1922, the

Soviet government moved in 1924 to establish the Moldavian

Autonomous Oblast on the lands to the east of the Dniester River

in the Ukrainian SSR. The capital of the oblast was Balta, situatedin present-day Ukraine. Seven months later, the oblast was

upgraded to the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic

(Moldavian ASSR or MASSR), even though its population was

only 30% ethnic Romanian. The capital remained at Balta until

1929, when it was moved to Tiraspol.[43]

In the secret protocol attached to the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop

Pact defining the division of the spheres of influence in Eastern

Europe, Nazi Germany declared it had no political interest in

Bessarabia, in response to the Soviet Union's expression of

interest, thereby consigning Bessarabia to the Soviet "sphere". OnJune 26, 1940 the Soviet government issued an ultimatum to the Romanian minister in Moscow, demanding

Romania immediately cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Italy and Germany, which needed a stable Romania

and access to its oil fields, urged King Carol II to do so. On June 28, Soviet troops crossed the Dniester and occupied

Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertza region.[44]
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Tiraspol, 1941

The Soviet republic created following annexation did not follow

Bessarabia's traditional border. The Moldovan Soviet Socialist

Republic (Moldovan SSR), established on August 2, 1940, consisted of

six and a half counties of Bessarabia joined with the westernmost part

of the already extant MASSR (an autonomous entity within the

Ukrainian SSR). Various changes were made to its borders, whichwere finally settled by November 1940. Territories where ethnic

Ukrainians formed a large portion of the population (parts of Northern

Bukovina and parts of Hotin, Akkerman, and Izmail) went to Ukraine,

while a small strip of Transnistria east of the Dniester with a significant (49% of inhabitants) Moldovan population

was joined to the MSSR. The transfer of Bessarabia's Black Sea and Danube frontage to Ukraine insured its control

by a stable Soviet republic. This transfer, along with the division of Bessarabia, was also designed to discourage

future Romanian claims and irredentism.[45]

Romanian Army R35 tanks entering Chiinu in

1941.

Under early Soviet rule, deportations of locals to the northern Urals, to

Siberia, and Kazakhstan occurred regularly throughout the Stalinist

period, with the largest ones on 1213 June 1941, and 56 July 1949,

accounting for 19,000 and 35,000 deportees respectively (from MSSR

alone).[46] In 19401941, ca. 90,000 inhabitants of the annexed

territories were subject to political persecutions, such as arrests,

deportations, or executions.[47] In 1946, as a result of a severe drought

and excessive delivery quota obligations and requisitions imposed by

the Soviet government, the southwestern part of the USSR suffered

from a major famine resulting in 216,000 deaths and about 350,000

cases of dystrophy in the Moldavian SSR alone. In 194453, there

were numerous anti-Communist armed resistance groups active in Moldova; however the NKVD and later MGB

managed to arrest, execute or deport most of them and their power base.

By participating in the 1941 Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania seized the lost territories of Bessarabia,

Northern Bukovina, as well as those of the former MASSR, and established its administration there. In occupied

Transnistria, Romanian forces, working with the Germans, deported ca. 147,000 Jews from the territories of

Bessarabia and Bukovina, of whom over 90,000 perished in ghettoes and concentration camps.[48]

By April 1944, successful offensives of the Red Army recaptured northern Moldavia and Transnistria, and in August

1944 the entire territory was under Soviet control. The Paris peace treaty signed in February 1947 fixed the

Romanian-Soviet border to the one established in June 1940.[49][50]

The territory remained part of the Soviet Union after World War II as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.

Several social and economic groups were targeted to be executed, imprisoned, and deported to Siberia due to their

economic situation, political views, or ties to the former regime. Secret police struck at dissenting people and groups.

Over the years, the state imposed a harsh denationalization policy toward the ethnic majority,[51] while ethnic

Russians and Ukrainians were encouraged to immigrate to the Moldavian SSR, especially to large cities and to

Transnistria, to cover the lack of personnel in the newly-established industries. Most of these industries were built in

Transnistria and around large cities, while in the rest of the republic agriculture was developed. By the late Soviet

period, the urban intelligentsia and government officials were dominated mostly by ethnic Moldovans, while

Russians and Ukrainians made up most of the technical and engineering specialists.[52]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transnistriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1947_Paris_peace_treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transnistria_%28World_War_II%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transnistria_%28World_War_II%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Barbarossahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ministry_for_State_Security_%28USSR%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NKVDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dystrophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stalinismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siberiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ural_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ARomanian_tanks_chisinau.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chi%C5%9Fin%C4%83uhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renault_R35http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irredentismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Izmailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Akkermanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_Bukovinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_Bukovinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldovan_Soviet_Socialist_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldovan_Soviet_Socialist_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ATiraspol_2.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiraspol


10/18


Agriculture in Moldova, 1941

The conditions imposed during the reestablishment of Soviet rule

became the basis of deep resentment toward Soviet authorities,

manifested in numerous resistance movements to Soviet rule.[53]

During Leonid Brezhnev's 19501952 tenure as the First Secretary of

the Communist Party of Moldavia (CPM), he was ruthless comparing

to his predecessor Nicolae Coval in putting down numerous resistancegroups, and issuing harsh sentences.[54] A wave of repression was

aimed at the Romanian intellectuals who decided to remain in Moldova

after the war. During the Operation North, 723 families (2,617 persons)

were deported from the Moldavian SSR, on the night of March 31 to April 1, 1951, members of neoprotestant sects,

mostly Jehovah's Witnesses, qualified as religious elements considered a potential danger for the communist

regime.[55][56]

Romanian Literature Museum, Chiinu

Most political and academic positions were given to members of

non-Romanian ethnic groups (only 17.5% of the Moldavian SSR's

political leaders were ethnic Romanians in 1940).[57][58]

Although Brezhnev and other CPM first secretaries were largely

successful in suppressing Romanian irredentism in 1950s1980s,

Mikhail Gorbachev's administration facilitated the revival of the

movement in the region. His policies of glasnost and perestroika

created conditions in which national feelings could be openly

expressed and in which the Soviet republics could consider reforms.[59]

In 1970s and '80s Moldova received substantial investment from the budget of the USSR to develop industrial,

scientific facilities, as well as housing. In 1971 the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decision "About the

measures for further development of Kishinev city" that secured more than one billion rubles of funds for Chiinu

alone from the USSR budget. Subsequent decisions directed large amounts of funds and brought qualified specialistsfrom all over the USSR to further develop the Moldavian SSR.[60] Such an allocation of USSR assets was influenced

by the fact that the-then leader of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev, was the First Secretary of the local

Communist Party in the 1950s. These investments stopped in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when

Moldova became independent.

Triumphal arch

Independence

Gaining independence

In the climate of Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika and glasnost,

national sentiment escalated in the Moldavian SSR in 1988. In 1989,

the Popular Front of Moldova was formed as an association of

independent cultural and political groups and gained official

recognition. The Popular Front organized a number of large

demonstrations, which led to the designation of Moldovan as the

official language of the MSSR on August 31, 1989 and a return to the

Latin alphabet.[61]

However, opposition was growing to the increasingly exclusionary nationalist policies of the Popular Front, [61]

especially in Transnistria, where the Yedinstvo-Unitatea (Unity) Intermovement had been formed in 1988 by Slavicminorities,[62] and in the south, where the organization Gagauz Halk (Gagauz People), formed in November 1989,
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came to represent the Gagauz, a Turkic-speaking minority there.

The first democratic elections to the Moldavian SSR's Supreme Soviet were held on February 25, 1990. Runoff

elections were held in March. The Popular Front won a majority of the votes. After the elections, Mircea Snegur, a

reformed communist, was elected chairman of the Supreme Soviet; in September he became president of the

republic. The reformist government that took over in May 1990 made many changes that did not please the

minorities, including changing the republic's name in June from the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic to theSoviet Socialist Republic of Moldova and declaring it sovereign the following month. At the same time, Romanian

tricolor with the Moldavian coat-of-arms was adopted as the state flag, and Deteapt-te romne!, the Romanian

anthem, became the anthem of the SSRM. During that period a Movement for unification of Romania and the

Republic of Moldova became active in each country.

In August 1990, following a refusal of the increasingly nationalist republican government, to grant cultural and

territorial autonomy to Gagauzia and Transnistria, two regions populated primarily by ethnic minorities. In response,

the Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was declared in the south, in the city of Comrat. In September in

Tiraspol, the main city on the east bank of the Dniester River, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist

Republic (commonly called the "Dnestr Republic", later Transnistria) followed suit. The parliament of Moldova

immediately declared these declarations null and void.[63]

In mid-October 1990, approximately 30,000 Moldovan nationalist volunteers were sent to Gagauzia and

Transnistria, where an outbreak of violence was averted by the intervention of the Soviet 14th Army.[64] (The Soviet

14th Army, now the Russian 14th Army, had been headquartered in Chiinu since 1956.) However, negotiations in

Moscow between the Gagauz and Transnistrian leadership, and the government of the Soviet Socialist Republic of

Moldova failed.

In May 1991, the country's official name was changed to the Republic of Moldova (Republica Moldova). [63] The

name of the Supreme Soviet also was changed, to the Moldovan Parliament.

During the 1991 Soviet coup d'tat attempt in Moscow against Mikhail Gorbachev, commanders of the Soviet

Union's Southwestern Theater of Military Operations attempted to impose a state of emergency in Moldova. Theywere overruled by the Moldovan government, which declared its support for Russian president Boris Yeltsin, who

led the counter-coup in Moscow. On 27 August 1991, following the coup's collapse, Moldova declared its

independence from the Soviet Union.

The December elections of Stepan Topal and Igor Smirnov as presidents of Gagauzia and Transnistria respectively,

and the official dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the year, had further increased tensions in Moldova.[65]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Igor_Smirnovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stepan_Topalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldovan_Declaration_of_Independencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldovan_Declaration_of_Independencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boris_Yeltsinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Gorbachevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pridnestrovian_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pridnestrovian_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dniester_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiraspolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comrathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transnistriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gagauziahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movement_for_unification_of_Romania_and_the_Republic_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movement_for_unification_of_Romania_and_the_Republic_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De%C5%9Fteapt%C4%83-te_rom%C3%A2ne%21http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flag_of_Romaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flag_of_Romaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Snegurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Soviethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gagauz


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Transnistria

Transnistrian region of Moldova

Transnistria is the region east of the Dniester River, which

includes a large proportion of predominantly Russophone ethnic

Russians and Ukrainians (51%, as of 1989, with ethnic Moldovans

forming a 40% minority). The headquarters of the Soviet 14th

Guards Army was located in the regional capital Tiraspol. There,on September 2, 1990, local authorities proclaimed an independent

Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.[63] The

motives behind this move were fear of the rise of nationalism in

Moldova and the country's expected reunification with Romania

upon secession from the USSR. In the winter of 19911992

clashes occurred between Transnistrian forces and the Moldovan

police. Between March 2 and July 26, 1992, the conflict escalated

into a military engagement. Following an intervention of the 14th

Army into the conflict on the side of the separatists, the war was

stopped and the Moscow Agreement on the principles of peacesettlement of armed conflict in Trans-Dniester districts of the

republic of Moldova was signed on 21 July 1992.[65]

As of 2007, the Russian military remains in Transnistria, despite Russia having signed international agreements to

withdraw, and against the will of Moldovan government. [66] [67] The government of Moldova continues to offer

extensive autonomy to Transnistria, while the government of Transnistria demands independence. De jure,

Transnistria is internationally recognized as part of Moldova, but de facto, the Moldovan government does not

exercise any control over the territory.[68]

Post-independence

On December 27, 1991, Mircea Snegur, an ex-communist reformer, ran an unopposed election for the presidency.

On March 2, 1992, the country achieved formal recognition as an independent state at the United Nations.[69]

In 1992, Moldova became involved in a brief conflict against local insurgents in Transnistria, who were aided by

locally stationed Russian armed forces and Don Cossacks, which resulted in the failure of Moldova to regain control

over the breakaway republic.

Starting 1993, Moldova began to distance itself from Romania. The 1994 Constitution of Moldova used the term

"Moldovan language" instead of "Romanian" and changed the national anthem to "Limba noastr".

On January 2, 1992, Moldova introduced a market economy, liberalizing prices, which resulted in huge inflation.

From 1992 to 2001, the young country suffered its worst economic crisis, leaving most of the population below thepoverty line. In 1993, a national currency, the Moldovan leu, was introduced to replace the Soviet ruble. The end of

the planned economy also meant that industrial enterprises would have to buy supplies and sell their goods by

themselves, and most of the management was unprepared for such a change. Moldova's industry, especially machine

building, became all but defunct, and unemployment skyrocketed. The economic fortunes of Moldova began to

change in 2001; since then the country has seen a steady annual growth of between 5% and 10%. In the early 2000s,

there was also a considerable growth of emigration of Moldovans looking for work (mostly illegally) in Italy,

Portugal, Spain, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Russia and other countries. Remittances from Moldovans abroad account

for almost 38% of Moldova's GDP, the second-highest percentage in the world.[70] Officially, Moldova's annual

GDP is on the order of $1,000 per capita; however, a significant part of the economy goes unregistered due to

corruption.
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The pro-nationalist governments of prime ministers Mircea Druc (May 25, 1990 May 28, 1991), and Valeriu

Muravschi (May 28, 1991 July 1, 1992), were followed by a more moderate government of Andrei Sangheli,

during which there was a decline of the pro-Romanian nationalist sentiment.[71] After the 1994 elections, Moldovan

Parliament adopted measures that distanced Moldova from Romania.[68] The new Moldovan Constitution also

provided for autonomy for Transnistria and Gagauzia. On December 23, 1994, the Parliament of Moldova adopted a

"Law on the Special Legal Status of Gagauzia", and in 1995 it was constituted.[72]

After winning the presidential elections of 1996, on January 15, 1997, Petru Lucinschi, the former First Secretary of

the Moldavian Communist Party in 198991, became the country's second president. After the legislative elections

on March 22, 1998, the Alliance for Democracy and Reform was formed by non-Communist parties. However, the

term of the new government of Prime Minister Ion Ciubuc (January 24, 1997 February 1, 1999) was marked by

chronic political instability, which prevented a coherent reform program.[68] The 1998 financial crisis in Russia,

Moldova's main economic partner at the time, produced an economic crisis in the country. The standard of living

plunged, with 75% of population living below the poverty line, while the economic disaster caused 600,000 people

to emigrate.[68]

New governments were formed by Ion Sturza (February 19 November 9, 1999) and Dumitru Braghi (December

21, 1999 April 19, 2001). On July 21, 2000, the Parliament adopted an amendment to the Constitution thattransformed Moldova from a presidential to a parliamentary republic, in which the president is elected by 3/5 of the

votes in the parliament, and no longer directly by the people.[68]

2002 protests

Only 3 of the 31 political parties won more than the 6% of the popular

vore required to win seats in parliament in the February 25, 2001

elections. Winning 49.9% of the vote, the Party of Communists of the

Republic of Moldova (reinstituted in 1993 after being outlawed in

1991), gained 71 of the 101 parliament seats, and elected Vladimir

Voronin as the country's third president on April 4, 2001. A new

government was formed on April 19, 2001 by Vasile Tarlev. The

country became the first post-Soviet state where a non-reformed

communist party returned to power.[68] In MarchApril 2002, the

opposition Christian-Democratic People's Party organized a mass

protest in Chiinu against the plans of the government to fulfill its electoral promise and introduce Russian as the

second state language along with its compulsory study in schools.[73] The government annulled these plans.

The relationship between Moldova and Russia deteriorated in November 2003 over a Russian proposal for the

solution of the Transnistrian conflict, which Moldovan authorities refused to accept[74] because it stipulated a

20-year Russian military presence in Moldova. The federalization plan for Moldova would have also turned

Transnistria and Gagauzia into a blocking minority over all major policy matters of Moldova. As of 2006,

approximately 1,200 of the 14th army personnel remain stationed in Transnistria, guarding a large ammunitionsdepot at Colbasna. In recent years, negotiations between the Transnistrian and Moldovan leaders have been going on

under the mediation of the OSCE, Russia, and Ukraine; lately observers from the European Union and the United

States have become involved, creating a 5+2 format.

In the wake of the November 2003 deadlock with Russia, a series of shifts in the external policy of Moldova

occurred, targeted at rapprochement with the European Union. In the context of the EU's expansion to the east,

Moldova wants to sign the Stability and Association Agreement. It implemented its first three-year action plan

within the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP) of the EU.[75][76]

In the March 2005 elections, the Party of the Communists (PCRM) won 46% of the vote, (56 of the 101 seats in the

Parliament), the Democratic Moldova Block (BMD) won 28.5% of the vote (34 MPs), and the Christian Democratic

People Party (PPCD) won 9.1% (11 MPs). On April 4, 2005, Vladimir Voronin was re-elected as country's president,

supported by a part of the opposition, and on April 8, Vasile Tarlev was again appointed head of government.[68] On
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian-Democratic_People%27s_Party_%28Moldova%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian-Democratic_People%27s_Party_%28Moldova%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_Voroninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian-Democratic_People%27s_Party_%28Moldova%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian-Democratic_People%27s_Party_%28Moldova%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_Voroninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_Voroninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_Voroninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_Voroninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian-Democratic_People%27s_Party_%28Moldova%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian-Democratic_People%27s_Party_%28Moldova%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldovan_parliamentary_election%2C_2005http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_Neighborhood_Policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OSCEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colbasnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vetohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kozak_memorandumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian-Democratic_People%27s_Party_%28Moldova%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vasile_Tarlevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_Voroninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_Voroninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Party_of_Communists_of_the_Republic_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Party_of_Communists_of_the_Republic_of_Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AMd2002_kramar.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dumitru_Braghi%C5%9Fhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ion_Sturzahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1998_Russian_financial_crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ion_Ciubuchttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldavian_Communist_Partyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petru_Lucinschihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrei_Sanghelihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valeriu_Muravschihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valeriu_Muravschi


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March 31, 2008, Vasile Tarlev was replaced by Zinaida Greceani as head of the government.

2009 civil unrest

Following the parliamentary elections on April 5, 2009 the Communist

Party won 49.48% of the votes, followed by the Liberal Party with

13.14% of the votes, the Liberal Democratic Party with 12.43% and

the Alliance "Moldova Noastr" with 9.77%. The opposition leaders

have protested against the outcome calling it fraudulent and demandeda repeated election. A preliminary report by Organization for Security

and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) observers called the vote

generally free and fair. However, one member of the OSCE

observation team expressed concerns over that conclusion and said that

she and a number of other team members feel that there had been some

manipulation, but they were unable to find any proof.[77]

On April 6, 2009, several NGOs and opposition parties organized a protest in Chiinu, gathering a crowd of about

15,000 with the help of social network sites such as Twitter and Facebook. The protesters accused the Communist

government of electoral fraud. Anti-communist and pro-Romanian slogans were widely used. The demonstration had

spun out of control on April 7 and escalated into a riot when a part of the crowd attacked the presidential offices and

broke into the parliament building, looting and setting its interior on fire. [78][79] Police had regained control on the

night of April 8, arresting and detaining several hundred protesters. Numerous detainees reported beatings by the

police when released.[79] [80] The violence on both sides (demonstrators and police) was condemned by the OSCE

and other international organizations.[81] [82] Three young people died during the day the protests took place. The

opposition blamed police abuse for these deaths, while the government claimed they were either unrelated to the

protests, or accidents. Government officials, including President Vladimir Voronin, called the rioting a coup d'tat

attempt and accused Romania of organizing it.[77] The opposition accused the government of organizing the riots by

introducing agents provocateurs among the protesters.

In 2010, the political climate in Moldova remained unstable. The parliament failed to elect a new president.

[83]

Forthis reason, the parliament was dissolved and new general elections were held on July 29, 2009, with the

Communists again attaining a substantial, although weakened, plurality both in popular vote and in parliamentary

seats. An attempt by the ruling coalition to amend the constitution of Moldova via a referendum in 2010 in order to

enable presidential election by popular vote failed due to lack of turnout. The parliamentary election in November

2010 had retained the status quo between the ruling coalition and the communist opposition.

Notes

[1] Iranica Antiqua,vol. XXXVII 2002 Archeological Transformations:Crossing the Pastoral/Agricultural Bridge by Philip L. Khol

[2] Soldier Khan (http://www.avalanchepress. com/Soldier_Khan. php), Mike Bennighof, Ph.D.

[3] For Basil Lupul see N.Norga "Byzance aprs Byzance", pp. 163

81[4] see Steven Runciman. "The Great Church in captivity" Edition 3, 1985 pp. 2867, 3413, 370

[5] Haniolu, kr (2008).A brief history of the late Ottoman empire (http://books. google. com/books?id=nK5ZDKf3JgkC& pg=PA7).

Princeton University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0691134529. .

[6] Mitrasca, Marcel (2002).Moldova: a Romanian province under Russian rule : diplomatic history from the archives of the great powers (http:/

/books. google. com/books?id=mZogbSmBR-4C& pg=PA6). Algora Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 1892941864. .

[7] Mitrasca, pp. 1011.

[8] Ion Nistor,Istoria Basarabiei, 4th edition, Cartea moldoveneasc, Chiinu, 1991, p. 179-189

[9] Ion Nistor, p.190-191

[10] Mitrasca, p. 23.

[11] Ion Nistor, p. 224-244

[12] Ion Nistor, p. 249-255

[13] Ion Nistor, p.197-214

[14] "Mennonite-Nogai Economic Relations, 18251860" (http://www.goshen. edu/mqr/pastissues/apr00staples. html). .
http://www.goshen.edu/mqr/pastissues/apr00staples.htmlhttp://www.goshen.edu/mqr/pastissues/apr00staples.htmlhttp://books.google.com/books?id=mZogbSmBR-4C&pg=PA6http://books.google.com/books?id=mZogbSmBR-4C&pg=PA6http://books.google.com/books?id=nK5ZDKf3JgkC&pg=PA7http://www.avalanchepress.com/Soldier_Khan.phphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldovan_parliamentary_election%2C_2010http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldovan_constitutional_referendum%2C_2010http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldovan_parliamentary_election%2C_July_2009http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agent_provocateurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coup_d%27%C3%A9tathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2009_Moldova_civil_unresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Facebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NGOhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moldovan_parliamentary_election%2C_April_2009http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AChisinau_riot_2009-04-07_23.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2009_Moldova_civil_unresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zinaida_Grecean%C3%AEi


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[15] Bessarabia by Charles Upson Clark, 1927, chapter 8 (http://depts. washington. edu/cartah/text_archive/clark/bc_8. shtml#bc_8): "The

first Russian census after the annexation (1816) revealed a province almost solidly Romanian-of a population of about half a million, 921/2%

Moldavian and Ukrainian, 11/2% Lipovans (Russian heterodox), 41/2% Jews, 1.6% other races."

[16] Marcel Mitrasca,Moldova: A Romanian Province Under Russian Rule, Algora, 2002, ISBN 1892941864, pg. 25

[17] Ion Nistor,Istoria Basarabiei , Cernui, 1921

[18] Bessarabia by Charles Upson Clark, 1927, chapter 8 (http://depts. washington. edu/cartah/text_archive/clark/bc_8. shtml#bc_8): "Today,

the Bulgarians form one of the most solid elements in Southern Bessarabia, numbering (with the Gagauzes, i.e. Turkish-speaking Christians

also from the Dobrudja) nearly 150,000. Colonization brought in numerous Great Russian peasants, and the Russian bureaucracy importedRussian office-holders and professional men; according to the Romanian estimate of 1920, the Great Russians were about 75,000 in number

(2.9%), and the Lipovans and Cossacks 59,000 (2.2%); the Little Russians (Ukrainians) came to 254,000 (9.6%). That, plus about 10,000

Poles, brings the total number of Slavs to 545,000 in a population of 2,631,000, or about one-fifth"

[19] Ion Nistor,Istoria Bassarabiei , Cernui, 1921

[20] (German) Flavius Solomon,Die Republik Moldau und ihre Minderheiten (Lnderlexikon), in: Ethnodoc-Datenbank fr

Minderheitenforschung in Sdostosteuropa, p. 52[21] "Bessarabia by Charles Upson Clark, 1927, chapter 7" (http://depts. washington. edu/cartah/text_archive/clark/bc_7. shtml#bc_7). .

[22] "Jewish Moldova" (http://www.jewish. md/en/index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=17& Itemid=50& limit=1&

limitstart=7). .

[23] Mitrasca, pp. 2829

[24] Ion Nistor, Istoria Basarabiei, 4th edition, Chiinu, Cartea moldoveneasc, 1991, p. 281

[25] Petre P. Panaitescu, Istoria Romnilor, 7th edition, Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti, 1990, p. 322[26] Pantelimon Halippa, Anatolie Moraru, Testament pentru urmai, Mnchen, 1967, reprint Hyperion, Chiinu, 1991, pp. 8286

[27] (Romanian) "Activitatea legislativ a Sfatului rii i autodeterminarea Basarabiei" ("The Legislative Activity of Sfatul rii and the

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[44] Nagy-Talavera, Nicolas M. (1970). Green Shirts and Others: a History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania. pp. 305.


0-8179-9792-X. p. 94

[46] (Romanian) Tismneanu Report (http://www.presidency. ro/static/ordine/RAPORT_FINAL_CPADCR. pdf), pages 584 and 587

[47] (Romanian) Comisia Prezidenial pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din Romnia: Raport Final / ed.: Vladimir Tismneanu, Dorin

Dobrincu, Cristian Vasile, Bucureti: Humanitas, 2007, 879 pp., ISBN 978-973-50-1836-8 (Tismneanu Report)

[48] (Romanian)Comisia prezidenial pentru alaliza dictaturii comuniste din Romnia. Raport final. Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008, p. 585,

see also electronic version (http://www.presidency. ro/static/ordine/RAPORT_FINAL_CPADCR. pdf)[49] Ian Sinclair,Boundaries in Daniel Bardonnet, Hague Academy of International Law,Le rglement pacifique des diffrends internationaux

en Europe, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Hague, 1991, ISBN 0792315731, p.36


0-8179-9792-X, p.91

[51] "Interethnic Relations, Minority Rights and Security Concerns: A Four-Country Perspective" (http://gsbs.org. ua/UserFiles/File/

4-L_TEXT. pdf), International Renaissance Foundation

[52] Aleksei Georgievich Arba

history of moldova

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