HISTORY OF PHYSICAL

EDUCATION IN EUROPE

II

Leposavic, 2015.

1

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN

EUROPE

II

Leposavic, 2015.

2

Book:

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE

II

Editors:

Petar D. Pavlovic (Republic of Srpska)

Nenad Zivanovic (Serbia)

Branislav Antala (Slovakia)

Kristina M. Pantelic Babic, (Republic of Srpska)

Publishers:

University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and Physical

Education in Leposavic

FIEP Europe - History of Physical Education and Sport

Section

Authors:

Branislav Antala

(Slovakia)

Demirhan Giyasettin

(Turkey)

Elizaveta Alekseevna

Bogacheva (Russia)

Enric Maria Sebastiani I

Obrador (Spain)

Fedor Ivanovich

Sobyanin (Russia)

Ferman Konukman

(Turkey)

Frantisek Seman

(Slovakia)

Gill Parry (United

Kingdom)

3

Gregor Jurak (Slovenia)

Ken Hardman (United

Kingdom)

Kristina Pantelic Babic

(Republic of Srpska)

Luis Felipe Contecha

Carrillo (Colombia)

Marjeta Kovac

(Slovenia)

Natália Smolenáková

(Slovakia)

Nenad Zivanovic

(Serbia)

Petar Pavlovic (Republic

of Srpska)

Sergii Ivashchenko

(Ukraine)

Sixte Abadia i Naudí

(Spain)

Sladjana Mijatovic

(Serbia)

Violeta Siljak (Serbia)

Vladimir Nikolaevich

Irkhin (Russia)

4

Reviewers:

Jela Labudova (Slovakia)

Nicolae Ochiana (Romania)

Veroljub Stankovic (Serbia)

Zoran Milosevic (Serbia)

Prepress:

Kristina M. Pantelic Babic

Printed by:

ABL PRINT, Mlynarovicova 5, Bratislava, Slovakia

Book-jacket:

Anton Lednicky

Circulation:

100 copies

ISBN 978-86-82329-53-4

NOTE: No part of this publication may be

reproduced without the prior permission of the

authors.

5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD - ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS .................... 8

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS IN BOSNIA AND

HERZEGOVINA ........................................................................................... 24

THE EMERGENCE AND HISTORY OF SPORTS EDUCATION IN

RUSSIA ........................................................................................................ 49

PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHING IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS

OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA ................................................................. 61

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE

TERRITORY OF SLOVAKIA ..................................................................... 81

ANALYSIS OF EXEMPT ABSENCES FROM PHYSICAL EDUCATION

LESSONS IN SLOVENIA IN THE PAST AND TODAY ........................... 97

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN CONTEXTS OF

DEMOCRATISATION: THE CASE OF SPAIN DURING THE

POLITICAL TRANSITION (1975-1982) ................................................... 110

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN TURKEY ........................... 121

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL

EDUCATION IN UKRAINE...................................................................... 133

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND ................................................. 144

PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOLS IN LATIN

AMERICA: GENESIS ................................................................................ 180

6

During one session of FIEP’s Section for history of Physical

Education and Sports held in Nis (Serbia) in 2014 originated the idea

and initiative for writing of History of Sports and Physical Education

in European countries. By exchange of views with present

colleagues, the idea was accepted. After consent of FIEP Europe’s

President Mr. Branislav Antala (Slovakia) regarding this matter,

during the following Section’s session the Commission for leading

this idea into realization was formed. Elected members of this

Commission were: Nenad Zivanovic, Petar D. Pavlovic, Branislav

Antala and Kristina Pantelic Babic. At the same session was decided

to start first with writing of History of Physical Education.

With the work of stated Commission members, National

Delegates and Assistant of National Delegate of FIEP Europe, as

also other associates from most European countries, this publication

on beginnings of development of Physical Education in European

countries’ schools was created. All manuscripts received for this

publication successfully passed review process. All FIEP Europe

National Delegates were informed about this project, and we

received 18 European papers implemented in this publication.

Besides, we also received a paper from Colombia about PE in Latin

America, which is an indicator of interest for this topic beyond

European borders.

We hope to include all European countries in following

publications, and also to go outside Europe in our close future.

Papers are sorted alphabetically by countries which participated in

this edition, with Colombian manuscript as a final one.

We thank all authors for being a part of this interesting

project, and looking forward to work together in the future.

With best regards,

EDITORS

7

FOREWORD

ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

Nenad Živanović, FIEP Europe, President of History of Physical

Education and Sport Section, Serbia.

When everything has its own time (Solomon), and one

should believe this to be so, then it is quite understandable that this

book on physical education and sport has awaited its time. Without

pretending that this is the final story of this beautiful theme, we

emphasize that it is only a part of our smart book (history) on

physical education and sport. From different sides and from different

angles perceived, our smart book on physical education and sport

perceives man and his desire to always be the best and excellent

among others (Homer) and constantly perceives physical exercise as

the beneficial food to man’s, primarily physical being (N.

Zivanovic). In different parts of the European continent, and in the

other parts of the world as well, man has been crossing the path of

developing its natural form of body movement - exercise all the way

to the derivative and modified forms. All this man has done in the

reverse direction, constantly returning to his natural forms of

movement - training. Of course, it has always been adapted and in

harmony with the social environment and social circumstances in

which he has lived.

However, we must point out one fact. Physical exercise, no

matter how it is defined, is not a subject that can be made and bought

in a store. Physical exercise is actually a man himself and his

movement, performed with the corresponding objective, not only to

develop or train some of his (motor) properties, but also because of

the emotional experiencing of such a movement - training. This fact

alone indicates the complex structure of man. His physical and

mental structure, consecrated by the Holy Spirit, makes him a

complete man, a personality - one, unique and unrepeatable.

Therefore, a physical exercise for him is a wholesome food essential

to his being.

8

At the heart of physical education is a man with all his

needs and desires. This man, as we have noted, has a need for

physical exercise, specific food that is essential to his, primarily

physical being. In fact, this man has a need for self-motion -

exercise. Therefore, when we talk about physical exercise and

physical exercising, we actually talk about the man himself. And this

man, searching for his identity, moves from the idea that a person is

one, unique and unrepeatable, to an individual – an atomized

individual who thinks he is self-sufficient. Thus, between these

extremes, a man wanders seeking, above all, himself and his

increasingly lost person. That is why education and, of course,

physical education is so important.

Education and physical education as well can be defined in

different ways. But it is not superfluous to recall that the term

upbringing (education) is an old Slavic word denoting feeding. Of

course, physical education as a part of general education ensures that

a physical exercise nourishes man. And from this simple fact derives

all the philosophy of physical education and sport, and it, among

other things claims: everything for a man, a man for nothing.

This philosophical idea draws its strength from the simple

fact that says life is the highest value obtained from the Creator and

noone, especially an educator, has the right to intentionally or

unintentionally, incur the collapse of these values. Hence, the

establishment of many schools, and in them the subject of physical

education, to make man stand up and show him all the values of life.

But, in all stages of life on the Earth, there were periods of ups and

downs of the human civilization and culture. Therefore, the time in

which we live should be considered taking into account this fact, and

in accordance with it we should try to find the best solutions. It is not

easy, but it is a sublime duty of the (real) experts and teachers.

It is interesting to recall the times of two hundred years ago.

Then, at the southern edge of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy a

Fruskogorskian monk Georgie, translating a V. K. Hufeld book

Macrobiotics, used a term physical education in the title of a chapter.

The book was translated into the Serbian language and published in

Budim in 1807.1 Before that, in these parts of Europe, different terms

1 More on this in: Milosevic, Z. and Berar M. Tracing the Term Physical Education, Physical

Education and Sport Through the Centuries, Vol.1, Iss. 1. 44–52.

9

denoting the organized forms of physical exercise, were used. The

most common terms used were the body exercises and gymnastics.

But this term physical education was exactly in line with the basic

meaning of education - and that is feeding. By means of the attribute

physical in this syntagm a type of food that is offered to a man,

regardless of his age, is highlighted. And that reflects a complete

pedagogical idea emanating from the basic philosophical ideas that

we have highlighted.

The Humanists

Turning towards man and his needs began in the mid-14th

century. The advent of the Humanism and the Renaissance in the

northern Italy established a new view of the world and of man in that

world. Scholars and leaders of the new movement were called the

Humanists. They had directed their learning towards the man (studia

humana) and had pointed to the humanity as a worthy decoration of a

free man.2 Such a radical shift and a break with the tradition of the

Middle Ages, whose role model was found in the legacy of the

ancient Greeks and Romans, was felt in relation to the physical

exercise, as well. Instead of generating the possibilities of the

organized physical exercise only for a selected group of (young)

people - knights, various forms of physical exercise were offered and

widely recommended to each and everyone. This urbi et orbi had

been accepted and a new wave of a tsunami force, had begun to

spread throughout Europe.

The leading humanists who spoke about education, have

always emphasized the importance of physical exercising. It was

2 Education and science that the Humanists took over from the priests and monks ceased to be the

"handmaiden of theology" and became a "teacher of life". In that school, as well as in the amended

environmental practices, one new man was formed. It was the man of this world who wanted to

live out his life to the fullest and improve the gifts with which he was endowed (so he thought) by

nature. To this and such a man ecstatic humanists sang the hymns. They tell him about his

"excellence" (exelenntia) and his "dignity" (dignitas). They equate him with God (quidem mortalis

deus) and encourage him to the comprehensive application of his own strength and quality (virtus),

the constant striving to be a "noble" and "free" (nobilitis et liber), and to achieve fame (laus). We

should now be able to add the competition, as well. After all, this is the motto of the EU, which is

written in its founding documents. This is so because with the neoliberal concept of planning and

management and the replacement of capitalism with the bankism (Gerald Selent), a Neohumanist

approach is quite possible. And, unfortunately, we are witnessing where it leads.

10

very important in the design of an educational system that included

various programs of physical exercise in their concept.3

3 It is appropriate, at least briefly to recall of the basic facts relating to these, for our profession,

significant people:

Francisco Petrarch (1304-1374) was the first who was able to show the culture of the ancient

Greeks and Romans. With his own money he has funded deciphering the Latin alphabet. His

name is linked to the humanistic movement in Italy.

Pietro Paolo Vergerio (1349-1420), in his treatise on the Education of the Master of

Padova’s son, stated as a topic of conversation: his character and discipline, free- open

minded learning, physical exercise, training in art (the art of) war, recreation. He pointed out

three allies: health, physical exercise and recreation, as well as the necessity of the

knowledge about health and all this he substantiated with many examples of the vigorous

physical exercise and recreational activities.

Vitorino de Feltre (1378-1446), followed the ideas of Greece and Rome on the importance

of physical exercise, but he stressed the importance of ball games, jumping and fencing. He

was declared the first teacher of the Renaissance as his program has well balanced the

physical, intellectual and moral education.

Aeneas Sylvius Picocomini (1405-1464) is one of the most important humanists who later

became the Pope. He claimed that the organism is indivisible and that the physical activity

helps the development of all human abilities.

Mafeus Vegius (1405-1458) believed that education should develop all of man's physical

and spiritual qualities. He especially emphasized the importance of health habits and

advocated that physical education should be free education, not to exceed in the extreme, but

to be approached as a good recreation activity.

Jakob Sadoleto (1477-1547) was the pope's secretary. But he wanted, following the model of

the ancient Greeks, to connect physical exercise and music. This was of great importance

because after many centuries this issue was given the proper attention.

Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) recommended physical activity for health. He was not

inclined to asceticism and complete specialization. He made a division of gymnastics into

the preventive and therapeutic ones. He believed that physical activities represent an integral

part of the free education.

Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) recommended physical exercise as part of the education of

children. He emphasized the importance of generous movements, but of these that will have

a positive impact in their lives. That is why he was against the creation of the athletes.

Martin Luther (1483-1546), was an enthusiasts who believed that physical training is of

great importance for the education of the youth. He was imbued with the idea of the

"muscular Christians" (Muscular Christianity). He recommended that music should be used

as a useful and beneficial activity, and fencing and wrestling were considered as beneficial

and healthy physical activities.

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) believed that the games and sport were important for children

and youth. He felt that games and sport contained a certain degree of skills and that they

were very useful for the organism.

François Rabelais (1483-1553), a writer and doctor, can be called a classical humanist. He is

known for his works Gargantua and Pantagruel, in which he outlined his views on education.

In his program physical education occupies an important place, which is based on the seven

skills: wrestling, running, jumping, shooting, riding, and all types of military skills. Rabelais

described the exercises that are suitable for enclosed spaces (training rooms).

Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670) has by his practical and theoretical works contributed

most to the development of physical education. He has in his major works laid a solid

foundation of our profession. In the General Didactics (Didactica Magna) he presented his

views on education on the basis of the premise that "schools are not torture houses, nor

prisons as lunatics think, but places to play in". And then he conveyed another message:

"With prowess and not fraud to win". In his second book, The World in Photos (Orbis

11

These programs, encouraged by the new view on life and

man's place in society, had gradually diverged and were directed in

two independent directions. In the continental Europe the idea of the

gymnastic forms of physical exercise prevailed. In contrast to this

idea, in England, on the insular part of Europe, sport had won the

status of the leading idea in the organization of physical exercising.

This, of course, was conditioned by different social circumstances,

for which there had been so many different approaches to the forms

of physical exercising. The fact is that the utilitarian values of sport

and gymnastics, in such circumstances, have come into the limelight.

Egocentristic approach to sport and ethnocentric approach to

gymnastics were quite in line with the social circumstances.

Until the advent of the Reformation and later revivals that

took place, there were no substantial and concrete progress in the

organized physical exercising and its firmer inclusion in the school

system. Only with the appearance of John Amos Comenius and his

work (to make it more absurd – a post got as a punishment) in a

school in Saros Patok in Hungary, there came a turning point of the

immeasurable importance to physical education and sport. He was,

thanks to his work as well as the position of the principle of the

school, the first in the history of our profession, to award a physical

exercise (education) a place in the school curriculum, as well as the

time allotted in the teaching timetable. We now, in fact, inherit what

was done by Comenius in the mid-17th century. And when it comes

to his theoretical and practical work, even today he can serve as an

example of the serious and creative efforts to approach education

(also) as - feeding. His works, primarily the United didactics and

The World in Photos are the examples of the great foresights and

meticulousness, and are a good token of the times that are behind us.

Pictus), written in four languages he described all physical exercises and competitions then

known in Europe. This is an encyclopedic work, which is very important for the History of

physical education and sport. In addition to these important books, Comenius, as the director

of a school in Saros Patok, has alloted to the subject of physical education place and time

within the school curriculum. Thus, a subject of physical education has for the first time,

taken seriously and equalled with all other achool subjects (disciplines) that were taught in

school. (According to: Zivanovic, N. Contribution to the epistemology of physical

education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 147-154).

The other notable personalities for our profession, from the time of the Reformation, and later,

will be discussed in the framework of the Theory of the development of physical education and

sport.

12

Theories of the Physical Education and Sport

Development

Different theories of the physical education and sport

development4 have based their philosophy of development on the

goal (and mission) of the physical exercise. Each for themselves and

all together, during the tumultuous centuries that are behind us, they

have undergone various stages of development. This was caused by

different social circumstances in which they were created and

developed.

At the end of the 17th and the 18th century there have been

many revolutions, among which five of them have exerted a great

and decisive influence on the conception of social development.5

Then came the inevitable undermining of the "ancient regime" and

its subsequent marginalization.6

"The Ancient Regime" has undergone criticism and change

in education, as well. In the period of the enlightment the attitude of

the church and its control of education, emphasizing the study of the

history of the ancient times, theology, Greek and Latin languages,

were sharply criticized. New people, the philosophers, represented

the opinion that - modern history, new (live) languages, engagement

in science and, within that, in physical activities, should be studied,

instead. Prominent figures, important for the development of

physical education and sport as well are John Locke7 and Jean

Jacques Rousseau8. They were, indeed, by their educational and

4 According to: (1) Zivanovic, N: School sports from the perspective of the theo-

anthropocentrism. In. Bokan, B. and Radisavljević Janic (Ed.). International Scientific Conference,

Belgrade, "The effects of physical activity on the anthropological status of children, youth and

adults". Belgrade, 2012: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education; 112-117; (2) Zivanovic, N:

Contribution to the epistemology of physical education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 155–165. 5 The revolutions of the crucial influence on the development of social relations and the concept of

social life certainly are: scientific, agricultural, commercial or economic, industrial, democratic or

socialist ones. 6 The term the "ancient regime" is used by the French to describe religious, legal, socio-cultural

and economic institutions that prevailed in the Western Europe in the late 17th and 18th century,

because it was inconsistent with the new tendencies of the development. 7 John Locke (1632 - 1704) is one of the largest English philosopher of his time. His works, essays

on education, have influenced many teachers and political theorists. He qualified a newborn as a -

tabula rasa, who under the influence of education builds up and changes. This has resulted in many

teachers to start with a different observation of children. 8 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788) was another important person of the "Age of the

enlightenment". He sharply attacked the current system, and his thoughts and messages about

education he presented in Emil, a work which is half a discussion and half a novel. His ideas on

13

journalistic work guidelines for further development of our

profession. Their numerous followers, Pestalozzi, Felenber,

Basedow, inspired by their work, have created the operating

principles and by their practical work have done much for the

development of physical education.

Theory of biocentrism

The theory of biocentrism dated back in the early 18th

century, when all the more pronounced were collisions of the old

and the new social relationships, old and new traditions, views of the

world and of man in this world. It has began to spread the notion that

man recognizes the natural impulsive moves and feels the need to

play, that he has discovered himself and his world through the

experiences, that its value is based in freedom, voluntariness and

natural forms of movement and exercising. This certainly is nothing

new, and not a new view of the world. But such ideas and thoughts

in the works of Locke and Rousseau, appeared to be new.

"It is a sad misconception that physical exercise is

detrimental to mental activity, as if both these operations could not

be carried out simultaneously, and as if one could not manage the

other".9 (3) Of course, this idea and the message for this time exuded

a new view of the man and his physical exercise. This novelty, to put

it plainly, was redolent of freshness of thought and for that social

moment, was a bold step taken towards a new era.

the new, progressive, education became the basis of many new educational programs in the mid

18th century. He believed that "constant, nature entirely similar exercises strengthen the body and

not only do they not dull the spirit but rather create a kind of reason capable of filial age, and that

every age is most needed. They teach us to know our strength, our body attitude towards the

bodies that surround us and the use of natural tools that are within our grasp and which correspond

to our organs." Such an attitude towards education and, of course, physical education stems from

his attitude - that all is the good that comes from the hands of the Creator, and by human hands is

corrupted. Therefore, he advocates a new approach to education and a return to nature. Because of

that his Emil prefers to climb the hills like a goat to jumping in the salon like a monkey following

the directions of the gallantry. Z. Z. Rousseau was among the first to raise the issue of the

education of girls. However, this education is different and appropriate to the creating of a good

housewife and a kind of decoration of the house. In the education of girls there are religious and

aesthetic education and skills. The rest of the education complements a husband at his own

discretion. Great attention he has devoted to the play. The conditions for play should be created by

the elderly and their assistance should be unobtrusive and discreet. Children need to feel free and

self-solve tasks in the play. 9 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emil or on education. Belgrade, 1925. Bookstore Rajković and Čukić,

p.53.

14

These ideas were accepted by the thinkers and educators

such as: Basedow,10

Pestalozzi,11

Saltzman, GutsMuths12

. In recent

10 Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790) has by its theoretical and practical work contributed to a

new approach to the physical education. He opened a school called "Philanthropinum," in Dessau,

in 1774. Contemporaries have called this school a "High school for humanity." In it the plan of the

daily work schedules looked like this: 7 hours - sleeping; 6 hours - dressing, feeding, rest and

recreation; 1 hour - correspondence and neatness; 5 hours - studying and intellectual work; 3 hours

- physical exercise, dance and music; 2 hours - handmade works (with physical exertion).

Throughout the summer students would spend about a month in the camp, where the nature

replaced textbooks, and another month was planned to carry out the practical work with the

peasants, craftsmen and merchants. The basics of the physical education in the Philanthropinum,

was "Dessaus’s Pentathlon", which consisted of: running, jumping, climbing, cargo carrying and

balancing (balance exercises). Great attention was paid to the persistent walking, swimming and

rowing. He advocated also for a broad application of games and gave methodological guidelines

for their application. He believed that the games developed prowess and provide emotional

experience - creating the conditions for a good life. 11 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) a Swiss educator has built his own position, which is

predominantly directing gymnastics towards raising the health and resilience of the body against

natural influences that can endanger it. In this context, special attention was devoted to

strengthening and training locomotor apparatus. Therefore, with him for the first time, simple -

joint exercises appeared. Pestalozzi has coming from town to village, begun to deal with the poor

children upbringing. In 1800 he managed to establish the "House of Education", which was later

moved to Iferten and became famous throughout the world. His "House of Education" resembles

very much the "House of Play" of Vittorino Rambaldoni (1378-1446). Among his many works the

most important are the following: Leonard and Gertrude and How Gertrude teaches her children.

There he also presented his views on the necessity of the integrated education. Because of this, he

believes that physical education should be a means of forming the spirit as well as the moral and

aesthetic education. 12Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759-1839) is one of the most important theorists and creators of

the systematization of physical exercises. He spent some time in Salzmann’s Philanthropinum,

where he received a needed experience in gymnastics work. The principles underlying his theory

and methodology are current even nowadays, which tells how his work is built into the basics of

the later system of gymnastics, and even today's physical education. Here are these principles:

• man is a physical and spiritual unity;

• weakness of the body leads to the weakness of spirit;

• highest intellectual culture, without physical education, provides only an

incomplete person, without the joy of life and beauty;

• natural practicing of the primitive peoples civilized ones should replace with

gymnastics skills; these may be military, athletic and medical, but the only type

for all of them should be the - pedagogical gymnastics;

• the duty of the most educated countries and all the teachers should be to

organize propaganda of the pedagogical gymnastics. That means everyday

gymnastics for all ... To create an atmosphere for gymnastics;

• there is a need to reinforce the concern about hygiene and one should

recommend exercise in the fresh air;

• in a teaching method one should count on the age, sex, profession, and the

composition of those who practice.

GutsMuths has in its systematization of physical exercises singled out:

a) real gymnastic exercises - jumping, running, throwing, wrestling, climbing,

balancing, dancing, etc.;

b) handicrafts;

c) social games for the youngsters.

15

years, these ideas were more elaborated by: Laban,13

Dalkroze,14

and Montessori.15

Their programs were oriented towards young

people. So Laban had built his expressive gymnastics on a natural

desire of a child towards movement and a spontaneous play. There

were created special education programs outside of school such as

snow school, school camps. Today, this approach is observed in the

programs of schools in nature and sports camps.

The theory of ethnocentrism.

The theory of etnocentrism in the center of its development

puts ethnos, people. Also, any form of physical exercise was created

having this in mind and was adapted to that end. It originated during

the turbulent times of the 19th century, when the international

conflicts dominated Europe and Napoleonic wars simultaneously

represented a conflict between the old and the new. Nations were

getting stronger, and the period of the professional armies was

passing by. In such a situation there was a growing need for the

physical education of citizens, who would be the new troops, if

necessary. The representatives of this school are: Franz Nachtegall16

,

Pehr Ling Henrik17

, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn 18

, Miroslav Tirs.19

13 Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) was a dancer and theoretician. In 1936 he emigrated to London

(England) and there he has, within his pedagogical work, developed a system of "education by

movement". He had claimed four aspects of movement (flow, time, space and path), eight

combinations and sixteen ranks. Soon the term "movement" has become the most important term

in the representation of Laban’s concepts, and the phrases such as "art of movement", "gymnastics

by movement" and "education by movement" became the integral part of the vocabulary of

physical education. 14 Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950) as a good musician has always helped his disciples to use

movements to more easily become good musicians. After the Second World War his ideas were

accepted also in the British schools and were known as "music and movement". 15 Maria Montessori (1870–1952) Maria Montessori (1870-1952) has built on the ideas of

Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel her own educational system, in which the play and movement

were important elements. She said that "what really makes the teacher is his love for a human

child; because love is what differentiates the social duty of the educational worker and creates a

higher awareness of his mission.” 16 Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847) founded the first gymnastics institute in Europe, which was, in

fact, the basis for the further development of physical education in Denmark. When the practical

benefits of such work were noticed, daily basis physical exercising was introduced as a

compulsory subject in schools (1801). He soon opened in Copenhagen a military gymnastics

school for the education of the professional staff. In addition to the practical work Nachtegall

wrote gymnastics manuals. 17 Pehr Henrik Ling (1776-1839) spent five years in Nachtegall’s school in Copenhagen, and on

his return to Sweden he formed a new system of gymnastics. Sweden as Denmark, was in a

delicate international political situation, thus it was necessary to use the Civil Army (citizens) to

16

In the theory and practice of physical education these

representatives of ethnocentrism are known as the founders of

various gymnastic systems that were aimed at gathering young

people doing physical exercise and their development in order that

they, so strengthened, could fight for the social goals and ideals. It is

through the analysis of the ideas of their systematization of physical

exercise that we notice the emergence of the ultimate goal - ethnos,

and not an individual, a member of that nation. And even today, in

supplement the professional army. Therefore, first of all, they needed special programs of physical

exercise. Ling in 1814 founded under the royal patronage the Royal Central Gymnastics Institute

in Stockholm. The institute still nowadays exists, but under the other name (since 1967 it is called

the Institute for gymnastics and sport). Ling has proclaimed four types of gymnastics:

military (for strengthening the body and one’s will to encourage the other people's

will);

pedagogical (own body to subordinate to one’s own volition);

medical (to overcome and eliminate diseases);

aesthetic (towards emotions expression).

His gymnastics program was characterized by a design-specific directionality, whose main

characteristic is anatomical and physiological justification. Gymnastics equipment, which is still

famous in the world, has been adapted to the needs of the body. 18 Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), in 28 as a soldier, survived the German military defeat, and

experienced it as a personal tragedy. From then on he devoted himself exclusively to the work on

strengthening the German nation. According to him, physical education had to create strong and

courageous warriors for the defense of France. Therefore he had devised his own system and

founded a turner organization. Since he was against everything that was not German, he would not

use the word gymnastics, known and famous throughout the world, but had found a new word -

turner. This term was derived from the medieval knight competition and exercises. In his program

he included running, jumping, climbing, suspension and exercise on special requisites. In the

period from 1819 to 1842 the Austrian Chancellor Metternich prohibited "turner". This restriction

had provoked an important change in the character of the turner exercise. In fact, during this

period training was performed secretly at homes. So there had been a restructuring of the physical

exercises, ones that required a large space were lost, and in the foreground erupted apparatus and

small space exercises. They were able to maintain discipline and control. These exercises were

later incorporated into the school programs. Jahn’s system of physical exercise, with the help of

his students spread out to other countries as well. Soon it lost a national basis and with the systems

of Ling and Nachtegall, became an important part of the development of physical education in

many countries around the world. 19 Miroslav Tirs (1832-1884) formed the Czech gymnastics society in 1862. When the German

students began to stand out and establish turner societies, Tirs organized the workout for the Czech

students. Later on his system was named "SOKO", as a symbol of bravery, heroism and nobility.

At that time, the living conditions of the national minorities in Austria were very harsh, so,

basically, this gymnastics organization was also established for the purpose of awakening the

national consciousness. It could be said that the sport has undergone through four stages of

development: (1) Patronizing sport (lat. Patronus: protector), (2) A gentleman sport or

pedestrianism (lat. Pedes: Foot), (3) School or university sport, (4) Civil sport.

The Tirs exercises system was divided into four groups:

a) exercises without requisites;

b) exercises using the requisites;

c) group exercises;

d) combat exercises.

17

these troubled times of the 21st century, there is a physical exercise

that is organized on the ideas of the ethnocentrism.

The theory of egocentrism.

The theory of egocentrism. This theory’s development is

based on man's quest to build his personality by emphasizing his

ego, his identity. And he puts in the foreground his ultimate

individualism. In sport, as one of the areas of physical education

which relies (as opposed to the physical education and recreation) on

the agon, fight, competition, man finds the ability to express his

individuality. This is why sport (along with other, primarily political

and economic reasons) has experienced a great expansion.

During the 19th century a specific system of games and

sports began to exist in England. This system has been specifically

accepted in so-called public schools20

. It has spread throughout the

British Empire and even beyond its borders. Activities were

different, but there stood out - the virtuosity of glory, fair play,

dignity, individual effort and courage. A lot of credit for the

development of school sport, which is the basis for the so-called civic

sport, belongs to Thomas Arnold21

, the priest, educator and

administrator of the Rugby College, and his followers, above all,

Thomas Hughes22

.

In the continental part of Europe, at that time the

ethnocentric approach to physical exercise dominated. However, in

the late 19th century (in 1884) Pierre de Coubertin23

visited England,

20 The development of sport is very distinctive. After the English bourgeois revolution, the new

social relations resulted in the class compromise of the English aristocracy and bourgeoisie, both at

the political and the economic levels. This was reflected in physical education, too and as a

product of that compromise a modern sport was created. It was created by merging some forms of

physical exercise and games favorite to the nobility (riding, fencing, hunting, swimming) and the

folk forms of competition (running, wrestling, pugilism, rowing). 21 Thomas Arnold (1795–1842) as a director of the college in Rugby, while watching children's

sporting events, realized and understood their significance for the education of children. Therefore,

they were included in the school curriculum. The motto of Thomas Arnold was to educate the

Christians - gentlemen. Self-improvement was something that represented a key education, which

had resulted in the creation of pedagogical system based on freedom. And in all this sporting

competitions had played an important role. 22 Thomas Hughes has as the successor of the ideas of Thomas Arnold, founded the movement

"Muscular Christian youth" (1842). Thus, sport helped young people to recognize the act of

freedom in the true sense of the word. 23 Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), has by his enthusiasm, work and his own money managed to

realize one for a long time present idea of restoring the ancient Olympic Games.

18

there he got familiarized with the sports games and, after returning to

France, started propagating sport. It was fruitful and in 1896 in

Athens (Greece) the first new Olympic Games were held. Today,

sport is experiencing a large and rapid development and is present in

all parts of the world.

The theory of anthropocentrism

The theory of anthropocentrism was established on the

philosophical worldview believing that man is the center of the

world and the ultimate purpose of its development. This theory

unifies all the previous theories of development: ethnocentrism,

biocentrism and egocentrism.

Its main features are:

1. Development of physical abilities and health,

2. Increase in social development (progress)

3. Improving the level of knowledge and skills in sports and

games,

4. Development of leading capabilities and increasing

opportunities for the cooperation with others,

5. Development of broad-based recreational skills,

especially for leisure time during the holidays.

These characteristics of the anthropocentristic approach to

physical exercise, although at first glance recognizable, represent a

distillate of the new desires and thoughts about the necessity of

human health and happiness. In doing so, it is suggested that these

two postulates, health and happiness are something that is a

necessity and purpose of man and that any form of the physical

exercise should comply with it. Of course, there is omitted closer

defining not only of health but also of happiness, but is associated

with the society in which human rights and freedom are achieved.

And accordingly, this philosophy of physical exercise first appeared

in Scandinavia and North America. In the second half of the 20th

century O. Åstrand24

and K. Cooper25

, each in their own way,

24 Per-Olof Åstrand (1922–2015) had his research studies which were basically the interval

method, in his later works, in the mid eighties of the 20th century, completely rejected and

19

developed a program of physical exercise having primarily in mind

the needs of man. Later Jane Fonda26

has developed special

programs for women. Today these ideas are present in the form of

(different) fitness programs.

The theory of theo-anthropocentrism.

The theory of theo-anthropocentrism is the youngest among

the theories of the physical education development. It is considered

to be the youngest not due to the time of its philosophy originating,

but because of the time of its presence in our profession, and that is

the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century. In this

theory of the physical education development (physical education

and sport) one starts from the basic assumptions that: a) a man is

approached cautiously as if by "pigeon legs", and b) that physical

exercise is a wholesome food, primarily for the physical part of his

being. This is a theory that provides one more humane agon within

the frame of the Orthodox anthropology. This Christ-centrism allows

a Godman centric approach, in which God and man are in the center,

in the embrace of the eternal love and community.

This approach reminds us that school as a place to acquire

new knowledge and skills, is not composed of the the walls and

classrooms, but of those who are in it: the teachers and students. And

they, as the central beings of all created, may only be the

personalities in the community with another personality. For without

such a community there is no the first nor any other personality, and

there is not one thing that goes with the personality which is

freedom. Freedom, of course, implies an obligation arising out of it,

that everything is done for the well-being of the man himself. Thus,

one should take account of the duration of the physical exercise

(scope), as well as the load of the physical exercise (intensity).

replaced with the idea that man needed physical activity during the day, for 30 minutes, in the

various combinations of time intervals. 25 Kenneth H. Cooper (1931) had by his research established a system of physical exercise which

is known as Aerobics. He, like Åstrand, had based his system on 10,000 steps in a day. His ideas

are now used in many fitness centers. 26 Jane Fonda (1937) a film actress who aimed her exercise programs at women had made a

turning point in relation to the style of exercise and attitude of women towards their physical

appearance. She had developed a special program known as Aerobic exercise for women.

20

Knowing that the food (physical exercise) is varied and that it is

useful in optimal quantities (volume and intensity of exercise), it is

offered to man with love.

And to the posed questions of how and, above all, why

exercise, the answer is sought in the very being of man and his need

for this kind of food as well.27

In doing so, one does not forget that it

is necessary to each and all (Urbi et Orbi), which is, in fact, in the

very center of this theory. Representatives of this theory are Nenad

Zivanovic28

and Zoran Milosevic.29

Current time

Modern civilization resting on the neoliberal concept of

organizing the overall social life, with the Darwinist direction, faces

a major challenge. During decades long efforts it has managed to

incorporate in most people the guiding principles - only present is

what is important and what matters. Other time categories, such as

past and future are wiped out. In such circumstances one must

observe our profession as well.

Physical education and sport30

today can be seen not only as

an organic whole, but also as the two separate and, unfortunately,

absolutely independent units. And this requires careful

considerations about our profession.

Sport31

has particularly in its professional and elite parts,

completely rejected its old attributes (health, education,

socialization) and accepted the new ones (result and profit). When

talking about sport (elite and professional), one can no longer talk

27 The words of the Apostle Paul addressed at the weaken Corinthians: "I have the right to do

anything, but not everything is beneficial. I have the right to do anything—but I will not be

mastered by anything." (I Cor. 6, 12). 28 Nenad Zivanovic (1946), University of Nis, Serbia. 29 Zoran Milosevic (1962), University of Novi Sad, Serbia. 30 Terms which combine and contain physical education and sport, were different at different

times, and in different social environments. From the Renaissance to the end of the 19th and

beginning of the 20th century were dominated by the terms: the body exercise and gymnastics, and

in England sport. Later, the other two terms were crystallized from which the organizational

structure of our specialized field drew, as well as theoretical and practical work, namely: physical

education and sport 31 We recall of the classification of sport specific to the target sports:

School sport - Registered sport – Recreational sport

Registration sport is divided into: amateur, top and professional sports.

(According to: Nenad Zivanovic, et al., Theory of Physical Education. Nis, Panopticon, 2010, p.

21

about health, education, socialization, but solely in terms of the

results and profits, that is, in terms of its political and economic

utilitarianism. No longer are the ideas and messages of the

Pennsylvanian bishop Etelberto Talbot valid, as he instructed the

participants of the Olympics in London in 1908 – It is not important

to win, it is important to take part. Now, in accordance with the ideas

of the neoglobalistic New Age, there is one rule that is valid and is

assuming the level of the legal norms. This rule, established in the

mid-80s of the 20th century, says “It is not important to participate,

it is important to win”. And to win at any cost32

With this type of a

guiding principle it is not difficult to explain and understand the

emergence of the new cults: the cult of the body, the cult of sports

results and the cult of profit33

.

Amateur sport34

has, to a lesser extent, accepted the new

attributes of sport. It is fully compliant with the New Era, because

the athletes involved in the amateur sport inherit the values of the

modern civilization. And the higher the level of the amateur sport,

the more pronounced this acceptance is. But in its lower segments

(sports clubs in small towns and rural areas), it has retained to a

greater extent, the old attributes of sport and these should be nurtured

and encouraged.

School sport35

is the only link between the physical

education and sport. This fact is not at all encouraging, but we must

accept it and make sure it stays that way. On our work depends

whether we manage to keep current title school sport. There are

numerous attempts to establish the term sport in school. Such efforts

are reflecting not only the desire to come to the terminology changes,

32 After an ominous wave of sports violence of the 80s of the 20th century, we are witnessing new

outbursts of violence in all its forms. Fights of the athletes, fights of the fans, murder of fans

(Istanbul 2014), provocations at the football stadiums (Belgrade, London, ..., 2014), all of it

foretells, as well as the late 20th century, the coming evil times. In doing so, obscene and

hypocritical explanations of these events indicate that the present civilization recognizes only - the

current time and the Darwinian concept of competition. 33 More on this in: Nenad Zivanovic, Apology of physical exercise. Nis, Panopticon, 2011. 34 Amateur sport, as one of the segments of the registered sport, with excellent and professional,

very often is treated as a recreational sport. Between them there is not only a terminological but

also the conceptual difference already, and it should be taken into account during each expert

analysis. 35 School sport, by its very terminological definition, by its attribute – school puts emphasis on

education. And until it does, and while sport in school term does not prevail, there is still hope that

the sports competitions in school have a primary goal - education, rather than - (exclusively) sports

scores. And that children’s school sports dreams and sports competitions would represent one nice

part of their childhood and youth.

22

but also to the conceptual ones. And that would be disastrous for us

all. Because if we say - sport in school, this means that in this phrase

emphasis is placed on the attribute sport. This inevitably entails cruel

clear fact - that we will have in school sport with all of its

particularly negative, characteristics. Let us mention only one of

them, and it is – to achieve the result at any cost. If we let the result

be the primary goal and do everything for its realization, then the

school and its role in education of the young people will turn into a

service station of the registered sport. This is not just an ominous

assumption, but a harsh reality that we face. The cure for this terrible

disease are certainly the new humanists and teachers who love man,

but the man who has the personality - one, unique and unrepeatable.

Physical education and its very name suggests that through

physical exercise as the beneficial food, we build up the personality

of all our students. In addition, relying on the Orthodox Christian

anthropology and ethics derived from it, we know that only through

love I am what I am (O. Justin Popovic). Therefore, if we know that,

we will not be the teachers who will go in for the idea of this New

World and regard our student as an object, commodities to be

exploited to achieve our own goals, but we should observe him as a

personality, unique and unrepeatable. We know that in this given

freedom lies our responsibility. This responsibility makes quite

comprehensive the Orthodox Christian understanding of freedom,

which is reflected in the self-restrain for the sake of the others

(Solzhenitsyn). And in this effort to see others besides himself, the

man is realized as a person. Certainly, it is not an easy task at all, not

only to understand but also to perform, but we should head on in that

direction.

Our teacher, educator and expert ( in this very order) loves

his students and strives to be the Anatoly - their light and the light of

our profession as well. He makes effort because he knows that one

educates with love and by setting personal example - role model.

This is how we observe physical education, and the book in

front of you talks about it.

23

REPUBLIC OF SRPSKA

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS IN

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Petar D. Pavlovic, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,

University of Banja Luka

Kristina M. Pantelic Babic, Faculty of Physical Education and

Sports, University of Banja Luka

Correspondence

Kristina Pantelic Babic

kri.pan@hotmail.com

Phone: +387 65 597 685

Social, economic, cultural, educational, political and other

kind of development, as also beginnings and development of

physical exercise in schools of Bosnia and Herzegovina, can be

divided in several periods: a) period until 1463, b) period from 1463

to 1878, c) period from 1878 to 1918, d) period from 1918 to 1945,

and e) period from 1945 onwards. We find first three periods

interesting for our subject (from the beginning until 1918), because

in these periods appeared first ideas and initiatives about

introduction of teaching of physical education (PE), as also

implementation of PE in curriculum of schools from that period.

Period until 1463

By formation of first countries in that territory their

habitants were in constant conflict with surrounding people, and

there were also fights between tribes over the territory

predominance, so it was quite understandable that a lot of time was

dedicated to physical exercise and practicing of martial skills in

purpose of creating stronger, faster, agile and more endurable

warrior.

In different gatherings, celebrations around churches and

monasteries, weddings, coronations of rulers and other religious

feasts, knights, noblemen and others gathered to compete and by that

24

demonstrate their skills with weapons and other disciplines. Based

on the drawings at signet rings, monuments, tomb stones and coat of

arms, as also national epic (heroic) poems, we can state that they

most cherished: riding, hunting, national (peoples’) games, archery,

running, jumping, fighting chest to chest, throwing rocks and spears,

wrestling and other similar disciplines. 1

Schools, as we know today, with present curriculums, did

not exist on territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina until 1463. Until

appearance of first schools, Serbs gained their literacy by themselves

(they were self-taught) from literate individuals and in monastery

schools. 2

As Serbs, Croats also gained their literacy as self-taught and

in schools which existed in catholic monasteries. 3 Teaching physical

exercise (physical education) did not exist in aforementioned

schools.

Period from 1463 to 1878

First ideas, initiatives and implementation of PE

(gymnastics) teaching, as obligatory subject equal to other subjects,

happened during Turkish occupation. In certain schools this subject

was treated with great significance. In that time there were primary

and middle schools: Serbian, Croatian, Muslim and Jewish.

Physical Education in Serbian schools

Primary schools

According to certain data, first Serbian primary schools

began to appear in: Sarajevo 1539, Trebinje 1763, Foča 1820, Banja

Luka 1832, Bijeljina 1838, Brčko 1839, Mostar 1846, Sokolac 1875,

1 Петар Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини

до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско Сарајево, 1988. 2 Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка

до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; и Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе

(1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965. 3 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.

25

etc. Until the end of Turkish occupation there were 56 schools with

75 teachers. Back then there were no separate school buildings, but

teaching was provided mostly in private houses. There was no

curriculum as we are familiar with today. They studied: reading,

writing, calculus, religious subjects, etc. Subject Physical Education

(gymnastics, games or physical exercises) did not exist. But even it

was not a part of the curriculum, some teachers introduced certain

forms of physical exercise and competition, as also traditional games

of that territory. 4

Teacher Andre Pavasović came to Mostar at the end of 1846

and brought to his school “[…] whole new spirit and quickly gained

pupils hearts. Instead of boring classes he was reading national

poems with children and told them stories about Serbian past […]

Andro introduced excursions with pupils where he taught them to

sing and marvel.” 5

Zivko R. Crnogorcevic in his memoirs wrote about teachers

who, on their own accord, organized and performed certain forms of

physical exercise for their students.

„When I taught school and all other

children from 1850 to 1856, all our

teachers took us to regration

(contributions in goods that students

brought to their teachers) […] And when

we all gather, the teacher call us by his

catalogue, and we stand two by two in a

row, and we go under the hill […] and

there we play all different kind of

games, like: priest, chase, firiz, batin-

bacac and jumping, which child will

jump more, and the teacher supervises

and walk around us. When the water is

worm by summer he takes us to

4 Петар Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини

до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско Сарајево, 1988; i Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i

Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 5 Владимир Ћоровић: Мостар и његова српска православна општина, Београд, 1933, p. 61.

26

swimming, but also under his

supervision.” 6

About teacher Mirko Savic, who also performed certain

forms of physical exercise and competition with students in his

school, among other things, he wrote:

“He had a good behavior and besides

usual subjects he taught us some

gymnastics too: we would throw rocks

from shoulders, and two bigger students

would hold their belts up high, and if

smaller, they would hold belts lower and

jump over them. Before night big guys

come in front of the school, and the

teacher starts different games with them.

He could jump over the belts when two

students hold them at height of their

heads.” 7

Vladan Djordjevic in his book “Memories” wrote down that

his teacher Aleksa Suskalovic in Serbian primary school in Sarajevo

in 1851 gave great contribution to physical exercise and performed

different kind of exercising with his students, as also different kind

of, primarily, national games. His words testify about that:

“When we entered school yard we saw

unusual sight. Teacher was playing the

ball with his students. […] He was

playing with them and me and my father

were not moving looking at the miracle

that teacher was not a scarecrow but an

older friend to his students. They

finished the ball game with joyful

laughs, and were planning to start a new

game called ‘klisa’, when the teacher

noticed us two, and turned to one of the

students: ‘Stevo, you will run the game.

Don’t let anyone play rough, and the

6 Živko R. Crnogorčević: Memoari, za štampu priredio Milenko S. Filipović,

Sarajevo, 1966, pp. 35 – 36. 7 Ibid, pp. 42 – 43.

27

ones who want to play unfair, exclude

them. When you finish klisa, ring so we

can go back to school. Back than among

all Serbs was hard to find teacher for

primary school who passed all those

schools like our teacher. Therefore his

way of teaching was completely

unusual. He knew that kids prefer games

than books, he knew it was not due to

rage but pure necessity of young body

for more and miscellaneous movements

necessary for muscle development.

Therefore in the morning after meal,

when we come to school, before

everything he played with us for one

hour. We played ball, mete, slaves, klisa,

throw rocks from shoulders, raced,

jumped over some trenches or marks to

see who will jump further, and so on.

Teacher played all games with us and

for any disobedience and roughness

punished right away the ones who did it

by exclusion from the game. Only that

kind of punishment was also for

inattention in school and missed

homework, and there was no other

punishment necessary. This one was

enough to teach someone a lesson and

turn him back to track.” 8

Petar Mirosavljevic, who worked in Serbian schools in

Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1859 to 1909 in several places: Bjelo

Polje, Zitomislic, Konjic, Mostar, Obudovac, Sarajevo and Sokolac,

also on his own accord implemented physical exercise (gymnastics

or playing) for his students. According to memories of his students

he “[…] taught them gymnastics: simple exercises, different games,

jumping, running, throwing rocks from shoulders […] He also

8 Владан Ђорђевић: Успомене, књ. прва, Нови Сад, 1927, pp. 18 – 19.

28

collected national games and wrote them down, some even published

in pedagogical journals.” 9

Middle schools

Middle schools were not like today, but they were on higher

level than primary schools, and therefore we can call them high

schools. There were more middle schools: Serbian real – gymnasium

in Sarajevo (established around 1852); Serbian private female school

in Sarajevo (established in 1857 of 1858) named “Staka Skenderova

School”; Private spiritual school in Zitomislic monastery (1858);

Institute of Mia Irbijeva in Sarajevo (1866 or 1869); Small Serbian

Real School in Mostar (1868); Serving school in Sarajevo (1864);

Theological school in Banja Luka (1866), and others. Among listed

schools, only in Theological school in Banja Luka was a subject

Gymnastics in the curriculum, equal to other subjects, having great

significance. In other schools there was no Physical Education

(Gymnastics) as a subject in curriculums. But we can assume that

certain teachers, as also in primary schools, organized and performed

certain physical exercises and games on their own accord. For

example, Aleksa Suskalovic, who when working in primary school

organized different kind of physical exercise for his students, when

in 1852 transferred to Serbian gymnasium in Sarajevo, he probably

organized the same exercises from high school students too. 10

According to some sources students of Private spiritual

school in Zitomislic monastery unsolicited “[…] practiced national

sports and national games.” 11

9 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 148. 10 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka

do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; Петар Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе

Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско Сарајево, 1988; Todor Kruševac:

Srpska realka – gimnazija u Sarajevu, knj. 3, Sarajevo, 1963; Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године,

Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme

austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972; Лука Грђић-Бјелокосић: Мостар некад и сад, Београд, 1901. 11 Šefik Pašić: Mostar, pismeni podaci, 1972, citirano u Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička

kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.

29

Theological school in Banja Luka was established in 1866.

Its director and one of the teachers was Vaso Pelagic. The school

lasted for three years and the students were future priests and

teachers. Each of three years had 22 subjects, and among them was

Gymnastics as obligatory subject. The most significance Pelagic

gave to Serbian and general history, gymnastics and dietetics “[…]

because by good lecturing of those subjects we can get all most

important, most sacred and most sanative every Serb needs.” 12

Pelagic built exercise devices in church yard. As he was

subdued to Banja Luka’s archpriest Ugrinovic, who was against

physical exercise (gymnastics) because he considered that future

priests need only spiritual education, therefore soon two of them

came to a conflict because “[…] archpriest from Banja Luka broke

exercise device he made as spiritual man for his students in church

yard, and for which the archpriest said: Why do we need gallows at

the altar.” 13

Pelagic would probably be soon moved from Banja Luka if

he didn’t in the meantime get higher church position than archpriest

Ugrinovic. Right after getting the higher position he rebuilt the

exercise devices right away, or “[…] gymnastics closer to altar and

nobody could not break them” 14

, because his new calling

(archimandrite) was higher than opponents.

Besides practicing on devices in church yard he organized

another forms of physical exercises for his students that fulfilled

main goals of physical education. According to him those goals were

achieved by: different games, certain athletic disciplines (walking

and marching with songs, running, jumping, throwing rocks from

shoulders, fighting, wrestling, bathing, swimming, rowing and

driving boats, balling, riding bicycle, skating, exercises on

equipment, riding, walking and excursions. 15

For all mentioned forms of physical exercise Pelagic gave

methodical instructions how to perform them and he described their

significance for humans, mostly youth.

12 Васо Пелагић: Писмо, Савремена школа, бр. 8-9, Београд, 1949, p. 119. 13 Васо Пелагић: Аутобиографија, Развитак, год. 1, бр. 3, Бања Лука, 1910, стр.

75. 14 Ibid. 15 Васо Пелагић: Изабрани списи, књ. 2, Сарајево, 1953.

30

It was noted that in every theological school there always

was one good shoulder stone thrower, and that sometimes even

Turkish soldiers came to the field near Vrbas river and competed

with theological school students in throwing the stones from

shoulders “[…] but there was never even one soldier who could

reach nor be equal to students.” 16

As a crown of Pelagic's taught about meaning of physical

exercise, primarily for youth, we can take his sentence actual even

today: “Don’t ever forget that happiness of our children depends on

their physical exercise.” 17

Besides setting ground for further development of physical

exercise in schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Pelagic was also a

first theoretician of physical culture (theory of game, physical

exercise and sport) at the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina of that

time. 18

16 Коста Ковачевић: Српска бањалучка Богословија, Босанска вила, год. 24, бр.

11, Сарајево, 1909, стр. 172. 17 Тихомир Тодоровић и Боривоје Богојевић: Васа Пелагић о значају гимнастике

и физичког васпитања, Зборник за историју физичке културе Србије, бр. 4 – 5,

Београд, 1968, стр. 101. 18 Petar D. Pavlović, Nenad Živanović and Kristina Pantelić Babić: Vaso Pelagić, prvi

teoretičar fizičke kulture u Bosni i Hercegovini, Četvrti međunarodni naučni kongres

„Antropološki aspekti sporta, fizičkog vaspitanja i rekreacije“, Zbornik radova, ur. S. Simović, Banja Luka, 2013, str. 65 – 71.

31

Physical Education in Croatian schools

Primary schools

The Franciscans started the Croatian primary schools in

Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to some sources first primary

school was founded by fra Ilija Starcevic in Franciscan’s convent in

Tolisa near Orasje in 1823 or 1826. 19

Somewhere around 25 years

later started founding of schools in other places: Varcaru (1850)20

,

Livno (1850), Kresevo (1850), Fojnica (1850), Travnik (1850),

Mostar (1852); and from 1854 in: Vares, Derventa, Dolac near

Travnik, Dubica, Jajce, Kraljeva Sutjeska, Skoplje (Bugojno), Tuzla

and other places. The schools were also founded by catholic nuns

(Sisters of Mercy), in: Sarajevo (1871), Banja Luka (1872), Derventa

(1872), Dolac near Travnik (1872), Mostar (1872), Travnik (1872)

and Livno (1874). In these schools there were no physical education

(gymnastics and games) classes, and we did not find any sources

stating that teachers performed those classes on their own accord. 21

Middle schools

Regarding middle schools Croats had: high schools

(gymnasiums), real schools, catholic real schools and small real

schools.

In Kraljeva Sutjeska, Kresevo and Fojnica (after 1757) in

Franciscan’s convents started to work first high schools

(gymnasiums). A little bit later schools were founded also in Guca

Gora and Siroki Brijeg. 22

Classes of PE (Gymnastics and Games)

were not performed. But pupils unsolicited “[…] in their free time

did national sports and games.” 23

19 Julijan Jelinić: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915; i Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine,

Sarajevo, 1974. 20 Todays Mrkonjic Grad. 21 Ibid. 22 Julijan Jelinić: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915. 23 Šefket Pašić: Pismeni podaci, citirano u Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, str. 20.

32

In Croatian real school in Livno (1855), Catholic real school

in Sarajevo (1865) and Small real school in Fojnica there was no PE

(Gymnastics and Games) teaching. 24

Physical Education in Muslim schools

Primary schools

After occupation of Bosnia (1463) and Herzegovina (1482)

by Turkey, started founding of Muslim primary schools called

sibian-mektebi. School activities were performed in mosque’s

facilities and in private houses. By the end of Turkish occupation

there were around thousand schools. There was no teaching of

Gymnastics and Games (PE). 25

Middle schools

Regarding Muslim middle schools there were: Madrasahs,

Ruzdije, Military school (Pripravna vojna skola) in Sarajevo,

Teachers school in Sarajevo and Officers school in Sarajevo.

In Teachers (1869) and Officers schools (1865) in Sarajevo

there was no subject Gymnastics (PE).

In Madrasahs (Banja Luka, Mostar, Sarajevo, Travnik and

other places) were mostly studied religious subjects and there was no

teaching of gymnastics (PE). In Gazi Husrev beg’s Madrasah in

Sarajevo once in a week the pupils went to picnics near Sarajevo

where they performed some national games. 26

In Ruzdijas (Sarajevo – 1864, later: Banja Luka, Bjeljina,

Bihac, Brcko, Visoko, Glamoc, Duvno, Jajce, Livno, Mostar, etc.)

according to school law from 1869 teaching of gymnastics (PE) was

in the plan, but we could not find any sources stating that it was

actually performed in practice.

24 Julijan Jelinić: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915. 25 Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и

Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965; and Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka

do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 26 Хајрудин Ћурић: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и Херцеговини 1800 – 1878, Београд, 1965.

33

In Military school (Pripravna vojna škola) in Sarajevo,

which started working in 1873, the subject Gymnastics was in the

curriculum, but we also didn’t find any data saying that those classes

were really performed. 27

Physical Education in Jewish schools

According to sources from 1870 there were eleven primary

Jewish schools, and teaching of Gymnastics (PE) was not

performed.28

Somewhere around 1768 in Sarajevo was founded middle

religious school “Jesiva” for education of religious officers. Subject

Gymnastics was not in the curriculum.29

Period from 1878 to 1918

During the time of Austro-Hungarian occupation existed

and functioned primary, middle and higher: confessional (Serbian,

Croatian, Muslim, Jewish, and schools of immigrants), public and

private schools.

Physical Education in Serbian schools

27 Хајрудин Ћурић: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и Херцеговини 1800 –

1878, Београд, 1965; Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и

Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo,

1972; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih

početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 28 Хајрудин Ћурић: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и Херцеговини 1800 –

1878, Београд, 1965; Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у

Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od

prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 29 Хајрудин Ћурић: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и Херцеговини 1800 – 1878, Београд, 1965; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme

austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička

kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.

34

Primary schools

There were neither gyms nor playgrounds or areas were

classes of Gymnastics (PE) could be performed, and “[…] rarely any

of schools at the time, except Serbian school in Sarajevo, had a

special gym for that purpose.”30

First data about implementation of Gymnastics (PE)

teaching in Serbian primary schools we found in journal “Bosanska

Vila” from 1886: “Some more conscious teachers and church-school

boards, where mostly was leading Sarajevo, introduced gymnastics

in Serbian schools that year. They recommended it for both male and

female children.”31

Stevo Kaludjercic, teacher of Serbian primary school in

Sarajevo in 1899 wrote a curriculum for Serbian primary schools,

and in that curriculum, among other subjects, was also Gymnastics.

In his annual report for primary schools he also stated the teaching

basics for Gymnastics, where under point no. 12 was written: “Goal:

development, strengthening and better movement of the body by free

and social games. In all classes are done gymnastics exercises,

games in one place and in the move, jumping from one place and

with run-up. (Done only at summer).” 32

Number of week classes

was not stated.

We will use an example from Serbian primary school in

Visoko to show how certain teachers performed teaching of this

subject. Mirko Vukojevic, former pupil of that school, later an expert

for gymnastics, who attended the school from 1899 to 1903, gave the

following data to Jelena Dopudja:

“The teachers were the excuse, mostly

from Vojvodina… Until then we did not

have that subject. And when Dusan

Zivojnovic (Vojvodina) came to be the

teacher, he announced to pupils: ‘We

will have gymnastics in the afternoon!’

The pupils did not know what

30 Stevo Kaluđerčić: Podaci o srp-prav. školama, „Narodno jedinstvo“, ilustrovani zvanični almanah – kalendar Drinske banovine za 1932. godinu, Sarajevo, 1932, p.

362. 31 Ibid, p. 193. 32 Ibid, p. 362.

35

gymnastics is. We talked among us and

concluded that that will probably be

some exam, that he will examine us

from History. Only when the announced

class started, we realized what it is

about! As he remembers, they performed

some games with balls (he doesn’t

remember which and what kind) and

jumps. And he gave them marks from

that subject. When they celebrated the

final day of school, on Vidovdan, there

was a public exam in front of

representatives of church-school board

and parents, so, among other subjects,

from Gymnastics too. As eight year olds

they jumped from the board long jump

to 11/2 meters. Pupils purchased the ball

for the game themselves.” 33

In Serbian primary school in Mostar pupils also had classes

of Physical Education, “[…] combined folk sports and games with

contemporary physical culture – gymnastics or better said some

parts, modified forms of light athletics (folk) and similar.”34

At the new curriculum for male and female primary schools,

published in 1907, there was Physical Education (gymnastics and

children games) as obligatory subject. “In 1907 physical exercise

(gymnastics) was introduced as an obligatory subject in Serbian

schools, but it could be performed only at summer days and in

schools where the conditions allowed.”35

The Gymnastic was usually performed by Sokol system.36

One of the initiators for implementing the teaching of gymnastics in

33 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka

do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 25. 34 Ibid, p. 26. 35 Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и

Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965,

pp. 206-207. 36 Ibid, p. 209.

36

Serbian primary schools in Mostar and other places of Herzegovina

where schools existed was Serbian Sokol Cedomir Milic.37

Serbian Sokols from Sarajevo, who practiced in the gym of

Serbian primary school in Sarajevo, also advocated the idea of

implementation of gymnastics in primary schools, and the most

contribution gave sokol Dimitrije Matejic, and on his suggestion on

session of Serbian gymnastic society, January 3rd

1907, “[…] was

concluded to introduce gymnastics in IV grade of Serbian primary

school, and to ask the municipality for this request.”38

In March of the same year Serbian-orthodox church

municipality gave their consent, and sokol Savo Radonic started to

perform classes of gymnastics. Dimitrije Matejic continued Savo’s

work, and advocated the idea that female children should exercise

gymnastics too.

Courses for work with children were organized for teaches

of primary schools. One of those courses was held by Serbian Sokol

Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina, from 2nd

to 30th

July 1912 in

Sarajevo.

37 Кристина М. Пантелић Бабић и Петар Д. Павловић: Соколска идеологија

Чедомира Милића, Физичко васпитање и спорт кроз векове, год. 1, бр. 1, Ниш,

2014, pp. 117 – 133. 38 Hajrudin Ćurić: Istorija „Srpskog sokola“ u Sarajevu, Sarajevo, 1940, p. 10.

37

Physical Education in Croatian schools

Primary schools

Primary schools existed and worked as a part of convents.

Nuns were the teachers, and until 1880 they worked in accordance

with the curriculum from Croatia, and after that according to the

plans of public schools. At the beginning there was no teaching of

Gymnastics. First data about teaching of Gymnastics in school in

Dolac near Travnik we found for school year 1896/97. In school year

1911/12 the subject was called Gombanje, and students of 3rd

and 4th

year of school were graded from that subject.39

In rim-catholic primary school in Banja Luka, there was a

subject Gymnastics in the curriculum, but there are no marks, so we

are not familiar with the fact if the subject was really implemented.

In the period 1914 – 1917 marks from that subject were written. 40

Teaching of physical education (gymnastics) was done by

nuns. Besides basic exercises, rhythmic exercises with music and

like, “In schoolyards they were teaching children various games,

especially in years after 1908, i.e. after the seminar for gymnastic

games in Sarajevo, which attended few participants ‘white’ and

‘black’ nuns from several convents.”41

Certain convents had gyms for physical exercise with

gymnastic equipment, and pupils from primary school went there to

exercise when the gym was not at their disposal.

Primary school in Office of St. Augustus in Sarajevo was

founded in 1887 and mostly children of Austrians who moved in

Sarajevo went there. The school had its own gym for physical

exercise, and teaching of gymnastics was done by nuns.

Teaching of gymnastics (physical exercise) was also

performed in primary school in Office of St. Vinko in Sarajevo.

Pupil of that school, Marija Jemric-Novak (went to school from 1910

to 1913) gave to Jelena Dopudja some data about how the teaching

of that subject was performed:

39 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka

do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974. 40 Ibid. 41 Ibid, p. 33.

38

“We were taught gymnastics by our

teacher, nun Mileva Muhek, probably

from Croatian mountain area. She was

singing nicely, so she taught us many

dances. When the weather was nice we

exercised in their yard, which was used

mostly for rest. We played all kind of

games there: jumping over the rope,

‘ringe-ringe-raja’, ‘Mother is coming

from the station’, Pot selling; […]

‘school’, playing the ball on the wall or

ground, and the children brought the

balls themselves. We were very prepared

for rhythmical games with music,

separately boys and girls. […] We were

dressed in white skirts below the knee.

[…] On Thursday afternoon we were

free from classes, and therefore we went

for a walk. The excursion was

something else. […] Some very nice

memories I have from excursion to

Trebevic and Pale. We, of course,

walked to Trebevic. […] during

climbing we came to first forest house

where we took some rest, and continued

walking towards our goal. There was a

celebration: kettle with hot cocoa and

some hot rolls were waiting for us. Later

we played some games and there was

just no end.” 42

Katica Stimac, also a student of that school

(from 1912 to 1913), told to Jelen Dopudja as follows:

“I went to IV grade of primary school in

St. Vinko’s Office (with white nuns).

We had a courtyard there, and, as I

42 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, pp.34-35.

39

remember, we sometimes exercised and

played there… We walked a little bit in

two lines, and then exercises with arms

and legs in one place, with counting, the

simplest ones: arms up, aside, forward,

down, and something alike with legs and

some moves with body […] During

winter there was a little bit of that arm

moving in the classroom, in our benches.

Outside we played: ‘Pots’, ‘Cat and

mouse’, ‘Where we sharp the scissors’,

‘Sabac – sparrow, who is my friend?’,

we jumped over the rope, slowly and

with fast turns ( we called that ‘fajer’);

‘school’ also on break. […] We went to

excursion near Pale and on ‘mayolis’ (on

May 1st) in Pale… we didn’t have

special clothing for gymnastics.” 43

Physical Education in Muslim schools

Even with school reforms after the Austro-

Hungarian occupation, there was no Gymnastics

(Physical Education) as a subject in the curriculums.

Physical Education in Jewish schools

Primary Schools

In that time there were two kind of Jewish primary schools:

schools for young children (called Melders), and primary Jewish

schools.

In schools for young children there was no Gymnastics

(PE). In primary Jewish school, founded in school year 1888/89 in

Sarajevo, that performed their activities according to the curriculum

43 Ibid, pp. 35 – 36.

40

of public schools, there was Gymnastics (PE). The school even had

its own small gym where teaching of gymnastics was performed. 44

Physical Education in schools of immigrants

After 1878 occupation immigrants from Austro-Hungary

started to come to Bosnia and Herzegovina: Italians, Hungarians,

Germans (both from Austria and Germany), Polish people,

Slovakians, Ukrainians and Czech. Special schools were opened for

them, and they performed their school activities according to public

school curriculum that contained gymnastics as a subject. We found

no data claiming that the mentioned teaching was actually

performed, and in which way. But according to Jelena Dopudja’s

notes, former students of those schools “[…] remember that they

mostly played different games, and dances with songs in German.”45

Physical Education in private primary schools

Private schools were mostly founded for children of

immigrants, and the teaching was mostly performed in Hungarian

and German language. There were also trappist, evangelistic and

other schools. Teaching of Gymnastics was not performed in those

schools. 46

Physical Education in public schools

Primary schools

44 Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и

Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965;

Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; Avram Pinto gave the data to Jelena Dopudja. 45 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka

do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 37. 46 Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и

Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965;

Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.

41

After occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Austro-

Hungarian authorities disregarded all present schools and started to

open public schools with curriculum and books of Austrian schools,

in which Gymnastics (PE) as a subject played a significant role.

Country government by File no. 21339 from September 23rd

1880 determined the rules for opening public primary schools, and

two months later, on November 16th

1880 (File no. 28132) published

a curriculum for city primary schools. In list of subjects under no. 8

there was Gymnastics. It was planned to teach Gymnastics in all

years (I-IV), two times per week with two classes. Teaching basics

for that subjected stated:

“Strength, agility, certitude, sense for

work and self-confidence should be

nourished, bright spirit and sparkle body

should be maintained. Primarily should

be considered those moves, usually light

exercises, known in the certain area, and

then usual and free exercises, according

to physical development of children. If

children are 10 years old they can also

exercise on a stand (bars, Barren),

precha, etc.” 47

We could not find any sources based on which we could

conclude what teachers did during classes of that subject. In some

schools there was no marks from that subject, what brings us to a

conclusion that Gymnastics was not always performed as provided

by the curriculum. The name of the subject was not uniformed, and

in some schools it was called Gombanje and in some Gymnastics. 48

Games had a significant role in education of young people.

Perceiving the importance of games in education, Country

government on December 12th

1913 issued a rescript in which the

47 Zbornik zakona i naredaba 1878-1880, ponovo štampan u Službenom dodatku školskog vjesnika 1894, p. 8; cited in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama

Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; and Петар

Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско

Сарајево, 1988. 48 See more in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.

42

attention was mostly on moral education of students in national

primary schools through games. In this rescript, amongst, was

written:

“Further on, it was determined that the

best behaviors have the children who

know how to enjoy pleasant games

during break time… Walks and games

are the best way to control children

sparkle; therefore walks and games are

very useful educational tool, because

during walking and playing children

open their souls to us and that is the best

way to get to know them, and then we

can use the best educational method we

need.” 49

Further the rescript stated that until then there was not

enough attention given to walks and games, and therefore the

children didn’t know how to have fun with nice games, but instead

they performed the same games as the children who did not go to

school. Therefore “[…] is ordered, from now on, to cherish

intensively school walks and children games, in accordance with

requirements of teaching basics.” 50

After that order teachers paid more attention to games and

taking children to walks around town, and in some schools during

classes of physical education (gymnastics, gombanje) different

games were mostly performed.

Middle schools

After occupation Austro-Hungarian authorities also started

with opening of public middle schools, where physical education had

a significant place. In that time this subject was called differently:

gymnastics, gombanje, body-exercise. Schools worked according to

Austrian schools’ curriculum. Country government prepared the

curriculums in which contents of physical education were adjusted to

conditions in schools (gyms, gymnastic equipment, balls and other

49 Školski glasnik, Zemaljska vlada za BiH, Sarajevo, V, 1914, pp. 28 – 29. 50 Ibid, p. 29.

43

props). One of those curriculums Government published on

September 12th

1910 for High Schools and Real Schools in which PE

was provided with two classes per week in all years. The same year

in school gazette was printed the content of the mentioned subject.

Teaching plan was composed out of: Working exercises (9 exercises

were listed), Free exercises (12), Long rope (7), Exercises on bars

(3), Climbing (4) and Games (7). On second, third and fourth year of

school, besides already listed exercises, were also introduced some

more complex and other ball games. 51

New teaching plan for Physical Education was published in

1911 on 40 pages, significantly more in-depth than the ones from

1897 and 1910. In that plan, amongst, was written:

“Versatile and equal body education.

Maintenance and strengthening of

health. Adaption to natural, nice posture.

Preparing for conscious and willing

movements. Body strength and deftness.

Practice and sharpness of senses, soul

vigilance and freshness. Audacity,

soberness, endurance. Sense for order

and community. Awakening of

permanent interest for body workout.” 52

In the beginning most schools did not have their own space

for workout. Just a few had their own gyms for this subject. Clothing

was not specially determined, but the students were working out in

trousers and shirts, they were wearing sneakers and sometimes

worked out barefoot. In the beginning teaching was performed by

teachers of other subjects who had Gymnastics as a subject in their

own education. Later on, teaching was performed by teachers who

during their studies attended gymnastic courses, Sokol experts, the

51 See more in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od

prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, pp. 94 – 101; Naredba Zemaljske vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, Školski glasnik, Sarajevo, 1910. 52 Cited in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih

početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 48; See more in: Naredba Zemaljske vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, br. 53 od 29. XI 1913, Svrha; Građa za pojedine

razrede, Školski glasnik, god. 4, br. 12, Sarajevo, 1913, pp. 457 – 496, and Franjo

Bučar: Nastavna osnova za gimnastiku u bosansko-hercegovačkim srednjim školama, Nastavni vjesnik, Zagreb, 1915, pp. 68 – 70.

44

ones who attended congresses about gymnastics and games and the

ones who finished military gymnastic courses.

More middle schools existed and worked, and the most

prominent were: Large High School, Large Real and Small Real

High School in Sarajevo, Large High School in Mostar, Real School

in Banja Luka, Small and Large High School in Bihach, Large High

School in Downer Tuzla. Teacher schools-pretorandies (male and

female in Sarajevo, male in Mostar), Trading schools in Bjeljina,

Mostar, Travnik, Trebinje, Tuzla, etc.; Higher female schools in

Banja Luka, Mostar and Sarajevo.

In high schools, Real schools, Teachers’ school and Higher

female schools subject Physical Education was a part of the

curriculum, but it was named differently (gymnastics, gombanje,

body-workout) and was mostly performed by two classes per week,

in some schools one class per week (teacher schools). In all Trading

schools there was no PE as a subject, and in those schools that

practiced PE it was done for one or two classes per week.

Teaching of PE was performed by more than 30 teachers,

among whom: Svetislav Badalić, Andjeo Basić, Nikola Begović,

Viktor Beck, Nikola Bićanović, Jovan Vasić, Josip Vedral, Petar

Vojnović, Nikola Vujičić, Nikola Duić, dr Aleksandar Erich, Stevan

Žakula, Ivan Branislav Zoch, Luka Karaman, Nikola Kozomora,

Jovo Lakić, Dimitrije Matejić, Dušan Metikoš, Vladimir Novak, Ivan

Farkaš, Emil Woska and others. We found more than ten names of

female teachers who were teaching PE: Jelica Belović-

Bernadžikovska, Milka Bergant, Julija Dubravec, Marija Knežić,

Jozefina Matejić, Persa Popović, Ludmila Tesar, Marija Trbojević,

Vilma Ulhir, and others.

Other middle and higher schools

Beside aforementioned schools, there were also middle and

higher confessional and private schools.

In High schools: Serbian in Sarajevo, Franciscan-high in

Siroki Brijeg and Archbishop-high in Travnik, among other subjects

45

there was Gymnastics too. In Franciscan-high in Visoko there was

no Gymnastics. 53

Teaching schools: in Private teaching school in St. Josip

Office in Sarajevo, among others, there was Gymnastics as

obligatory subject; at Extended course for education of female

Mohamed religion teachers Gymnastics was provided as optional

subject; in Muslim teaching school in Sarajevo and Office of miss

Adelina Pavlija Irbi in Sarajevo there was no teaching of

Gymnastics. 54

Higher female schools in Sarajevo: in Serbian higher female

school and in Catholic higher female school, Gymnastics was taught

as obligatory subject; and in Muslim higher female school

Gymnastics was provided as an optional subject.

In Spiritual Offices (Serbian, Croatian and Muslim), as also

in Muslim Ruzdije and Madrasahs, teaching of Gymnastics was not

performed.

53 Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; Todor Kruševac: Srpska realka – gimnazija u

Sarajevu, knj. 3, Sarajevo, 1963; Stevo Kaluđerčić: Podaci o srp-prav. školama,

„Narodno jedinstvo“, ilustrovani zvanični almanah – kalendar Drinske Banovine za 1932. godinu, Sarajevo, 1932; Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни

и Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo

u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972; Растко Дрљић: Споменица фрањевачке и класичне гимназије у Високом о

50 – годишњици уједињења средњих школа Провинције Босне сребрене 1882 –

1932, Београд, 1932; Travnička spomenica 1882 – 1932, uredio: Kamilo Zabeo, Sarajevo, 1932. 54 Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка

до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972.

46

REFERENCES

Богићевић, Војислав: Историја развитка основних школа у

Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске

управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965.

Bučar, Franjo: Nastavna osnova za gimnastiku u bosansko-

hercegovačkim srednjim školama, Nastavni vjesnik,

Zagreb, 1915, pp. 68 – 70.

Crnogorčević, R. Živko: Memoari, za štampu priredio Milenko S.

Filipović, Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i

Hercegovine, Sarajevo, 1966.

Ћоровић, Владимир: Мостар и његова српска православна

општина, Београд, 1933.

Ćurić, Hajrudin: Istorija „Srpskog sokola“ u Sarajevu, Sarajevo,

1940.

Ћурић, Хајрудин: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и

Херцеговини 1800 – 1878, Посебна издања Српске

академије наука и умјетности, Београд, 1965.

Dopuđa, Jelena: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od

prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.

Дрљић, Растко: Споменица фрањевачке и класичне гимназије у

Високом о 50 – годишњици уједињења средњих школа

Провинције Босне сребрене 1882 – 1932, Београд,

1932;

Ђорђевић, Владан: Успомене, књ. прва, Нови Сад, 1927.

Грђић-Бјелокосић, Лука: Мостар некад и сад, Београд, 1901.

Jelinić, Julijan: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915.

Kaluđerčić, Stevo: Podaci o srp-prav. školama, „Narodno jedinstvo“,

ilustrovani zvanični almanah – kalendar Drinske banovine

za 1932.g, Sarajevo, 1932.

Ковачевић, Коста: Српска бањалучка Богословија, Босанска

вила, год. 24, бр. 11, Сарајево, 1909, pp. 171 – 174.

Kruševac, Todor: Srpska realka – gimnazija u Sarajevu, knj. 3,

Poseban otisak iz Glasnika arhiva Društva arhivista BiH,

Sarajevo, 1963.

Naredba Zemaljske vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, br. 53 od 29. XI

1913, Svrha; Građa za pojedine razrede, Školski glasnik,

god. 4, br. 12, Sarajevo, 1913, pp. 457 – 496.

47

Naredba Zemaljske vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, Školski glasnik,

Sarajevo, 1910.

Пантелић Бабић, М. Кристина и Павловић, Д. Петар: Соколска

идеологија Чедомира Милића, Физичко васпитање и

спорт кроз векове, год. 1, бр. 1, Ниш, 2014, pp. 117-

133.

Papić, Mitar: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme

austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972.

Павловић, Д. Петар: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и

Херцеговини до 1918. године, Факултет физичке

културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско

Сарајево, 1988.

Pavlović, D. Petar; Živanović, Nenad and Pantelić Babić, Kristina:

Vaso Pelagić, prvi teoretičar fizičke kulture u Bosni i

Hercegovini, Četvrti međunarodni naučni kongres

„Antropološki aspekti sporta, fizičkog vaspitanja i

rekreacije“, Banja Luka, novembar 2013, Zbornik radova,

ur. Slobodan Simović, Univerzitet Banja Luka, Fakultet

fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta, Banja Luka, 2013, pp. 65 –

71.

Пејановић, Ђорђо: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и

Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево,

1953.

Пелагић, Васо: Аутобиографија, Развитак, год. 1, бр. 3, Бања

Лука, 1910, pp. 74-79.

Пелагић, Васо: Изабрани списи, књ. 2, Сарајево, 1953.

Пелагић, Васо: Писмо, Савремена школа, бр. 8-9, Београд, 1949,

p. 119.

Školski glasnik, Zemaljska vlada za BiH, Sarajevo, V, 1914.

Travnička spomenica 1882 – 1932, uredio: Kamilo Zabeo, Sarajevo,

1932.

Тодоровић, Тихомир и Богојевић, Боривоје: Васа Пелагић о

значају гимнастике и физичког васпитања, Зборник за

историју физичке културе Србије, бр. 4 – 5, Београд,

1968, pp. 88 – 102.

Zbornik zakona i naredaba 1878-1880, ponovo štampan u

Službenom dodatku školskog vjesnika 1894.

48

RUSSIA

THE EMERGENCE AND HISTORY OF SPORTS

EDUCATION IN RUSSIA

Fedor Ivanovich Sobyanin, Faculty of Physical culture,

Department of theory and methodology of physical

culture, Federal State Autonomous Educational

Institution of Higher Professional Education

«Belgorod National Research University»

Vladimir Nikolaevich Irkhin, Faculty of Physical culture,

Department of theory and methodology of physical

culture, Federal State Autonomous Educational

Institution of Higher Professional Education

«Belgorod National Research University»

Elizaveta Alekseevna Bogacheva, Belgorod institute of

development of education department of pedagogics

and psychology of health

Correspondence

Fedor Ivanovich Sobyanin

Sobyanin@bsu.edu.ru

Phone: 8-909-206-00-53

The term sports education in Russia refers to the process

and the result of human exploration of all the experience of the

society in physical culture. «Physical culture is a type of culture of

the society, it is specific, moral and substantial activity directed on

physical perfection» (this definition was proposed by the Russian

delegation as the foundational one at the VII European Congress

FIEP (Barcelona, Spain 2012 ) and was unanimously approved by

the participants of the Congress and adopted in the final resolution.

Sports education as a systemic pedagogical phenomenon

that includes the following processes: learning (mastery of

knowledge and skills), education (the development of personality;

where person is a carrier of socially significant values), the

49

development of physical qualities, mental characteristics, processes

and properties), improvement (improvement and maintenance of the

physical, social and mental well-being of individuals and society).

The system of sports education in Russia has gone through

a long controversial process. It has been influenced by the material

history and the history of ideas in Russia. Sports education

originated in ancient Russia. The natural and social environment,

family, traditions and customs, oral tradition influenced the phisical

development of people. The need to protect vast areas from attacks

and wars, social and natural disasters forced Russians to take care of

physical development of the population from early childhood.

Outdoor games played an important role in education and training.

The games gave the children the opportunity to excersise their

reaction, agility and stamina; it allowed children to learn to make

decisions quickly in critical situations, developed the sense of

teamwork and mutual support.

Slavic tribes had a tradition of warriors physical training in

ancient time. Such practices are mentioned in historical writings of

famous Russian historians such as: V. Tatischev (1686-1750), M.

Karamzin (1766-1826), S. Solovyov (1820-1879), V. Klyuchevskii

(1841-1911). The legends about Russian heroes Alyosha Popovich,

Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich were known in many generations.

In VI-VIII, the Slavs already had a certain system of physical and

military training. Boys were taught horse-riding from the age of

three and at six, they would begin education at "youth houses" where

experienced instructors conducted sleep deprevation, hunger,

temperature ordeals to develop their stamina. They were taught

survival methods, hunting, self-defense techniques [2]. Physical

training of commonage and princely children, and children living in

rural and urban areas had its own pecularities.

Great Kiev Prince Vladimir Monomakh wrote his

"Instructions for one's sons" in the X century in which he proposed

one of the first systems of military physical training in Russia. The

system included excersises, hunting and promoted the development

of strength, endurance and courage. Vladimir Monomach himself

used tempering and skied [7]. .However, in the first half of the XVII

century, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov forbidded games under

the influence of the church that proclaimed it paganism.

50

Secular books that talked about the importance of the

physical education emerged in the second half of the XVII century.

Epiphany Slavinetsky in his treatise "Grazhdanstwo obychaev

detskih" devotes a separate chapter to the physical education of

children, focusing on games [16]. Socio-economic and cultural

reforms of Peter I in Russia lead to the creation of the first secular

schools which obligatory physycal training. The most popular games

were fisticuffs on Shrove Tuesday; boys above 12 could take part in

it. Kids began basic fighting training at 5. Battles were conducted

one-on-one and in groups and after the fighting rivals hugged and sat

down together for a festive table.

I. Betsky (1704-1793) is considered to be one of the first

theorists of physical culture in Russia. He is the author of the term

physical education. His work Short instruction, selected from the

best authors, with some physical notes («Краткое наставление,

выбранное из лучших авторов, с некоторыми физическими

примечаниями») is the first guide for parents and caregivers [5].

Catherine II (raigned 1762-1796) created the first public

educational institutions to which female students were allowed as

well. Schools similar to those in Smolny Monastery had to be

founded in each province and the first department for burgher girls

was created in Resurrection Monastery. For girls, physical education

was completed before the graduation from Smolny Monastery [10].

Free board department was opened at the Moscow

University in 1778. Physical training was part of the education

process and included marshial arts, jogging, ice skaiting, snow ball

fights, ball games, skittle, fencing, horse riding, hiking [8].

Prince Engalychev (1769-1829) wrote books about health

and physical education, among which is On the physical and moral

education («О физическом и нравственном воспитании») (St.

Petersburg, 1824) and made one of the first in Russia "Dictionary of

physical and moral education" (St. Petersburg, 1827).

Free market influenced social life in Russia in the beginning

of XIX. New 1804 Charter introdiced dancing and gymnastics into

the curriculum of gymnasiums. School education must had become

available to everyone. Modern pedagogical views were in Tsarsko-

Selskom liceum where pupils had gymnastics, dancing, horse-riding,

fencing and swimming classes.

51

Social relations became tense in 60th in XIX thus people

became more politically and socially active. Advocates for phisical

training changed thier moral values. Personality acuered value in

itself. Works of advanced thinkers of the time (Gorinevsky,

Dement'ev, Lesgaft, Pokrovsky et al.) included radical criticism of

the authoritarian, pragmatic physical education, corporal

punishment, indicated that the low level of physical health of

Russian children was largely determined by the absence of a focused

physical education. [3,4,8,11,12].

There was a need in the scientific foundations of sports

education in school. Interconnection and interdependence of

physical, mental and psychological development draw the attention

to the importance of physical exercise. At the same time, the

humanists were opposed to the predominance of military exercises

and methods of coercion in the curriculum of sports education.

Particular attention was paid to the system of military

education. Cadet corps were replaced with military gymnasiums with

civil teachers and cadet schools. The program of the latter included

gymnastics and military exercise. A critical shortage of instructors in

physical training prompted authorities to create special courses

where trained officers and non-commissioned officers were getting

qualification to conduct classes in gymnastics.

Thus, by the middle of the XIX century, the background for

phisical training system and had been formed. The main issue of the

first period was the necessity to prove theoretically the nimportance

of phisical education for population. The foundational principles of

physical training were formulated within institutions of secondary,

profeccional and military education. State, military and educational

institutions began training of specialists. One of the most natorious

was Central Gymnastics and Fencing School in Saint Petersburg [1].

Among civil schools the most famous was Higher Courses of

Lesgaft.

The most important factors in the formation of sports

education in Russia were the implementation of the ideas of foreign

and Russian theorists about the benefits of exercise and games.

Philosophical and pedagogical views of Chernyshevsky (1818-

1889), Dobrolyubov (1836-1861) on the harmonious education of

man, the unity of his body, the importance of physical activity,

interdependance between mental and physical development

52

influenced scientists, educators, community leaders dealing with

sports education. Russian scientist Sechenov (1829-1905) was

influenced by above mentioned theorists and made a great

contribution to the development of natural-scientific knowledge

about human body. Such topics as influence of phisical activity and

environment on the body, recovery excersise, importance of

individually tailored training were studied in his works [15].

Other factors palyed sighnificant role in the emergence of

sports education in Russia; among them are: the traditional military

education, custome phisical activities, people's games and holidays.

The influence of European (German, Swedish, French, сокольская)

individual and traditional gymnastics systems and gradual

introduction of the physical training in institutions led to the

formation of systematic structure of the sports education theory. It is

worth mentioning that climat, ethnic, geographic, language and

social conditions and the differences in the regions of Russia

influenced the content and methods of organizing and conducting

physical education classes.

The original Russian concept of the teaching methods and

concept of education through phisical culture can be found in works

by Lesgaft, Gerd, Dementiev, Zack, Filitis, Yavein and other

scholars and teachers. It allowed to see the physical culture as an

independent scientific and academic discipline. For example, for the

founders of hygienic directions E. Pokrovsky and his followers (I.

Gerd, E. Dement'ev, A. Zak, N. Filitis, G. Yavein), the goal of

physical education was to achieve the healing results by removing

the mental tensions.

There were two trends in the development of sports

education in Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. One of them

is related to the differentiation of sports knowledge and the

formation of an independent branch of the theory of physical culture,

a technique of physical training, theory and methodology of military

and physical training. Another trend was aimed at understanding the

accumulated theoretical knowledge and bringing in the ideas,

principles, beliefs into coherent system.

Great contribution to the development of sports education

theory was made by physician, anatomist, scientist, educator and

social activist P. Lesgaft, who developed the system of physical

education. He laid down the foundations of the theory and

53

methodology of such diverse disciplines as physical education of

preschool and school-age children, training of specialists in physical

culture, military physical training, physical exercise for people with

disabilities. The results of his work were of great value for the

development of anatomy, medicine, physiology, therapeutic physical

culture, adaptive physical education, vocational and applied physical

training, physical rehabilitation, physical recreation, education,

psychology and other fields of knowledge. In his system of physical

education, he tried to expand the narrow definition of physical

culture as a healing practive, which was defended by the famous

teacher P. Kapterev [6]. His theory based on the natural-historical

materialism, humanism, interdependence between humans and the

environment and education and anti-racist views included the

following provisions:

- Materialistic approach to the problem of the relation

between spiritual and physical;

- Recognition of the causation of phenomena and processes,

reliability and substance of facts;

- Denial of human hereditary doom and the recognizing of

the role of environmental influence, education and phisical exercises;

- The main education goal of education is the

comprehensive harmonious development of person with the leading

role of moral education [6]. Lesgaft put humanistic orientation,

fundamentalism, systematic and scientific principles in the the basis

of the Russian sports education .

At the beginning of the XX century, health-hygienic and

educational goals of sports education were recognized as equal and

binding, which was a significant achievement of the Russian

pedagogical thought. In addition, a significant stimulus in its

development was the revival of the Olympic Games and the

expansion of the international sports movement. All this led to the

beginning of the second phase of development of the system.

St. Petersburg Main Officer Fencing and Gymnastics

School was opened in 1909 and other similar institutions were

established in military districts. Professional training of gymnastics

and sports teachers was conducted at the sports unions and clubs.

Physical education was included in the curiculum in some advanced

schools. The official pedagogy doctrine claimed that 2-4 half-hour

breaks in a week was enough for the phisical development of the

54

pupils. But in such schools as Maya's school, Women's

Mogilyanskaya gymnasium, Medvednikovyh Gymansium, Women's

Stoyunina Gymnasium, Vosmiklassnoye Uchilische in Lesnoy (St. -

Petersburg), much attention was paid to the content, methods and

forms of physical education and daily physical culture lessons were

mandatory. Physical training included outdoor games, hiking,

trekking and competitive sports.

Society for the physical development of students created by

Lesfraft promoted extracurricular activities for physical education of

children not only in St. Petersburg, but also in Moscow, Odessa,

Tiflis and Tomsk. Propaganda of physical education conducted by

members of the society led to the opening of playgrounds, slides for

sledding and ice rinks for skating, conducting tours, walks and

hiking in many other cities in Russia.

Organization Bogatyr opened in 1904 organized holiday

activities and built playground and was the first of that kind in the

country. By the year 1914, the number of sports organizations

involved in the promotion of healthy lifestyles, sports, gymnastics

and tourism reached 360.

October Revolution in 1917 radically changed the political

and socio-economic situation in the country and opened soviet stage

in the development of sports education that lasted until 1991.

Specialized institutes of physical culture were created in the

first years of Soviet Union: State Central Institute of Physical

Culture in 1918 in Moscow, Lesgaft Leningrad Institute of Physical

Culture in 1919 in Petrograd. Physical education became compulsory

subjects in all types of educational institutions of the Soviet Union in

1920-1930 [2].

One of the results of the development of sports education

was the further development of physical culture theory. It allowed to

the development of such aspects of phisical culture as medical,

biological, pedagogical, psychological, historical, sociological,

theoretical and integrative, cultural and philosophical. As a

consequence, levels of knowledge about the phisical culture were

developed:

- The relationship between biological and social content in

physical education;

- The fundamental and technological problems of physical

culture;

55

- Particular related to physical training disciplines;

- The relationship between science,general culture and

physical culture [9].

The system of sports education has been formed with the

following types: special (or professional) sports education which

aimed at the development of the values of physical culture for

subsequent transfer to different categories of students enrolled in the

course of professional activities and non-special (non-professional)

physical education during which the subject developed skill

valuable for herself. Besides, sports education was devided

according to the level: preschool, general (schools), vocational

(technical schools, vocational schools, colleges), higher education

(universities). A system of additional education (classes for school-

age children in youth sports schools, sports school and colleges of

Olympic reserve) and the system of special education for children

with disabilities in the state of health and disability were integral part

of the system of sports education.

At the pre-school education level, the main objective was to

improve the health and ensure full physical development of children

and prepare them for school. Children at the stage of general

education developed all the basic physical qualities, mastered the

skills at the basic sports (gymnastics, athletics, outdoor sports,

skiing, swimming) and develop the habit of a healthy lifestyle.

Phisical training in colleges and universities was associated with a

professionally-applied physical training of youth. Students attended

phisical training classes in the main, preparatory and special medical

groups, depending on the health conditions in all educational

institutions.

Higher professional physical education was carried out in

the Institute of Physical Culture and faculties of physical education

where special departments were created to ensure the teaching of

general theoretical, biomedical, psycho-pedagogical and special

sports and educational disciplines. The main values that phisical

training specialist were supposed to acquire were knowledge, skills,

worldview [13]. The amount of disciplines aimed at shaping the

worldview of specialists in phisical training was increased three

times from 1930 to 1982. General knowledge disciplines curriculum

was realtively stable though some were merged or excluded. A large

amount of training time was dedicated to special physical training

56

(more than 50% of contact hours). The complex of special

disciplines that had been created included:

1) narrow focuse disciplines with a large volume of training;

2) practical complex for general training;

3) pedagogical specialized training.

The theory began to specialise and became more diverse.

Some scientific and special disciplines such as "physiology of sport",

"sports psychology", "biochemistry of the sport" were taught at the

faculties of physical education until the 1970s. There was virtually

no difference between the content of education in institutes of

physical culture and faculties for a long time because up until 1963

the curriculum was universal. Amount of biological disciplines had

been dicreased in favour of pedagogical disciplines, reinforced

methodical preparation and teaching practice since 1964 in the

departments of physical education [13].

Valuable experince that allowed to improve the quality of

life significantly and to make a great socio-economic changes in the

country was aquered during that period. It helped to survive World

War II and turn the USSR into a world sports power.

Significant changes in education took place in the period of

perestroika, reforms that began after 1984. A special role was

attached to the cultural function of education, principles of

humanization and democratization of the educational process, the

role of human factor in education, restructuring of the relationship in

the pedagogical system ("object-subject learning") and the idea of

respect for person. New teaching methods were actively introduced.

Training time was considerably increased: the total training time was

3626 hours in 1978 and 8105 in 1988 in any institute of phisical

training. Thus the educational process became more intense.

The modern stage - from 1991 to the present time - is

characterized by inconsistency of sports education in Russia. The

period began with crisis in the education system, which was the

consequence of the collapse of the USSR, social, political and

economic instability. New concept of education compatible with free

market was forming when the financial support of the educational

institutions was reduced; teaching specialist, couches and sportsmen

were leaving the country and the quality of the education

sighnificantly deteriorated. Educational institutions partially or

completely shifted to self-financing; there emerged private for-profit

57

educational institutions. New terms, such as educational services"

and human capital were used to describe the current state and plans

to develop sports education [14].

The new strategy of education policy was formulated in the

Concept of Development of Education in the Russian Federation for

the period up to 2010 [14]. The concept was aimed to increase the

competitiveness of Russia in the global educational system, upgrade

the content and technology of education, develope the quality

assurance system, improve management of the education system and

economic mechanisms in the field of education [14].

In addition to the Conception, the social and economic

growth in Russia has been developing and triggered the formation of

legal system (such laws as "On Education", "On Higher and

Postgraduate Education", "On physical culture and sports in the

Russian Federation" and other normative acts). The consequences of

these events were the growth of the competition between educational

institutions, actualization of the problem of improving the quality of

education, the efficiency of the educational institutions, increased

requirements for their licensing, accreditation and certification.

There are new ideas, including popular idea of "sports-

oriented education", "conversion of sports technology in physical

education", "sports oriented on health education", the introduction of

the olimpic project "SpArt" («СпАрт») in the scientific and

pedagogical environment. New technologies based on the modern

exercises and practices (fitness, shaping, powerlifting, dancing,

relaxation techniques, traditional outdoor games) are being

introduced.

The present stage of development of sports education is

characterized by certain trends. For example, standardization of

education is designed to provide a unified educational space, to

maintain the quality of education in accordance with the needs of

modern society. Multilevel education differentiates educational

qualifications, determines the educational content, teaching load and

other parameters. Versatile education enhances students' learning

skills, making them more versatile, adaptable to the needs of society

and environment. Computerization allows to receive, process and

present more information to improve teaching methods.

Intellectualization of education is a growing trend in response to

scientific and technical progress and the emergence of new

58

technologies. Humanization is a feature and requirememnt in the

educational system. Cross-curriculum integration is the integration

of academic disciplines, information, individual educational blocks

that allows objectively and comprehensively review the studied

problems. International Integration is also a requirement for an

objective comprehensive comparison and exchange of information

and technologies between institutions of different countries; it also

allows to improve sports education and broaden the knowledge

anbout new cultural types. The steady improvement in the quality of

education is another relevant trend that develops in competitive

environment of national education systems and educational systems

on a smaller scale (competition among schools, universities, etc.).

In the end of the brief historical overview of the emergence

and development of the sports education in Russia, it should be noted

that sports education in modern Russia is focused on the

development of general personal culture, versatility, student's

adaptability to the demands of the world. This is due to the fact that

the very physical culture goes beyond pragmatically defined

problems of health promotion, improving the physical condition of

single person. The present time requires to make physical education

the mean which will provide a basis for improving the material basis

for the full and harmonious development of the personality and the

realization of all the essential powers of person.

REFERENCES

[1] Evstafiev, B.V., Chihaev U.T. The beginning of the school

history: from the life of the first fencing school. Leningrad: VIFK,

1981.

[2] Filippova, S.O., Ponomarev, G.N. Theory and methodology

of physical culture in preschool: teaching guide. Spb.: Detstvo-press;

Moscow: TC Sfera, 2008.

[3] Gorinevsky, V.V. Physical education (1913).

http://dic.academic.ru (accessed September 15, 2014).

[4] Grantyn, K.H. Basic principles of physical education by

P.F. Lesgaft for school children. 74-88.

http://elib.gnpbu.ru/text/pamyati-lesgafta_1947/go,0;fs,1/ (accessed

September 15, 2014).

59

[5] Leading Russian XVIII century educators. Betzkoy I.I. and

his concept.

http://www.nravstvennost.info/library/news_detail.php?ID=3989

(accessed September 15, 2014).

[6] Lesgaft, P.F. Collected works on pedagogy in 5 volumes,

Vol. 1. Мoscow: Physical culture and sport, 1951.

[7] Maslennikov, I.B., Smirnova, G.A. Ski Race. Moscow:

Physical culture and sport, 1999.

[8] Moscow University Boarding school.

dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/moscow/3287/Благородный (accessed

September 15, 2014).

[9] Nikolayev, U.M. Theoretical and methodological principles

of physical culture in the XX century threshold: [Monograph]. Spb:

SpbGAFK im Lesgafta, 1998.

[10] Pedagogical concept of I.I. Betzkoy and his practical

activity. http://maxbooks.ru/pedogog1/pg13.htm (accessed

September 15, 2014).

[11] Pokrovsky, E.A. Russian outdoor games (winter games,

games with stones, sticks, ryuhi, bashni, gorodki). Spb., Bolshaya

encyklopedia malenkogo mira, 2007.

[12] Pokrovsky, E.A. Russian agility enhancing games.

Collection of Russian children games. Spb.: Rech, 2010/

[13] Sobyanin, F.I. Professional training of sports education

teachers with culturological approach: diss. Spb, 2001.

[14] The conception of Federal educational programme for

2006-2010. Мoscow: TC Sfera.

[15] Vydrin, V.M. Physical culture – a kind of culture of the

person and society (experience of the historical and methodological

analysis of problems). [Monograph]. Omsk: SubADI, 2013.

[16] Епифаний Славинецкий. http://dic.academic.ru (accessed

September 15, 2014).

60

SERBIA

PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHING IN THE

PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF THE REPUBLIC OF

SERBIA

SlađanaMijatović, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education,

University of Belgrade

Violeta Šiljak, Faculty of Management in Sport, Alfa University,

Belgrade

Correspondence

Violeta Šiljak

vsiljak@yahoo.com

Phone: +381 60 3555 736

THE PERIOD FROM 1830 TO 1914

Political, economic and cultural development of the

Principality and the Kingdom of Serbia, as a young civil state, was

carried out continuously during its struggle for complete state,

economic and cultural independence and its further progress as an

independent and autonomous state. In this sense, the development of

physical education in primary schools was carried out as well.

Although Serbia, after the great victories over the Turkish

army in Ivankovac, Deligrad and Mišar, obtained the status of a

vassal principality by signing Ichko's Peace (1806), only the hatt-i-

sharif of Sultan Mahmud (1830) recognized the borders of 1813 and

returned to the Serbian people their right to the freedom of religion,

the right to establishing their own army and the right to open

schools, hospitals and printing houses.

However, the conditions for the development of education

were created only upon returning the right to open and establish

schools and consequently to develop instruction of physical

education in schools.

61

During the Turkish rule in Serbia there were almost no

schools, and basic literacy i.e. reading and writing could be learned

only in monasteries, with monks or in villages, with priests. Only

few schools were funded by the children’s parents and the teachers

were Serbs from Austro-Hungary, who were literate peasants or

priests.

After the First Serbian Uprising primary schools were

opened in towns and even in villages, so that there were about 40 of

them in those years. By electing Dositej Obradović a principal of all

schools (1808) and separating school and church, the rapid

development of education was launched, however, the fall of

Karađorđe’s Serbia (1813) resulted in closure of all schools, because

the Turkish authorities prevented any educational activities in Serbia,

knowing how dangerous it could be for their rule.

After the Second Serbian Uprising (1815) and the re-

liberation of Serbia, the work of schools continued, but not to the

extent as it used to be in Karađorđe’s Serbia, because the prince

Miloš tried not to go against the Turks in this regard. In addition,

being illiterate himself, Miloš Obrenović, like other illiterate princes,

claimed that educated people would lead rebellions, thus he did not

support faster development of education and schooling.

The obtained autonomy (1830) created the conditions for

faster economic, political and cultural development, and thereafter

the rapid development of schooling and education began. Thus

(1839) in the Principality of Serbia, there were more than 80 schools

with about 3,000 students. The first Ministry of Education was

established in 1834. In order to promptly obtain educational staff

who would work in the public service, the Serbian government sent

its cadets abroad since 1839 already, when 10 cadets (scholarship

holders) were sent to schools in Austria and Germany.

Starting from 1846, the opening of the primary schools for

women began in Serbia. Several new laws on schools created by the

most educated people of Serbia were passed, thus the first law on

schools in 1844 was drafted by the famous writer Jovan Sterija

Popović. Pursuant to this law, primary schools in villages lasted

three years while urban ones lasted four years, and the teachers were

required to obtain the necessary qualification and graduate from the

Theological school.

62

The Prince Mihailo Obrenović reorganized the

government system but also carried out certain organizational

changes in education. New laws on primary school were passed, and

consequently primary schools in villages lasted four years since1863,

and the teachers were appointed after passing the teacher's exam

(since there were no teacher training schools).

After the assassination of the Prince Mihailo (1868), under

the regency regime in the following ten years, even more favourable

conditions for the development of education were created. Dimitrije

Matić, who was one of the government’s scholarship holders and

studied pedagogy abroad, was elected the Minister of Education and

implemented a number of measures for the successful development

of education. In Kragujevac in 1871 the first Teacher Training

School was opened, where the teachers were prepared for working in

the primary schools in the Principality of Serbia. New curricula for

primary schools were designed and the number of students in schools

increased.

In the last twenty years of the 19th

century many

modifications and amendments to the curricula, as well as in the

organization of the educational system, were made under the

influences coming from the developed European countries and in

line with the powerful pedagogical trends.

After the turbulent political events and the coup d'état

(1903), the Kingdom of Serbia experienced even stronger political,

economic and cultural development. The further development of

education and other cultural and scientific institutions continued.

New laws were passed, the curricula were amended and modified,

new schools as well as cultural and scientific institutions were

opened.

Physical Education in the Primary Schools in the

Period from 1830 to 1868

While in Serbia, at the beginning of the 19th

century, the

educational system and the network of schools were underdeveloped,

lacking in adequate material conditions and teaching staff, most

developed countries of Europe at that time, introduced physical

education into primary school. And only when Serbia obtained the

right to open schools (1830), and when young educated people

63

started coming from the western countries, the first ideas and

attempts to introduce such instruction as a compulsory subject

appeared in the Principality of Serbia.

This period included many ideas, thoughts and attempts in

relation to the introduction of physical education instruction into

primary school, starting from the moment when Serbia was granted

the right to open and establish its own schools until the Letter (act)

of the Minister of Education of 1868, which was the official

document that introduced physical education classes into primary

schools.

During these 38 years a lot of ideas and new curricula

appeared and many reforms were made within the school system as

well. In this period, four laws were adopted on the organization of

primary school, but none of those even mentioned physical

education. In addition to the laws, some special guidelines and

curricula, which further explained the implementation of curricula,

were issued but none of them included physical education as a

subject.

This means that, in the first decades of the primary school

development in the Principality of Serbia, the state authorities were

not prepared to introduce PE as a subject in primary schools.

Nevertheless, many ideas, attempts and efforts to include physical

education in school timetables among other subjects were spread by

some pedagogical workers:

1. Milovan Spasić who was the chief school manager

since 1845 wrote three books which represented specialized

literature for the primary school teachers. In one of them, published

in 1885 entitled: "Pedagogical and methodological instruction

material for the primary school teachers” Milovan Spasić wrote

about physical education of children as a foremost task of parents’

first and then of the teachers’ who should help this process through a

number of procedures and measures, such as organizing children’s

games.

2. At the proposal of the Parliament of the Principality

of Serbia, in September 1859, The Project of the Law on School for

the Principality of Serbia was designed, which also specified

physical education for male and gymnastics for female children,

among other subjects taught in primary schools. Although this law

64

Project was not adopted, it is evident that, in the late sixties, the first

attempts to officially and legally introduce the subject in schools

appeared.

3. Dr Djordje Natošević, the principal and the

professor of Serbian grammar school in Novi Sad, the supervisor and

the manager of Serbian schools in the Serbian province of

Vojvodina, was invited in Serbia to the duty of an officer in the

Ministry of Education, where he spent a year (1867-1868). After

visiting schools throughout Serbia in his Report to the Minister of

Education he criticized the state of schools and the organization of

teaching, and in relation to physical education, he wrote: "There is

no physical education in primary schools. There is nothing that

primary schools do for the sake of its development” (Archives of

Serbia, MPs, 1868, IV, 515, p. 3).

In the proposal of the curriculum he wrote that one of the

subjects should be gymnastics, which would be taught in all four

grades, from 11 am to 11.30 am and from 4 to 4.30 p.m. The content

of this subject would consist of: children's games, light military

exercises, swimming and fighting.

Based on Natošević’s Report on the state of the schools in

Serbia and the Report of Stevan D. Popović on the state of the

schools in Switzerland, the School Committee suggested that the

Minister of Education (in February 1868) open a Teacher Training

School, and to organize the course of gymnastics between the classes

in the primary schools in towns and villages.

In this period characterized by a discrepancy between

desires and actual conditions, i.e. by an inconsistency of needs and

financial possibilities of Serbia which was barely liberated, it could

not be expected the ideas of Serbian pedagogues to be accepted,

which would enable the integration of physical education teaching in

the mainstream of the European modern pedagogical thought and

contemporary teaching.

Yet, all these proposals and attempts to introduce physical

education teaching into schools represented significant efforts to find

a suitable place for this subject in the educational process, in

accordance with the achievements and the knowledge of the

European pedagogical thought.

65

Physical Education in the Primary Schools in the

Period from 1868 to 1882

During this period, a number of progressive laws on

school as well as directives and declarations of the Ministry of

Education were passed in relation to primary school, such as the

opening of Teacher Training School in Kragujevac (1871), which

launched the preparation of the first teachers.

The highest contribution to the introduction of physical

education teaching into schools was made by Dimitrije Matić, the

Minister of Education, who in December 1868 distributed “A Letter

to the Teachers of Primary Schools” where he, among other things,

suggested all teachers: ”should dedicate 3-4 classes a week out of

regular school time to gymnastics. The children can practice it

indoors or outdoors when the weather is nice” (Archives of Serbia,

MPs, 1868, IV, 518, p. 4).

In addition to this letter, the Minister also submitted to all

schools " The guidelines for physical exercises", which represented

an elementary curriculum of physical education (gymnastics)

teaching, divided in 17 separate sections, which were specific

program contents of physical education teaching, accompanied with

the appropriate explanations and short concise instructions.

Therefore, physical education (gymnastics) teaching was

introduced into the primary schools of the Principality of Serbia by

the Letter of the Minister of Education as of the 10th

of December

1868, and the Guidelines accompanying this Letter represented the

first curriculum of physical education for primary schools.

Inadequate professional training of teaching staff already

different in their professional education was the greatest difficulty in

the implementation of these Guidelines in primary schools, thus the

opening of the first Teacher Training School in Kragujevac (1871)

solved this problem to a great extent.

At the beginning of the academic year 1869/70, the

Minister Matić sent a Letter to the teachers, where he asked them to

organize the teaching of gymnastics "in order to make the body

development occur simultaneously with the progress of society" and

66

he highlighted that this kind of teaching must not be neglected

(Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1870, X, 2068, p. 6).

.In September 1871, the Ministry of Education issued

"The Timetable of Subjects in Primary Schools and the Instruction

on How They Should Be Taught", which actually was a curriculum,

with special didactic and methodological guidelines. At the end of

the Letter, a separate section stated: "In all four grades of male and

female schools, the physical exercises shall be taught", which

represented The introduction of compulsory teaching of physical

exercise (Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1871, VII, 102-1/2, p. 5).

Professional Training of the Teachers for Gymnastics

Instruction

Professional competence of teachers was the basic factor

of the successful implementation of the curriculum, so after the

opening of Teacher Training School in Kragujevac, before the

education of the first generation of teachers was completed, the need

for the teachers’ additional teaching expertise appeared. Therefore,

the Minister of Education, Dimitrije Matić, at the end of 1871,

decided that, during the summer school holidays in 1872, a one-

month course for selected teachers should be held in Kragujevac in

order to raise the level of the teachers’ professional qualifications.

The lectures in this course were held by the professors of

Teacher Training School in Kragujevac, and Petar Predragović, the

teacher of gymnastics at grammar school and Teacher Training

School in Kragujevac was selected for the teaching of physical

exercises i.e. gymnastics classes. For the purpose of this course he

had prepared a "Curriculum according to which Gymnastics should

be taught to the primary school teachers”, which was divided into 18

classes and included everything that was necessary to realize the

gymnastics curriculum in primary school.

This course, held in July 1872, was attended by 75

teachers, which represented 15% of the total number of the teachers

in Serbia. The same course was held in 1873 in Kragujevac, and

again it was held by Peter Predragović. Thus, both of these courses

played a significant role in raising the professional level of the

teachers for improved physical education teaching.

67

Based on the courses held, Peter Predragović wrote a

handbook "A Brief Guide for teaching gymnastics in primary

schools", whose publication in 1,000 copies was approved by the

Ministry of Education in 1873, and which was a valuable

professional assistance to the primary schools teachers in the

following decades. The held courses and the printed handbook

greatly improved the physical education teaching in the primary

schools of the Principality of Serbia in the following decades, since

the teachers taught gymnastics classes with the assistance of the

Handbook of Petar Predragović.

In order to improve the conditions for physical education

teaching, the Ministry of Education, under the Rules on school

construction and school furniture (1881) provided that a room for

gymnastics of a greater height than that of a classroom, which could

be illuminated from two sides and heated, should be built within

each school facility, and in the case of rural schools it should be an

open space between the school facility and the schoolyard. In

addition, these Rules provided that, in the schoolyards, the

gymnastics apparatus should be set up, where the students could

practice when the weather conditions allowed.

Physical Education in the Primary Schools of the

Kingdom of Serbia (1882-1914)

After the recognition of the state independence of the

Principality of Serbia by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), a strong

economic development of the young Serbian state began, which was

appropriately followed by the faster development of education and

schools in general.

Physical education as an integral part of the overall

process of education, developed and changed in accordance with the

relevant social changes i.e. ideas and programs, which were adopted

depending on the political and economic situation in the country.

In order to improve the work in primary schools, the

Ministry of Education passed the laws on their work repeatedly

(1882, 1891, 1892, 1898, 1904), and very often complemented and

modified the curricula, which was accompanied by a number of

guidelines and letters for the purpose of their more complete

implementation. In all of this, physical education teaching occupied

68

a certain place, and even was regulated by separate documents:

Regulations on apparatus design (1885), Guidelines for gymnastic

exercises (1885), Letters of the Minister regarding teaching

gymnastics (1905).

The Law on Primary Schools of 1882 for the first time

placed physical education in an equal position with other subjects,

since the list of subjects taught in primary schools included

gymnastics as well, and the Curriculum, adopted in the following

1883, specified that gymnastics should be taught two classes a week

in each grade.

A detailed curriculum for gymnastics teaching was

adopted in 1884 for all six grades and it included:

1. children’s games,

2. military exercises,

3. basic physical exercises,

4. exercises with weights, rope skipping,

exercises on uneven parallel bars and rings, then rope

climbing, long jump and high jump and wrestling.

However, although well-designed and thoroughly

developed, this Curriculum could not be realized in practice because

the majority of teachers were not professionally trained enough to

implement it, and a lack of apparatus, devices, gyms and arranged

schoolyards prevented its implementation even when the teachers

were professionally trained.

In order to solve the problem of a lack of apparatus for

gymnastics teaching the Minister of Education prescribed The

regulations on designing apparatus for gymnastic exercise in

primary schools (1885), which described the apparatus for each

grade individually, such as racks for high jump, spring boards, rings,

horizontal bars, uneven parallel bars, climbing apparatus, balance

beams, hoops, throwing stones, weights and the like. In the same

year the Ministry of Education issued the Guidelines for gymnastic

exercises with illustrations for primary schools, which contained the

curriculum for gymnastics teaching in three separate sections with

drawings.

Surely, the adopted Regulations on designing apparatus

and the Guidelines for gymnastic exercises enabled that, in those

places and in those schools with adequate professional staff and at

least minimal financial resources, physical education classes could

69

be conducted according to the adopted curriculum. However, a very

small number of schools managed to get appropriate apparatus under

these Regulations, thus gymnastics classes usually included only:

children's games, simple exercises in place, rope skipping and

various forms of military exercise, as stated in the reports by the

supervisors visiting schools in all the areas of the Kingdom of

Serbia.

For these reasons, the Ministry of Education in 1891

adopted a new curriculum for lower grades of primary school, where

the curriculum for gymnastics teaching, especially in younger

grades, underwent major changes and amendments. The curriculum

no longer included any military exercise, which was the result of

numerous complaints and objections of teachers, parents,

pedagogues and supervisors, since the teaching of gymnastics

became exclusively military training, which was more adverse than

benefitting in relation to the education of the children of that age.

Some new teaching contents were introduced to the

curriculum of gymnastics teaching: swimming and tours, and

children’s games still occupied an important place. Specific

children’s games which should be realized according to this

curriculum were determined for all grades, such as the wolf and the

lamb, hide and seek, peek-a-boo, catching games, tugging, tag, target

shooting, leapfrog and others.

In addition, the competition as a compulsory teaching

content was introduced, which provided new opportunities for the

teachers engaged in these classes. Such a curriculum, without

exercises with gymnastics apparatus provided greater opportunities

for its implementation, and new teaching contents were closer and

more acceptable to children.

The introduction of children’s games into gymnastics

teaching created an opportunity of education through playing and

games, since they brought joy and happiness to these classes by their

spontaneity and comfort. The envisaged curriculum could be

realized to a greater extent providing a significant impact on the

students’ physical development.

In order to carry out more complete control and obtain

trustworthy insight into the manner and the volume of the curricula

implementation, the Minister of Education appointed permanent

school supervisors, whose task was to inspect schools when they

70

deemed it necessary. Thus, the insight into the teachers’ work was

more complete, because they were controlled by both the supervisors

and the school principals and the ministerial delegates, who assessed

their work at the end of each school year.

In order to provide conditions for teaching gymnastics,

when the weather conditions did not allow practicing outside, the

Minister prescribed the Regulations on school construction and

school furniture (1899), similar to the Regulations of 1881, which

stated that larger schools, especially in towns "should also have a

hall for gymnastics and ceremonies which can be heated", of the

height of five meters at least.

In the field of physical education teaching there was a

constant need for methodological reference books so that the

"Textbook of Gymnastics" by Atanasije Popović, published in 1898,

represented a valuable professional assistance in the work of many

teachers. Thus, it enabled this kind of teaching to be carried out at a

higher professional level.

However, despite all of this, the condition of physical

education teaching in primary schools in the last decade of the 19th

century, according to the assessment and the opinion of the

supervisors of primary schools was not satisfactory. A lack of

funding resources for the needs of gymnastics teaching was the

actual reality of that period as well as a lack of understanding and

appreciation of the importance and the value of educational areas on

the other hand. For Serbia of that time, physical education teaching

was something superfluous, unnecessary luxury or a fad.

The curriculum (1899) changed the name of this subject

in: gymnastics and children’s games, which even more emphasized

the commitment to this program content. According to it, a greater

part of the contents whose performance required special facilities

and gymnastics equipment for physical training (exercises on

horizontal bar, uneven parallel bars, rings and various climbing

apparatus) was exempted from gymnastics instruction, and more

contents in the field of children's games were provided. Thus, the

curriculum for gymnastics teaching no longer required greater

financial investments in providing the conditions for its performance.

However, this curriculum, in its concept, was still one-

sided and limited the choice of means and forms of physical

exercise. Gymnastics teaching gradually turned into a field of games

71

and entertainment, very often into children's play without the

teachers’ supervision, usually before or after school. By such a

unilateral approach and limited choice of the program contents, the

set objective could not be achieved, so that we could not even talk

about successfully accomplished tasks of this kind of teaching, as

was often stated in the reports of the school supervisors.

This condition was still present in the early 20th

century,

and even in the "Law on Public Schools" of 1904 this subject was

named only: children's games.

Gymnastics teaching at that time belonged to the group of

subjects which were called: skills and which unfortunately belonged

to the subordinate group of subjects, so they were paid less attention

in schools, and therefore were neglected. Thus, the Minister of

Education, by his special letter (1905), demanded a change of such

an attitude which was a result of the behaviour of school authorities,

who, for a long time, emphasized that the most important subjects

were Serbian and Maths, so the basic school principle then was that

the task of any school, above all, was: to teach children how to write,

read and count. Therefore, the teachers’ attitude towards this

teaching area ranged in the following relations: if you can, if you

want, and if you are able to.

The Minister emphasized that this approach to gymnastics

teaching in primary school was basically wrong and that it had to be

changed, pointing out that was an important area of students’

education, which was neglected in primary schools, and therefore in

the end of the Letter he wrote: "From now on, this can never be like

this. There are no major and minor subjects in primary schools.

They are all important, so that equal attention has to be paid to all of

them.” (Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1905, II, 301, p. 2).

He also emphasized that the teachers had to change their

attitudes and that the supervisors during their visits should verify

whether they complied with the suggested or not.

On the basis of this attitude of the Minister of Education, a

part of the teachers and the schools gradually changed the attitude

towards this kind of teaching, so that, in addition to children's games,

other contents were provided, such as: nature tours, various kinds of

competitions, which were called chivalrous competitions: in running,

throwing stones, jumping, wrestling, and even in some modern

sports.

72

The teachers who understood the importance of this

subject and also were practitioners of a civil gymnastic society,

organized also other forms of physical exercise with children, such

as swimming, skating, and sometimes apparatus exercises as well.

However, the teachers’ inadequate qualifications for

conducting this kind of classes was due to the condition present in

the gymnastics instruction in the teacher training schools in

Kragujevac, Aleksinac, Niš, Jagodina, Belgrade, which occasionally

organized these classes, and even more rarely appointed the

gymnastics teachers. Therefore, it is understandable that the teachers

who graduated from them did not acquire the qualifications

necessary for teaching physical education.

A faster and more significant development of this teaching

area was prevented by turbulent political changes and events,

although the preparations for the war conditioned gymnastics

teaching to be assigned a defensive task in order to better prepare the

young people for defending the country. Therefore, greater attention

was paid to military exercises, which were introduced into schools

and often became the only content of those classes.

But despite all of this, gymnastics teaching occupied a

significant place in primary schools, which is proved by a great

interest of ministers, pedagogues, teachers and doctors, who wrote

about it, proposed the measures to address these issues and warned

the state institutions and the cultural public about it, which

contributed to its continuous, faster and more successful

development.

THE PERIOD FROM 1914 TO 2014

After World War I and by carrying in its sovereignty and

statehood, Kingdom of Serbia initiated the establishment of the

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, a state which in 1929 was

renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After World War II and a

change of polity, the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was

formed in 1945, a state that changed its name to the Socialist Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia by the 1963 Constitution. After 1992 and its

dissolution, Serbia and Montenegro make the Federal Republic of

Yugoslavia until 2003, when they change the name in the State

73

Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Since 2006, Serbia has been

operating as an independent and sovereign state.

The curricula of physical education set forth by the

Ministry of Education laid the foundation for quality physical

education in elementary schools in Serbia. By opening the higher

education institutions for training physical education teachers, the

prescribed number of physical education classes could be held

successfully.

Physical Education in Primary Schools from 1918 to

1941

After World War I, in the newly formed state there was a

wide range of schools (Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Muslim,

Protestant, Evangelical, Jewish, Hungarian, German, etc.), which,

among other things, had different curricula (M. Tubić, 2005, pg.

105).

Curricula were harmonized in 1920 for the whole country.

Physical education was mandatory in all schools. Ministry of

Education and Religions occasionally corrected the curriculum using

regulations and amendments, and they were related to physical

exercise in the winter, female physical exercise, equipment,

application of the Sokol system of exercise, and so on.

During this period, the instructions from the Ministry that

were related to physical education implied that it be based on the

Sokol program. However, the demands of the school youth and

emerging educators were aimed at sports games, i.e., competitions.

In 1925, Ministry of Education passed the curriculum for

teaching physical education in primary schools (Grades 1-4).

According to the curriculum, the subject was called Gymnastics and

Children's Games and was held once a week in all four grades (S.

Ilić and S. Mijatović, 2006. pg. 555).

In 1929, at the time of political crisis caused by the

dissolution of the National Assembly and the introduction of 6

January Dictatorship, the decisions were made in the state that led to

the regression of physical education instruction, which in primary

schools was reduced to two half-classes a week (Tubić, 2005, p.

107). That same year, the Act on Public Schools was passed,

74

exclusively determining the Sokol gymnastics system as the base of

physical education in schools.

The new curriculum for primary schools was passed in

1933, and began to be implemented starting from 1935. Number of

physical education classes was as follows: Grades 1 and 2 - 4 classes

a week for half an hour; Grade 3 - 2 classes a week; Grade 4 - 1 class

a week.

Based on official data, about 40% of primary school

children were covered by physical education before World War II.

However, because in many schools there were no conditions for

teaching physical education, it is assumed that the percentage of

primary school children who practiced physical education was much

lower.

At the time, the program did not set forth mandatory

organization of sports activities during free time. Extracurricular

sports activities only existed thanks to the self-organization of

students and engagement of physical education teachers who

supported sports competitions (M. Tubić, 2005, pg. 108).

The first impetus by the state for the development of

sports was given in 1932 by the Ministry of Physical Education of

the People, which recommended and supported the establishment of

students' sports associations and their competitions with a special

Act. Although the students' clubs were legalized with an Act from

the Ministry of Education in 1938, the law of 1924 was still in effect,

which forbade the students from taking part in operations and

competitions in sports clubs. Violators were expelled from school.

The problem of qualified teachers was also present during

this period. Classes were mostly held by the Sokol leaders who had

completed professional training courses. As the courses were

organized in a three-day period, the idea of teacher education at

higher education institutions arose among the experts. Although in

1935 the Ministry of Physical Education of the People passed a

decision on the establishment of a one-year school, the decision had

not been implemented until 1938.

75

Physical Education in Primary Schools after World

War II

During World War II, a large number of school buildings

were destroyed. By 1990, the reconstruction of old and construction

of new school buildings had doubled the number of students

compared to 1941, and according to official statistics, the primary

school education covered 98% of the students (M. Tubić, 2005, pg.

297).

In order for the schools to use the intensity and quality of

physical education to give what is expected of them, they had to

provide good programs, a lot of good professionals, the required

number of regular classes and extra-curricular sports and recreational

activities, organization of student sports associations and their

competitions, and facilities for physical exercise and sports.

In December 1945, relevant governmental and educational

authorities introduced a nationwide mandatory seven-year primary

education system. Four years later, it was extended for another year,

and it became an eight-year education system.

Curricula that were passed by the Ministry of Education

set forth mandatory physical exercise classes, organization of student

sports competitions, taking students on fieldtrips interwoven with

sports and competitive activities, and organization of sports and

physical exercise events in all schools. According to M. Tubić

(2005) in the first three grades, the primary schools had to set aside

half an hour each day for physical exercise. From Grades 4 - 8, they

had to have 3 physical education classes per week. For students who

had certain physical disabilities, according to a medical report, the

school was suppose to organize remedial gymnastics for half an hour

each day (p. 298). Primary schools were also obliged to organize

extracurricular student sports activities at least once a week, which

was usually accomplished through special sports afternoons.

School programs specified camping trips for students once

a year, taking students on six trips a year, encouraging and

supporting activities in students' gym and sports clubs, and since

1958 in student physical education societies.

In addition to the joy of participation, school competitions

stimulate students to exercise systematically, contribute to bringing

young people together, and develop fair play. School competitions

76

have an educational and training role. The system of school

competitions in Serbia, which has a 40-year tradition, is conducted

under the name "School Olympics Serbia". Competitions are held

under the aegis of the Government of the Republic of Serbia,

Ministry of Education and Sports, and the Directorate of Sports.

Olympic sports games represent a constant system of

sports competitions organized for primary and secondary school

students in 12 sports branches: swimming, archery, table tennis,

gymnastics, volleyball, basketball, handball, miniature football,

rhythmics, skiing, athletics and spring cross. "School Olympics

Serbia” are organized every four years. So far, 9 Olympic Games

have been held as follows:

1 – Kragujevac (1980),

2 – Kruševac (1984),

3 – Belgrade (1988),

4 – Aranđelovac (1992),

5 – were not held,

6 – Zrenjanin (2000),

7 – Zaječar (2004),

8 – Niš (2008) and

9 – Sremska Mitrovica (2012).

Winter Student Olympics have so far always been held on

Mount Kopaonik, with the exception in 1992, when they were held

in Mount Brezovica.

Competitions are managed and organized by the

Association of School Sports and Olympic Education of Serbia.

Association of School Sports and Olympic Education of Serbia

adoptes and implementes developmental programs for school sports,

cherishes and respects sports spirit and sports morale, and works on

spreading the Olympic ideas and spirit. Physical education teachers

play a significant role when it comes to the implementation thereof,

as they are directly involved in the competition system with their

students. Number of students in one school year at all levels reaches

of 350,000 participants.

The competition system is divided into five levels:

school (inter-class)

municipal,

inter-municipal (district - city),

77

inter-district (regional) and

republic competition (V. Šiljak, 2013, pg.

232-234).

Physical Education in Primary Schools at the

Beginning of the 21st Century

Following the curriculum of physical education in primary

schools today, it is necessary to ascertain that a recent reform of the

curriculum abolished the third compulsory class. Ministry of

Education gave the primary school students an opportunity to use a

spare class called Free Activities, and to engage in sports or other

(arts) activities of their choosing. In the age of modern

technology/computers and established reduced motion activities of

children, the Ministry did not recognize the necessity of a greater

number of compulsory physical education classes.

By 2002, according to N. Rodić, eight curricula for

physical education had been officially adopted, which the author

considers pedagogical and the educational failures because they did

not understand the importance of physical education classes for

children in this age group (p. 82). In 2002 and 2003, co-author of the

study, V. Šiljak, was a member of the commission for the

educational field of "Physical and health education" formed by the

Ministry of Education and Sports of the Republic of Serbia, in order

to determine the main strategic direction of education reform in the

Republic of Serbia. As the team of ten people consisted of only two

physical education teachers, it was expected that this reform would

not yield results in favor of increasing the number of physical

education classes.

Conclusion

Physical education in Serbia in the nineteenth century

owes its emergence and development primarily to the develop of the

Sokol movement and the learned men who recognized the

importance of the introduction of physical education in elementary

schools. Since its beginnings in the late twentieth century, teaching

78

physical education and its improvement were worked on intensively

until the end of the 20th

century.

Over the last one hundred years of teaching physical

education in schools in Serbia, we can see periods of development,

stagnation and even regression. The socio-political conditions have

certainly affected the overall situation in Serbia, and thus the

development of education in Serbia. The formation of the new state,

Yugoslavia, where Serbia was only a part of it, two world wars, and

the collapse of Yugoslavia are events that indicate a very turbulent

20th

century.

The education system in Serbia has been changing

according to its polity. Serbia as a kingdom, then as part of a

socialist state, and today as a parliamentary state has during this

period had different forms and approaches to the system of physical

education in schools.

REFERENCES AND SOURCES:

a) References

Grupa autora. (1889). Prosvetni zbornik zakona i naredaba,

Beograd.

Đorđević, Ž. (1958). Istorija vaspitanja u Srba, Beograd.

Ilić, S. (1981). Školsko fizičko vaspitanje u Srbiji (1830-1914),

(Doktorska disertacija. Beograd, FFV.

Ilić, S., Mijatović, S. (2006). History of Physical Education,

Belgrade: D.T.A. Trade.

Jovanović, B. Povodom stogodišnjice organizovanog fizičkog

vaspitanja u Srbiji. Fizička kultura - Vol. 7-8.

Predragović, P. (1873). Kratka uputstva za predavanje

gimnastike u osnovnim školama, Beograd.

Rodić, N. (2002). Former reforms of physical education in

primary schools of the Republic of Serbia, Sombor:

Norma, vol. 8, no. 1-2, pp. 79-88.

Šiljak, V. (2013). Olympism, Belgrade: Alfa University.

Tubić, R. M. (2005). Yugoslav sports, Novi Sad: Museum of

Vojvodina.

79

b) Sources

1. Archives of Serbia Fund of the Ministry of Education of

Serbia (MPs)

Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1868,IV, 515, str. 3.

Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1868,IV, 518, str. 4.

Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1870, X, 2068, str. 6.

Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1871,VII,102-1/2, str. 5.

Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1905, II, 301, str. 2.

2. Archives of the Museum of Physical Culture of Serbia,

Faculty of Physical Education, University of Belgrade.

80

SLOVAKIA

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL PHYSICAL

EDUCATION IN THE TERRITORY OF

SLOVAKIA

Branislav Antala, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,

Comenius University in Bratislava

František Seman, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,

Comenius University in Bratislava

Natália Smolenáková, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,

Comenius University in Bratislava

Correspondence

Branislav Antala

antala@fsport.uniba.sk Phone: +421 905 887575

The development of school physical education on the

Slovak territory can be divided into the following stages:

1. School physical education since its creation until 1918.

2. School physical education between two wars (1918 – 1939).

3. School physical education during World War II (1939 – 1945).

4. School physical education in the years 1945 – 1992.

5. School physical education since 1993 until today.

In our treatment, we will focus on the most important

features of each period only. For the purpose of a more detailed

study, this issue is further elaborated in the works of Píschová

(1979), Grexa (1995), Sýkora (1996, 1999), Antala (2001), Bobrík

and Seman (2010) and others.

81

School Physical Education since its Creation until 1918

In the feudal period, in relation to the monopolization of

culture and education from the church, the physical education within

the church schools (for example monastic, parish, and cathedral) did

not occur. Later, with the emergence and development of cities are

emerging urban schools and universities. Here, students devote to

physical education in leisure time, but not under the supervision of

teachers. However, Trnava University had its own teacher of fencing

and dancing and Jesuit school in Banská Bystrica had its own gym.

In connection with the establishment of schools in Slovakia

we highlight in particular Mining and Forestry Academy in Banská

Štiavnica, which was founded in 1762 as a Mining Academy and

was essentially the first technically oriented university in the world.

Within the same school, students set up their own Academic

Shooting Association (in 1874) and the shooting was a sporting

discipline also.

Physical education is getting into the school environment

with the advent of humanism and the Renaissance in the 16th

century. It exists only in the form of extra-curricular. The most

important figure of this period was Johann Amos Comenius (1592-

1670), which exercises, games, hiking, diet and hygiene regarded as

an organic part of education. Significant changes in favor of school

physical education occurred in Hungary thanks to Johann Ignatius

Felbigerovi (1724-1788) and Adam František Kollár (1718-1783).

They were authors of the Enlightenment reform of education and

training named Ratio Educationis in the second half of the 18th

century (1777). This reform has interpreted the care of physical

education as one of the goals of the school and also contained

standards for physical education. Thoughts of this reform in Slovakia

were developed by national revivalists Samuel Tešedík (1742-1820),

Daniel Lehocký (1759-1840), Bohuslav Tablic (1769-1832), who for

example recommended physical exercise twice a day, and others.

The poet Ján Kollár (1793-1852) as the first in our countries raised

the requirement of compulsory school physical education in 1849.

He was based not only on sports traditions, but took into account the

modern sport that began to develop in England. Ján Kollár drew up

at the request of the Vienna government reform proposal Slovak

schools. He proposed physical education for all types of schools and

82

also demanded that schools have gymnasiums and vocational

teachers.

Based Bonitz-Exner reform, physical education gets to

school in 1851 is an optional subject. Physical education in this

period also developed three Slovak non-state grammar schools in

Turčiansky Svätý Martin, Revúca and Kláštor pod Znievom.

Students attended physical education voluntarily and teaching was

paid. The highest level had physical education in Revúca. The

teacher was Ivan Branislav Zoch (1849-1921), author of the first

Slovak physical education textbook "Krátky návod na vyučovanie v

telocviku hlavne pre školy národnie (“Short Instruction for Teaching

Physical Education especially in the National Schools”) (1873).

Compulsory physical education was enacted after the defeat

of Austria by Prussia, firstly at the municipal schools (1868, 1869)

and later in secondary schools (1874 at grammar schools, in 1883 at

high schools). Physical education should ensure better preparation of

young people for the needs of the army. Core curriculum was Spiess

system, but at the end of 19th century the content was supplemented

by sports games and before World War I by the pre-military training

for boys.

Physical education came into schools, but at the same time

was the lack of qualified teachers who could teach physical

education. Preparation of vocational teachers started first in Vienna

and Budapest (since 1871) and later, since 1891 also in Prague.

Physical education generally taught graduates of philosophical

faculties, who during her studies as a subject did not attend. Eötvös

reform (1868) of teacher training institutes provided training of

qualified physical education teachers. Equipment for the preparation

of a small number of professional "preparers" for future physical

education teachers, however, proved to be major problems progress

in preparing physical education teachers.

School Physical Education between Two Wars (1918 –

1939)

The establishment of Czechoslovakia had a positive impact

on the development of Slovak education and pedagogy, although the

development of school physical education was not so significant.

Greater development of school physical education hindered several

factors persisting from the past or arising from the current political-

83

economic situation - poor material equipment of schools, lack of

compulsory physical education in vocational, technical and higher

education, insufficient training of teachers. Plight in the number of

physical education teachers helped Slovakia Czech tackle action

sports professionals and teachers.

In the Czechoslovak state, university teacher training

conducted at universities in Prague and Brno (but not on individual

faculty of physical education). The oldest Physical Training

magazine focusing on school physical education "Physical education

of youth" (in the Czech Republic today it is entitled "Physical

Education and Youth Sport") began. Compulsory physical education

is also introduced for girls. By treatment of Czech teachers in

Slovakia, in addition of Tyrs system, which was the basis for the

curriculum, penetrated the ideas of the French system of gymnastic

of Georges Hébért (1875-1957) (natural methods in physical

education) and New Austrian system of Karl Gaulhofer (1885-1941)

and Margarete Streicher (1891-1985). Physical education

organizations as Sokol (Falcon), Orol (Eagle) and worker’s physical

education movement have sought to influence on school physical

education. Regarding physical education organization Sokol, from its

ranks in 1918 published a call for the establishment of a separate

faculty, which would prepare specialists in physical education:

“When physical education should be guaranteed outcome, it must be

organized by state. It must have the highest status of scientific

management, which is the faculty of physical education at the

university.” Sokol simultaneously recommended that future physical

education teachers will prepare in the medical, psychological,

physical education subjects and in foreign languages also. It is

necessary to underline that in this preparation would be crucial Sokol

gymnastics, based on Tyrš system. In Tyrš system absented sport,

because the organization Sokol had, in the period immediately after

World War I, negative attitude towards sport. This relationship Sokol

reconsidered in the 20-ies of the 20th century.

Although the Ministry of Public Health and Physical

Education has submitted a proposal to the Government of the

Czechoslovak Republic for the preparation of physical education

teachers, whose concept was based on the French system.

In 1937, Institute for Physical Education and Sport was

established at Comenius University. After a short time, however,

84

institute showed no activity. In 1939, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist

and the Comenius University changed its name to the Slovak

University. In October, 1939, at the request of the Ministry of

Education, it was established Physical Education Institute. It was due

for Slovak students to end studies of physical education, who

previously studied in the Czech Republic.

With the approaching World War II in 1938, physical

education was introduced, as a compulsory subject, into the

professional schools and universities. This process was preceded by

the introduction of the pre-military training in schools linked to the

increase of German militarism. In Slovakia it was the Faculty of

Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, which is not

pronounced for the implementation of the pre-military training, but

for implementation of physical education, because the pre-military

training doctors considered as part of physical education.

School Physical Education during World War II (1939 –

1945)

The breakup of Czechoslovakia, the emergence of the so-

called Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, and so-called Slovak

State, beginning World War II, influenced the level of school

physical education. In Slovakia it was negatively commented by

forced departure of Czech teachers and professors of physical

education. The then Slovak state else highlighted the importance of

school physical education, but practical steps were not sufficient –

lagging construction of sports facilities multiplied by small social

valuation of physical education teachers.

The physical education curriculum for secondary schools

(1939, 1943) enshrined the mandatory requirement of three hours of

physical education per week. The educational objectives of the

curriculum were conditioned to state ideology and inspired by the

Nazi-education. It emphasized the health, the army training and strict

discipline. During this period the non-school physical education

played an important role. Young people are given extra-curricular

physical education in youth organizations, created by German model

(Hlinka Guard and the Hlinka Youth).

A positive step in this period was the introduction of

preparation for future teachers of physical education at Slovak

University in Bratislava, where the said Physical education Institute

85

started working from October 23, 1939. A model for the

development of materials for his work was the proposal to establish

schools for preparing teachers of physical education in 1926, which

we have already mentioned. Thus, it was possible in Slovakia to

bypass proposals requesting to organize the study of physical

education along the lines of Germany, Hungary and Italy. The

Commission of Slovak Experts also visited Germany and on the

basis of the resulting report this commission rejected the

organization to prepare the teachers of physical education by

German model, which was not suitable for the conditions of

Slovakia.

In this period a number of sports publications were released.

Most valuable publication was "Physical education Practice on Folk,

Townhouses and Lower Secondary Schools with a Hundred

Examples of Physical Education Classes" (1942) by Karol Stráňai

(1905-1999).

School Physical Education in the Years 1945 – 1992

After World War II it was built up in Czechoslovakia the

socialist society on the basis of Marxism-Leninism. For this

company, sport and physical education becomes one of the important

tools in comparison with the outside world. We have objectively

conclude that school physical education during this period gets,

despite some shortcomings, arising mainly from mainly essential

philosophical approach to the understanding of man in society, the

level as in previous periods certainly not.

After 1946, physical education becomes equivalent to a

compulsory subject in all types of schools, including vocational and

university and was abolished wage discrimination of physical

education teachers. At universities were established departments of

physical education, respectively of sports medicine. In the following

period a range of curricular of physical education for different types

of schools was elaborated on a scientific basis (for grammar schools

in 1949, for general education schools in 1954, the uniform

curriculum, including curriculum for students with impairments in

1960, the curricula of 1970, 1976, 1984). Some of them but failed to

avoid such shortcomings, such as it was their oversized, orientation

to best physically gifted pupils or inadequate consideration of the

86

interests of students. In the 80s, the greater ideas and concepts of

teaching form democratic states began to penetrate much to physical

education. Significant change in the approach to teaching is apparent

in the curriculum of 1990, issued after a major socio-political change

in our society in 1989, even though they have yet no significantly

change the content of education.

From the first curriculum of 1948 is becoming linked

compulsory school physical education and physical education in free

time. Gradually emerging optional subjects like movement and

sports games, hobby groups, pre-military circles, with introducing

education and training courses, stays in nature and different types of

school and interschool competitions.

Preparation of physical education teachers got a

qualitatively higher level. In 1960, Institute of Physical Education

and Sports was established in Bratislava and in 1965 was renamed

the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University

in Bratislava. This, together with faculties of education provides

preparation of physical education teachers and other sports

professionals. Problem teaching qualifications but even this could

not be resolved satisfactorily.

On the optimization of school physical education also

participated in the scientific and research work best workers in the

field of Science Physical Culture. In 1965, it was established in the

Faculty of Physical Education and Sports the independent scientific

body Workstation for the Research of Physical Education of Youth,

later renamed the Research Institute of Physical Culture, today

Institute of Sport Science. The results of scientific work were

regularly presented at scientific conferences and seminars organized

throughout the territory of Czechoslovakia. The results were also

presented in the scientific journal "Theory and Practice of Physical

Culture," which along with journal "Physical Education of Youth"

and with magazine "Coach" have been a source of new knowledge

for physical education and sports movement in Slovakia. Some of

them, although after 1989 for financial reasons no longer exist, but in

1991 began to build a new journal "Physical Education and Sport",

which launched a newly established Slovak Scientific Society for

Physical Education and Sport. The establishment of sports schools,

sports classes and classes with extended teaching physical education,

contributed to the development of competitive sports of youth. These

87

services work on the basis of specific curricula, scientifically

substantiated.

Many Slovak sports experts contributed significantly with

results of research to the development of school physical education

in this period: František Sýkora (1927-2002), Jaroslav Frano

(*1925), Želmíra Píschová (*1929), Ivan Varga (*1935), Gabriel

Varga (*1941), Jela Labudová (*1944), Xénia Rovná (1929-2014),

Ivo Havlíček (1931-2005), Miroslav Rovný (1921-1991), Michal

Belej (*1934), Milan Mikuš (1932-2012) and others.

The socialist system, despite the attention that school

physical education addressed, could not eliminate the primary source

of the lack of effectiveness of physical education – the lack of school

sports facilities and skill shortages, which is reflected in the

stagnation of physical fitness of schoolchildren.

School Physical Education since 1993 until Today

By dividing the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic and the

establishment of the Slovak Republic in 1993, began the new school

physical education period, particularly in terms of the management

and organization of public authorities in an independent state.

Physical education continues to focus on the changes initiated after

1989. To classes, new ideas enter increasingly, but still remains

partially conservatism of previous years. Curriculum Physical

Education (1995 for primary schools and 1997 for secondary

schools), although already a bit more modern, but in many ways still

remain traditional. Following these curricula in the next years, the

educational standards were created.

Great contribution to science, research and qualification of

professionals in the field of physical education and sport was, in

1996, recognition of a separate scientific discipline of Sport Science

(in the nomenclature of sciences in Slovakia are assigned to number

74), which have the three branches: Sports Kinantropology, Sports

Educology and Sports Humanities.

In the following period, fails to maintain a range of teaching

3 hours a week and there is a reduction in the number of hours in the

curriculum for various types of schools at the expense of emerging

subjects. It is increasing the number of children exempted from

physical education and reduces the number of children involved in

88

the hobby of physical education and sport. To change this state is

making significant efforts and Slovak School Sports Association,

which organizes mainly interschool sports competitions and School

Sports Clubs, creating the conditions for participation of students in

physical education in free time. Poor social conditions of teachers

and the resulting low motivation and interest in teaching course of

study for graduates to work in the profession, stagnation and

deterioration of conditions for learning to be a transient

phenomenon, but also do not add to the quality of teaching.

A new impetus for the development of physical education

was the adoption of the new Law on Education and Training No

245/2008 in 2008, replacing almost 30 years old Education Act. This

legislation reforms the existing system of education and training. The

basic ideas of the new law were particularly decentralization and

greater school autonomy, their greater share in decisions about the

curriculum, greater activity and responsibilities of teachers, their

greater authority and emphasis on educational activity in the

educational process aimed at developing the competence of the

pupil. Of the established structure of the school system is passed to

the international system ISCED. It introduces two-level curriculum

and curriculum framework. Mandatory part of the training was

divided into public education program (mandatory hours) and school

education programs (optional hours). Since 2011, the time devoted is

defined over the level of education only. Schedule time to be

allocated to individual grades is the responsibility of the school, like

the inclusion of the curriculum in grades above but the adequacy of

age. In order to improve the educational process, in 2008 was

adjusted number of pupils in the classes. This was a reduction in the

number of pupils on average to 10% (1st year of primary school

max. 22 pupils; second to fourth year – 25; 5th to 9th year of primary

school – 28). Learning objectives are pursued in the framework of

new educational areas where separate educational field is the area of

"Health and movement" in which ISCED 1 is a subject "physical

education" and in ISCED 2 and 3 subject "physical education and

sport". Some areas of learning that are interdisciplinary character are

not taught as separate subjects, but as sectional themes. Sectional

theme "Protecting life and health", is provided by teachers of

physical education and sports.

89

In the career development of teachers in 2009 were adopted

two new acts – Act on educational staff and specialists No 317/2009

Act on lifelong learning No 568/2009. These acts defined the career

system based on career levels, career positions and career paths.

Changes have also occurred in the teaching of physical

education in schools. Within hours of mandatory training programs

of schools (public education program) changed the name of the

subject. Name of the school subject has been modified from

“physical education” to "physical education and sport" at ISCED 2

and 3; ISCED 1 remained unchanged. A change was also in terms of

focus and purpose of physical education and sports. The focus of

physical and sport education is reflected significant departure from

the performance-oriented teaching towards developing competences

of pupils and the formation of values and attitudes. In the objectives

is a more significant link to health care and the creation of a healthy

lifestyle. Physical education and sport must combine knowledge,

habits, attitudes, skills and abilities of movement, sport, health and

healthy lifestyles, which are realized through designs configured

forms of teaching physical education and sports, health and physical

education through integrated physical and sport education. Another

change was the openness and variety of content. The content

presents a wide range of knowledge and physical education and

sports activities offered to pupils. The content is divided into the

following four thematically oriented modules: Health and disorder;

Healthy lifestyle; Physical fitness and physical performance;

Sporting activities of movement regime. Each module has its own

internal structure and in the various levels of education it transforms

into separate thematic parts of the educational program. Furthermore,

new programs allow the adaptation of teaching content to the

conditions of the school, pupils' interests and give freedom and

responsibility to the teacher of physical education and sport for the

creation of the program for different groups of students. Support and

mentoring of teachers to continuous learning has also been one of the

innovative elements of the project focus of teaching physical

education. In this respect, in addition to programs of continuing

education for teachers organized by Methodical Centers is

particularly important implementation of a national project of

continuing education teaching physical education in the 1st level of

primary schools and unqualified teachers in 2nd stage of primary

90

schools' “Upgrading qualification of teachers of physical education

and sport "in the years 2012-2015 which carries the National Sports

Center. In cooperation with Faculty of Physical education and Sports

and other physical education faculties, the projects will refresher the

training of 3,400 primary school teachers. The project is co-financed

by European Union funds within the program "Education".

At all levels of schools since 2008, physical education and

physical education and sport within hours of mandatory training

program is taught in all classes of 2 hours per week and through

courses. Schools can raise the weekly number of hours of physical

education and sport through optional hours of educational programs.

This is realized in a minimal extent only.

To assist the teaching of physical education in schools, the

Association of Physical Education Teachers is created in 2012. This

association is the professional organization of teachers of physical

education and sports. Subject Commission of Physical Education and

Sports in the National Institute for Education, performs a supporting

and coordinating activities. Commission approves all training

materials related to physical education and sport in schools and is the

highest professional body in this area also. In 2012 was established

at the Ministry of Education the Curriculum Council also, which

includes the president of the Subject Commission of Physical

Education and Sports. The Council is the highest advisory body to

the Minister of Education in the curriculum of training issues. To

help manage physical education have been developed several

electronic portals as an information portal www.skolskysport.sk or

portal www.telesnavychova.sk.

To the development of school physical education in recent

years significantly contributed many Slovak physical education

specialists with research and teaching: ako Ján Slezák (*1945),

Alexander Melicher (*1943), Michal Modrák (*1953), Branislav

Antala (*1963), Jaromír Šimonek ml. (*1958), Jela Labudová

(*1944), Viera Bebčáková (*1945), Soňa Kršjaková (*1958), Elena

Strešková (*1947), Gustáv Argaj (*1956), Janka Peráčková (*1958),

Ľudmila Jančoková (*1953), Pavol Bartík (*1959), Ivan Čillík

(*1958), Dana Masaryková (*1980), Mária Roučková (*1952) and

others.

91

Physical Education Development of Pupils with Special

Needs

If we want to complete the characteristic and analysis of the

school physical education development in Slovakia, it is necessary to

mention about the physical education teaching of pupils with health

impairments, respectively disabled pupils, or disadvantaged pupils

with special educational needs. The beginning of contemplation

about segregation teaching of disabled pupils and healthy pupils is

dated since year 1883, when doctors classified them into 3 groups:

exempted from physical education, actively participating with certain

limits and healthy pupils. The curriculum from 1911 and 1913 years

did not include special content for the treatment of health disorders;

it merely highlighted the need of building the habit of correct

posture. But in 1948/49 were published precise health requirements

and teaching of pupils with posture errors and asthenia begun at

ordinary schools. Since 1951 the guideline of the Ministry of

education officially laid the foundation for the development and

regular teaching of adapted physical education (APE). The beginning

was associated with teaching of pupils with orthopaedic

impairments, first at primary schools later then at all secondary

schools and universities.

All the following period since 1960 up to 2003 year were

associated with the extension of the teaching objective, which

signified not only healthy goals, associated with the correction of

impairment´s problems, but also formation of concrete educational,

later social goals of the APE lessons for orthopaedic, internal and

nervous system disorders. It means a significant expansion of the

space for compulsory lessons of disadvantaged pupils at schools. On

the one lesson in duration 45 minutes there were 12 - 15 pupils with

various impairments and every lesson is managed with qualified

APE teacher. In present days in APE lessons are included pupils with

significant health impairments, with problems of physical, body

construction and composition, or with continued temporary

problems, which are not barrier of the school lessons, but they are

the contraindication of the physical load. The teaching is realised

across the separate APE curriculum, which was prepared on the basis

of a number of completed surveys.

92

In 2003 and 2004 was completed last comprehensive APE

curriculum for primary and secondary schools with specific physical

and sport content, for different types of impairments in the

following classification: visual impairment, blindness, deafness,

defective hearing, mobile and immobile pupils, impairments of the

upper extremities, anterior-posterior and lateral spinal faults,

disorders of cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, metabolic,

gynaecological and neurological system, psychological and

intellectual impairments. For the first time was APE teaching

consolidated at standard and special schools, which it means for

pupils attending integrated or segregated physical education and

APE (Labudová, 2010).

It is necessary to mention, that the beginning of targeted

care for pupils with physical, hearing, visual and mental disabilities

goes back to the 20th century when in pursuance of education law,

since 1953, was allowed to establish special schools. Segregated

educational environment, in which was the teaching of physical

education in kindergartens, primary and secondary schools realized,

was created. Since 1990 were also private and church special schools

established. The trend was to establish the special schools with

region-wide or nation-wide competence, what required from pupils

to stay in the dorm. Up to the present days pupils education at special

schools is equivalent to education at standard schools. The special

school has its advantages and justification, allows the transferring of

the pupils to the integrated teaching.

We can conclude, that the transformation of the education

system and the introduction of a State education programme for

schools in year 2008, established a basis for equality education of

pupils at different types of schools and levels of education in the

curriculum field ”Health and movement” through the teaching of

physical education and sports, APE and integrated physical and sport

education. Research has indicated that 32-52% of primary and 34%

secondary schools would like to apply an integrated physical

education (Labudová, 2008), but this process continue very slow. To

apply the regulation, that maximum 3 pupils with disability, or with

special educational needs can be integrated in one study class. For

each such pupil the number of pupils per class is reduced by two. In

2009/2010 were registered over 22 000 individually integrated pupils

with special educational needs into normal schools (Tab. 1).

93

Tab.1 Individual integration of pupils by type of health impairment

or disability (number)

Type of health

impairment, disability

State

schools

Church

schools

Private

schools

Autism syndrome 188 11 38

Mental disability 3 733 120 35

Hearing disability 489 41 38

Visually impairments 475 34 17

Impaired communication

ability

775 36 23

Physical disability 1 367 116 41

Behavioral disorders 1 176 80 39

Developmental learning

defects

12 106 627 446

Sum 20 309 1 065 677

Actual elevated occurrence of pupils health impairments can

confirm the necessity of gradual integration teaching trends. Current

efforts to enhance teaching pupils with disabilities and with the

socially disadvantaged should be based on creating optimal school

conditions at all school levels (especially accessibility, material

support, fulfilment of teachers obligations) that every pupil has the

opportunity to actively participate in adequate APE lessons, or

integrated physical education and sports education lessons. This can

also reduce a large number of inactive pupils in physical education

lessons, but also increase pupil´s motivation for physical activity and

care for their health and their involvement in physical and sports

activities in leisure time.

Conclusion

Physical education, as in the past, and now needs of

regeneration and innovation towards higher quality and

attractiveness to become more interesting and attractive to pupils and

the teachers themselves and to fulfill all the important functions that

human development has undoubtedly. It will not pass without state

support, which it must create adequate conditions. The adequate

conditions, however, is not only the material and technical

94

equipment in the spirit of the times, but also provide extensive

support for teachers of physical education, not least agitation among

parents to realize that adequate development of their children their

lack of interest in physical activity fails.

REFERENCES

Antala, B. (2001). Vývoj, súčasný stav a nové trendy vo vyučovaní

telesnej výchovy v školách. In: Didaktika školskej telesnej

výchovy, END, Bratislava, 17-40.

Antala, B. (2008). Školská telesná výchova a kurikulárna

transformácia výchovy a vzdelávania. In: Sedláček,

Jaromír – Antala, B. et al. Hodnotenie telesného rozvoja

a motorickej výkonnosti žiakov v procese kurikulárnej

transformácie výchovy a vzdelávania, ABL Print,

Bratislava, 9-34.

Antala, B. et al. (2012). Telesná výchova v názoroch žiakov

základných a stredných škôl. END, Bratislava.

Antala, B et al. (2014). Telesná a športová výchova a súčasná škola.

END, Bratislava,.

Bobrík, M. & Seman, F. (2010). 90 rokov vysokoškolského športu na

Slovensku, Slovenská asociácia univerzitného športu,

Bratislava.

Grexa, J. (1995). Dejiny školskej telesnej výchovy na našom území.

In Perútka Jaromír – Grexa Ján Dejiny telesnej kultúry na

Slovensku, FTVŠ UK, Bratislava,111- 126.

Labudová, J. (2008). Niektoré aspekty vyučovania telesnej výchovy

v základnej strednej škole. In Antala, B. at al. Školská

telesná výchova z pohľadu výsledkov vedeckého výskumu.

Bratislava : FIEP, UK FTVŠ, s. 6–13

Labudová, J. (2010). Zdravotná telesná výchova. In Labudová, J. a

kol.: Edukológia zdravotnej telesnej výchovy a športu

postihnutých. Bratislava: SZ RTVŠ, 6–14.

Píschová, Ž. (1979). Školská telesná výchova v ČSSR a v iných

socialistických krajinách. In Sýkora, F. et al. Didaktika

telesnej výchovy, UK, Bratislava, 78-106

Sýkora, F. (1996). Genéza tvorby učebných osnov telesnej výchovy

v našom školskom systéme. In Inovácia projektov telesnej

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výchovy v základných a stredných školách SR, FTVŠ UK,

Bratislava, 7-17.

Sýkora, F. (1999). Školská telesná výchova v Slovenskej republike

po roku 1989 a jej ďalšie perspektívy. In: 60 rokov

prípravy telovýchovných pedagógov na UK v Bratislave,

FTVŠ UK and VS TVaŠ, Bratislava,184 – 188.

Seman, F. et al. (2010). 50 rokov Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu

UK 1960 – 2010. Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu UK,

Bratislava.

96

SLOVENIA

ANALYSIS OF EXEMPT ABSENCES FROM

PHYSICAL EDUCATION LESSONS IN SLOVENIA

IN THE PAST AND TODAY

Gregor Jurak, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana

Marjeta Kovač, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana

Correspondence

Gregor Jurak gregor.jurak@fsp.uni-lj.si Phone: +386 1 520 77 83

Abstract

A comparison of recommendations from 1911 curriculum

with modern legislation today revealed that in the last 100 years in

Slovenia there has been no significant professional change in

approach to exempt absences from physical education (PE) lessons.

Recommendations in the last PE curriculum have not yet found their

place in legislative practice; namely, the option to be exempt from

the entire PE subject still exists despite the contrary guidelines in

curriculum. Precise definition of procedures for exemptions and

activities, which schools organise for pupils instead, form a part of

school regulations. These regulations reveal that their authors do not

understand PE curriculum, which include both practical and

theoretical contents. A comparison between documents from 1911

and today indicates very similar formulations in contents and length

of exempt absence as well as in procedures followed in exemptions.

Furthermore, it can be noticed that although PE teachers in the old

days did not hold any formal education in comparison with doctors;

nevertheless, they had larger competency in exempting pupils and

modifying lessons than highly educated PE teachers today.

Key words: physical education, exemption, legislation,

curriculum, history, comparison

97

INTRODUCTION

As a result of various positive effects on growth and

development every young person should partake in at least one hour

of quality physical activity a day; therefore, physical education

should be organised in a way that all young people could participate

in school programmes (Hardman, 2008). Despite the media

presented stereotype about the frequency of exemptions from

physical education (PE) during adolescence, data from recent studies

in Slovenia show that approximately 0.5% of primary school and 2%

of high school pupils present medical letter of exemption (Kolar,

2010), with a third of them being short term exemptions. Pupils are

also exempt from practical PE lessons when they are at school in

other lessons; the most frequently listed reason being illness or its

consequences (Jurak, Kovač, Strel and Starc, 2005a). The

introduction of more suitable procedural criteria would reduce the

frequency of such cases when pupils ask for exemption (Jurak,

Kovač, Strel and Starc, 2005b).

The problem of exemptions from PE lessons is in different

countries approached in various ways, depending whether a subject

is compulsory or not, characteristics of the curricula and the

autonomy of schools; in the majority of western world countries

exemption from PE lessons is possible only with doctor’s letter of

exemption (Himberg et al., 2003; Pangrazi, 2001).

Slovenian primary school PE curriculum states in a chapter

Special-didactic recommendations that no pupils should be exempt

from lessons. Teachers should modify the process to the limitations

of individual pupil as the experts share an opinion that exercise can

be an important therapeutic and rehabilitation tool (Kovač and

Novak, 1998, str. 55). Nevertheless, pupils in Slovenia can legally be

exempt from various types of education work due to health reasons.

Exemptions can be granted for the entire or only a part of the subject

and for short or long periods of time.

Always interesting problem of exemptions led the authors in

the present study to analyse recommendations from 1911 curriculum

for gymnasia and real-gymnasia and then compare them with

98

modern legislation. It was expected for recommendations to differ

significantly; therefore, the analysed parameters were listed reasons

for exemptions, the contents and length of exemptions, procedure

followed in exemptions and the role of PE teacher then and now.

GUIDELINES FOR EXEMPTIONS FROM PHYSICAL

EDUCATION HUNDRED YEARS AGO DID NOT DIFFER

SIGNIFICANTLY FROM LEGISLATION TODAY

At the beginning of 20th

century so-called physical activity

was compulsory for boys but not for girls, duration of education in

gymnasia lasted eight years and in real-gymnasia seven. Pupils had

45 minutes of physical activity per week and they were taught by

physical activity teachers who only had to undertake a short training

course. Exercises were carried out following the Sokol system.

Curriculum included different contents and recommendations for

their realisation, so-called instructions. The way exemption was

defined in curricula for all types of gymnasia and real-gymnasia is

presented below (Vestnik, Ministry for education and religion, 1911,

part XIV., no. 21, pp. 213–249, in Kompara, 2006).

Instruction.

VIII. Exemption from physical activity should be granted to

all pupils who could otherwise benefit from spiritual education

wished upon the school, yet are due to physical errors permanently

or temporarily unable of physical effort. Regardless of that, physical

activity cannot be exempted due to unjustified small-mindedness of

parents, laziness or resistance of individual pupils, especially after

executed disciplinary procedure.

The repute of school demands that in cases, when the real

reason wishes to be hidden with imaginary illness, decision is taken

with required conscientiousness and factually. In contrast, teacher

can find himself in a position when participation in physical activity

depends on given permission of a doctor. Doctor needs to decide in

all cases where a physical defect is stated by the pupil or observed

by teacher himself.

99

Exemptions from physical activity require following

procedure:

1. At the beginning of each course, all pupils from same class

should assemble at first lesson. Pupils wished to be exempt

from physical activity need to contact physical activity teacher,

who will instruct them about the following actions.

2. Exemption is executed upon the presented letter from school or

local doctor, who works in the area of institution (after a

thorough examination). In a letter of exemption doctor should

explain in understandable manner the illness of a pupil and

simultaneously refer to the length and content of exemption. In

certain cases, particularly in illnesses requiring longer

monitoring or after long illness, letter of exemption from family

doctor is suffice, although the opinion of official doctor can be

called upon.

3. Letter of exemption should without an exception be presented to

the physical activity teacher, who then forwards them to

headmaster together with his personal opinion, reliant on the

referral of the doctor. Against the judgment of headmaster an

appeal can be lodged to provincial educational authority.

4. Until the request for exemption is not granted, pupils can be

required to participate at lessons, but they cannot be allowed

or even forced to perform the exercises.

5. Exemption from physical activity lessons can be requested at

any time, even during the lesson. Exemptions can take various

forms; depending on the contents: a) entire or b) partial;

depending on duration: a) permanent, b) annual, c) for one

course, d) for several months or weeks, or e) for individual

lessons. Full exemption on a permanent basis or for the

duration of one year or course also allows pupils to be exempt

from their duty to participate at the lessons. In partial

exemptions, pupils can be required to participate at lessons and

be ranked.

6. Exemption from individual lessons can be granted to pupils by

teacher himself; whereupon for regular occurrences in one

pupil it is recommended to demand doctor’s letter of exemption

and a statement.

7. Physical activity teacher should keep a diligent record about

all the exemptions that were granted during the year, in order

100

to report about the status of pupils at any time. Physical

activity teacher has to hand over the transcript of the record,

together with stated reasons for letter of exemptions, to

headmaster.

8. When a pupil is exempt from physical activity temporarily, in

his return to activity the severity of the illness has to be

considered. In certain circumstances, when the illness could be

a reason for permanent exemption, doctor’s letter of exemption

can be required in order to allow return to physical activity.

9. In some situations, e.g. insufficient nutrition, particularly after

illnesses, school has to apply exemption from physical activity

even without parents demanding it or else ask for doctor’s

letter of permission. Physical activity teacher has a

responsibility to inquire about the quality of pupil’s illness after

long-lasting exemptions and the participation cannot be

granted immediately. Particular attention should be paid to

diseases of heart and lungs, inflammations of thoracic and

stomach areas, appendicitis, rheumatism and bone fractures.

Additionally, the responsibility of physical activity teacher is

also monitoring, whilst performing strenuous exercises (see

paragraph V, point d), the degree of respiration needs and the

facial colour changes; pupils should be removed from activity

when the stated functions are abnormal and further doctor’s

examination has to be facilitated.

In all dubious cases teacher has to demand doctor’s letter of

permission in order to allow the participation of pupil in physical

activity lessons.

LEGISLATION AND GUIDELINES IN MODERN

CURRICULA

Exemption due to health reasons is only generally defined in

school legislation, as it does not particularly state individual subjects,

from which a pupil could be exempt. Detailed procedures are defined

in the Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary

schools and the Regulations on school order in high schools. PE

curricula in the chapter Special-didactic recommendations state that

101

no one should be exempt from PE lessons. When a pupil has health

problems, teacher should modify the practice according to the

recommendations from the doctor.

Abovementioned regulations define the rights of pupils to

attend lessons as well as their responsibilities, procedures related to

exemptions at times of absence and particularly the way doctor’s

letter of exemption can be issued. Additionally, regulations define

responsibilities of pupils, parents, form teachers, physical education

teachers, headmasters and doctors.

Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary

schools state that attending the lessons is a right of a pupil and the

teachers should consider his or her individual particularities.

Similarly, Regulations on school order in high schools define that the

pupils have a right to be present at quality lessons, where their

individual and developmental specifics should be respected. At the

same time, regular and punctual attendance at lessons and fulfilment

of learning and other commitments is a responsibility of pupils both

in primary and high schools. According to the Regulations on rights

and responsibilities of pupils in primary schools, all pupils have to

attend the lessons and activities from compulsory programme,

whereas Regulations on school order in high schools give pupils a

right and responsibility to participate at lessons according to the

educational programme, academic calendar, annual school work

plan, pedagogic contract, Regulations on modification of academic

commitments and other regulations.

When a pupil is absent from school, parents are required to

notify a form teacher about the absence; the absence has to be

explained in oral or written manner no later than five days after a

pupil returns in primary school and in written manner three days

after return in high school.

If a pupil is absent from school due to illness for more than

five days, form teacher can ask for an official doctor’s letter of

absence (set form), justifying the absence. When a form teacher in

primary school doubts the authentication of letter of absence, he

informs the parents or the doctor issuing the form. If it turns out for

102

the letter of absence to be false, the pupil faces a punishment. In high

school, headmaster sets specific rules on mutual notification about

absences of pupils from lessons. In high school, a class teacher can

exceptionally allow absence from individual lessons although the

absence need to be later justified in a written manner.

Pupils in primary school can be exempt from certain lessons

due to health reasons. Parents are required to present form teacher

letter of exemption and guidelines from health service. Form teacher

has to notify a teacher who teaches individual lessons. Pupil is

required to participate at these lessons and perform tasks that do not

endanger his or her health status according to the guidelines from

health service. If a pupil cannot perform any tasks, school has to

organise supplementary activities instead (Regulations on rights and

responsibilities of pupils in primary schools, 2004).

When a pupil in high school cannot participate in certain

types of lessons due to health reasons, he or she has to present the

form teacher a letter of exemption with guidelines. Form teacher in

cooperation with school counselling service recommends to

headmaster exemption from lessons and the headmaster has the final

say in the matter. When a pupil is entirely exempt from participation

in lessons at one subject due to health reasons, school can include

him in another activity. When the exemption is only partial, teacher

in accordance with the guidelines from doctor directs a pupil into

individual activity that does not endanger his or her health. Form

teacher keeps track about the type and length of exempted absences

in prescribed documentation and informs about the case class

teachers and other co-workers (Regulations on school order in high

schools, 2004).

COMPARISON OF GUIDELINES BETWEEN

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY CURRICULUM IN 1911 AND

MODERN LEGISLATION

Incidence of guidelines

In 1911, the guidelines on exempt absences were written at

the end of curriculum as instructions or nowadays called didactic

103

recommendations. In 1998, curriculum guidelines are also given in

the last chapter – Special-didactic recommendations, although they

are very short as the exemption is defined in various regulations.

These regulations are directed merely into formal procedures and not

into contents and didactic definitions on how the teacher should act

when working with exempt pupils.

Reasons for exempt absences

Curriculum from 1911 states that exempt absences are

possible as a result of physical defects, which do not allow strenuous

physical effort, whilst small-minded parents (not clear definition),

laziness or resistance of pupils, particularly after disciplinary

procedure (presumably physical punishment) were not considered as

justified reasons for exemption. These cases are listed in curriculum

as false exemptions, which are also known in present day although

with different reasons for their abuse (Jurak et al., 2005a).

Modern legislation lists illness as a reason for exempt

absence. It does not have be seen as a physical defect, as today many

known illnesses were not thought of or recognised hundred years

ago. Furthermore, modern life instigated numerous new illnesses.

Pupils can nowadays practice with lesser effort and the teachers can

monitor exercising with heart rate monitors. Today, some parents are

still not open-minded about the importance of physical activity. As a

result, parents of some children with certain malfunctions in

development or long-term illnesses prefer to present health

certificates, thinking that they are protecting a child and not

understanding that they are causing him or her damage. Laziness and

resistance against authority are today, similarly to those in the past,

reasons for absences in some young people.

Volume and length of exempt absences

Over a period of hundred years the understanding of the

volume of exempt absences has not changed at all (entire, partial),

whereas the duration is treated differently today. Namely, pupil

cannot present »permanent« letter of exemption; rather, the

procedure has to be repeated every year.

104

Procedures regarding exempt absences

In 1911, pupils had to visit physical activity teacher and

present him a letter of exemption, who forwarded it to headmaster

together with his and reliant on doctor’s opinion. Today, exemptions

are administratively more complex; however, despite larger

knowledge of PE teachers, they do not have any part in the process,

as their opinion is not required anywhere. Exempt absences are

namely a matter between the parents and form teacher, whereas

headmaster decides about absences (when a pupil is listed as exempt

from a certain subject) and only then a form teacher informs the PE

teacher about the exemption. PE teacher has to follow doctor’s

guidelines although often he is more familiar with a pupil than the

doctor.

Nowadays, regulations do not foresee a right to appeal the

headmaster’s decision, whereas hundred years ago the appeal could

be lodged to then the highest provincial educational authority.

Similarly to hundred years ago, pupils can be exempt only on

the basis of doctor’s letter. If in the past letter of exemption was

issued by a school or local doctor and in special cases also family

doctor, today personal or school doctor can certify the absence of a

pupil.

Hundred years ago doctor had to state the illness of a pupil

and determine the length and volume of absence. Nowadays, due to

the data protection act, letters of absence do not contain diagnosis,

which can cause unwelcome complications and can in some cases

even be dangerous, if for example teacher does not know about the

epilepsy of a pupil.

Hundred years ago, entirely exempt pupils did not participate

at lessons whereas partially exempt had to attend when required by

school. Today the regulations are contradictory in some cases.

Schools can organise another activity for entirely exempt pupil,

which is in contradiction with PE curriculum. Namely, in PE pupil

105

can be due to health reasons exempt from practical lessons but not

from theoretical contents, which form an important part of lessons.

Over hundred years, there are no significant differences

noticed in participation at individual lessons, as documents in both

periods state that the organisation of individual lessons and inclusion

of partially exempt pupil is the autonomy of a teacher. School

practice also indicates different understanding of a term partial

exemption. Regulations in both primary and high school do not

allow a PE teacher to judge independently how to treat a pupil who

is partially exempt, but rather has to acquire doctor’s guidelines and

act accordingly. In such cases, it is necessary for a doctor and PE

teacher to cooperate in treatment of individual pupil.

Legislation today is empowering parents to write a letter of

absence for absences lasting less than five days. Similarly, doctors

should add opinion and recommendation for PE teacher on the letter

of absence, however in practice this is most often not a case (Jurak et

al., 2005b). PE teacher has to unconditionally respect doctor’s letter

with guidelines due to health reasons, whereas in cases when pupil

presents a letter from parents, he can decide on modification of

practice according to his professional competencies. Parents or

pupils can only subjectively and with professional limitations detect

justification for absence from physical activity due to health reasons,

as they are not aware of the ways a teacher can adapt the practice to

temporarily limited abilities of pupils (e.g. feeling sick).

As in the past, PE teacher nowadays also has to record

absences and types of letters of absence, although they do not need

to be presented to the headmaster. In both studied cases, guidelines

state that teachers should during and after the illness consider the

condition of a pupil and doctor’s guidelines. At least some of the

listed illnesses from hundred years ago are today not present

anymore, the role of a teacher in detecting illnesses in pupils was

emphasised hundred years ago.

106

CONCLUSION

Analysis of recommendations about exempt absences from

physical activity in 1911 and legislation as well as didactic

recommendations in PE curriculum today indicate that in hundred

years there have been no significant changes. It can be also noticed

that the role of a PE teacher is today lesser than a century ago.

Modern school legislation defines that a pupil can similarly to

hundred years ago be entirely exempt from educational work due to

the health reasons, which is contradictory to the recommendations of

PE curriculum and the guidelines from health organisations, stating

that movement can be a suitable tool of rehabilitation and

prevention.

Similarly to hundred years ago, pupils can in PE be exempt

entirely or only partially (some contents only), depending on the

doctor’s certificate. Entirely exempt absence is also in contradiction

with curriculum, which defines that pupils in PE lessons in addition

to practical learn also theoretical contents. As a result, dealing with

pupil in PE lessons according to the existing regulations is

controversial. Both regulations for primary and high school define

that primary schools can organise supplementary activity for a pupil

who could not perform any tasks, whereas high school can include a

pupil exempt for health reasons into another activity. Health letter of

exemption namely define absence from practical lessons and not also

from theoretical parts, which form an important part of both primary

and high school PE curricula.

As a doctor had to write a diagnosis on a health letter of

exemption, it is incomprehensive but not infrequent today that PE

teacher does not know about a chronic illness of a pupil. In these

cases, parents have to be aware of the risk and responsibility for

potential negative reactions of pupil to practical lessons.

It has to be warned about the occasional practice when pupils

bring health letter of exemption for the entire academic year at the

end of the year (particularly in high school). Regulations namely

precisely define that a semi-annual or annual health letter of

107

exemption, listing an exempt absence from PE lessons, has to be

presented at the beginning of academic year. This instruction was in

force already one hundred years ago.

It can be concluded that after hundred years the time has

come for legislation to remove entirely exempt absences from PE

lessons, at the same time giving the PE teacher larger role in

deciding what a pupil can and cannot perform in lessons and how

pupils can be helped in cases of certain health limitations.

REFERENCES

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programmes in the European context: Quality issues. In M.

Kovač, G. Starc in K. Bizjak (eds.), 4th

International

Symposium Youth Sport 2008 – The Heart of Europe, pp. 9–26.

Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport.

Himberg, C., Hutchinson, G.E., Roussell, J.M. (2003). Teaching

Secondary Physical Education. Champaign, IL: Human

Kinetics.

Jurak, G., Kovač, M., Strel, J., Starc, G. (2005a). Analiza

opravičevanja pri športni vzgoji [Analysis of the excuses from

Physical Education classes atendance] In Slovenian. Šport,

53(3), 13-20.

Jurak, G., Kovač, M., Strel, J., Starc, G. (2005b). Kako zmanjšati

opravičevanje pri športni vzgoji [How to reduce requests to be

excused from attending Physical Education] In Slovenian.

Šport, 53(3), 21-27.

Kolar, B. (2010). Opravičila od pouka športne vzgoje [Excuses from

Physical Education classes]. In J. Dolinšek (ed.), Proceedings

of international congress Child in motion and XX. symposium

of paediatricians, pp. 65–66. Maribor: University Medical

Centre.

Kompara, A. (2006). Gimnastika v učnih načrtih športne vzgoje

osnovnih in srednjih šol do leta 1941. Diplomsko delo,

Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport.

Kovač, M., Novak, D. (1998). Učni načrt: program osnovnošolskega

izobraževanja. Športna vzgoja. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za

šolstvo, znanost in šport in Zavod RS za šolstvo.

108

Pangrazi, R. P. (2001). Dynamic Physical Education for elementary

school children. 13th

edition. Toronto: Allyn and Bacon.

Pravilnik o pravicah in dolžnostih učencev v osnovni šoli

[Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary

schools]. Uradni list RS, št. 75/2004.

Pravilnik o šolskem redu v srednjih šolah [Regulations on school

order in high schools]. Uradni list RS, št. 82/2004.

109

SPAIN

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN

CONTEXTS OF DEMOCRATISATION: THE

CASE OF SPAIN DURING THE POLITICAL

TRANSITION (1975-1982)

Sixte Abadia i Naudí, Blanquerna Faculty of Psychology,

Education and Sport Sciences, Ramon Llull University

Enric Maria Sebastiani i Obrador, Blanquerna Faculty of

Psychology, Education and Sport Sciences, Ramon

Llull University

Correspondence

Sixte Abadia i Naudí sixtoan@blanquerna.url.edu

Phone: 0034 606126256

Introduction

As an expression of modern society, historical research into

the phenomenon of sport and physical education is necessary in

order to understand the social, political and cultural context in which

they take place. In the case of Spain, an analysis of the political

transition (1975-1982) as a period characterised by political and

social instability is particularly interesting as a way to interpret the

evolution and current status of sport and physical education in this

country.

The status of sport during this period has barely been

studied from the historiographic standpoint, with the exception of

contributions by authors like Núria Puig (1993, 1995), Xavier

Pujadas and Carles Santacana (1995, 1999), Conrad Vilanou (1994)

and Abadia (2011). This article aims to rectify the lack of studies

focusing on sport and physical education during a period of change,

as was Spain’s political transition.

After the 1960s, the phenomenon of sport became a mass

social activity and habit of the citizens of this country (García,

110

2006), so the political transition was a crucial period in this

transformation. That was when the notion of sport for all emerged

and the ideal conditions to start a process of sport democratisation

were put into place (Puig, 1995) as a consequence of the promotional

actions spearheaded by sport entities, social movements and

especially the public authorities.

In this reflection, we shall try to show how the process of

political democratisation that occurred during Spain’s political

transition prompted a series of profound transformations in the

spheres of physical education and sport in terms of both the stance of

the government bodies and the gradual regulation of both fields.

In terms of methodology, this study has been approached

from a hermeneutic standpoint based on the analysis of secondary

sources focused on studying the political transition, sport and

physical education, as well as periodical sources on sport topics.

The gradual restructuring of Spanish sport

The death of the dictator Francisco Franco signalled the end

of the dictatorship imposed after the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

and the beginning of a new period characterised by uncertainty and

profound social, economic and political transformations in Spain. At

the start of this period, which is called the political transition, the

status of sport in this country was quite lacking, as stated in a 1975

study conducted by ICSA-Gallup: even though people considered

sport a social necessity, there were major hindrances to accessing

sport and little interest by the authorities in changing this (ICSA-

Gallup, 1975). Indeed, the shift in the mindset and basic values of

Spanish society towards modernity and democracy, coupled with

economic growth, made it possible for the Spanish people to access

sport despite the position of the Franco regime. This regime

continued to earmark so little money to this sphere – and what it did

earmark went primarily to competitive sport – that the collapse of the

Franco-era sport system was inevitable even the waning years of the

dictatorship (Pujadas & Santacana, 1995).

This paradoxical situation was also the norm during the

early years of Spain’s political transition, when there were serious

shortcomings in policies aimed at fostering access to sport and

physical education. Thus, by late 1975 the criticism of the

111

government’s approach to sport concerned not only the lack of sport

facilities but also the shortage of teachers and facilities and the

failure to enforce the 1961 Law on Physical Education (Se hace

camino al andar, 1974, 5).

In the course of the political transition, there was a series of

changes, initially with the political representatives becoming more

favourable to expanding policies in both spheres, and later with the

approval of a regulation that would allow the foundations to be laid

for a definitive impetus for both sport and physical education.

The advent of a new discourse on physical education and sport

early in the political transition (1975-1978)

Despite the increase in the budget earmarked for sport in

Spain in 1976, 5.238 billion pesetas, the most significant aspects of

this new stage was the appearance of a discourse around sport and

physical education which advocated restructuring and democratising

them. These came from Tomás Pelayo Ros, the head of the National

Delegation of Physical Education and Sport (Delegación Nacional

de Educación Física y Deportes, DNEFyD) from mid-1975 until

September 1976. This restructuring perspective was influenced by

several initiatives – seminars, working groups, etc. – launched in

1974 and by international positions on sport, as shown by the First

International Conference of Minister and Senior Officials for

Physical Education and Sport organised by UNESCO in April 1976,

and the European Sport for All Charter approved by the Council of

Europe in 1976.

This shift in position was accentuated after September 1976

when Pelayo Ros was replaced by Benito Castejón, the mastermind

behind the restructuring of Spanish sport during the two-year period

from 1977 to 1978. Some of the programmatic points he mentioned

when he took over the position included the unity and social and

political importance of sport, the need to plan Spanish sport and

encourage it to spread as a right of all citizens, and the desire to call

an assembly on sport to establish the avenues of this restructuring.

Castejón, who was still the head of the DNEFyD, stated that “from

now on, physical education and sport for all are basic objectives in

accordance with the Council of Europe’s Charter on Sport”

(programmatic declaration of the National Sports Delegation,

112

D.N.D., 1976, 3). Shortly thereafter, as the director of the National

Sport Council (Consejo Superior de Deportes, CSD), a body created

in August 1977 after the disappearance of the DNEFyD, Castejón

posed three avenues of action corresponding to “an area of physical

education and promotion, a second area of technification and a final

competitive area” (Astruells, 1977, 32). However, they were

conditioned by the concurrent context of economic instability

worldwide after 1973, which only served to aggravate the socio-

political uncertainty in the country. Some examples of this shift that

started with the disappearance of the DNEFyD and were fostered by

the creation of the CSD were three courses held in the city of

Barcelona in the months of December, 1978, to January, 1979, two

revolving around school sport – the “Course for School Sport

Directors” and the “Retraining Course on School Physical

Education” – and one around sport for all – the “Monographic ‘Sport

for All’ Course” (Cursos del CSD en Barcelona, 1978, 30).

In the case of physical education, this model upheld by

Castejón of attaching more importance of citizens’ gaining mass

access to sport translated into the desire for “physical education and

sport to be an area of specialisation for all legal purposes, just like

the other areas in general basic education” (La educación física debe

ser materia de especialización a todos los efectos legales, 1977, 30).

Unfortunately, these approaches did not seem to satisfy the students

and teachers at the National Physical Education Institute (Instituto

Nacional de Educación Física, INEF) in Madrid and Barcelona, who

decided to halt their activities in order to resolve the main problem in

the sector: recognition of degrees and their equality with the other

degrees in the field of education (Massó, 1977, 13). The differences

of opinion in the negotiations with the public administration and the

impossibility of reaching an understanding led to a total indefinite

strike started by physical education teachers in the province of

Barcelona in late 1977. Their goal of standardising their professional

status received the support and solidarity of students at Barcelona’s

INEF, who shut down the centre’s facilities for 24 hours.

One of the spheres of sport that reflected and highlighted

certain shortcomings after 1977 was physical education. The fact that

sport education in childhood “was hobbled” as a result of the fact

that “at general basic education schools, not only is there one teacher

for all the classes, who can therefore spend little time with each of

113

them, but these teachers also lack the right degrees” (Tarín, 1977, 2)

also revealed the need to consider establishing degrees that would

bring these professionals’ status in line with that of their counterparts

in other disciplines.

Indeed, from 1977 to 1978, the field of physical education

was characterised by increased claims by professionals for better

regulation of the sector and for agreements on this matter reached

with the public administration. Thus, in March 1977 an association

of physical education professionals was established which did not

work at odds with the National College of Physical Education

Teachers (Colegio Nacional de Profesores de la Educación Física)

but instead went further by asking this subject to depend on the

Ministry of Education and Science instead of on the General

Secretariat of Movement (Secretaría General del Movimiento), as it

did then, as well as this Ministry’s recognition of the degree and

salary parity with the other teachers. Its bylaws were approved by the

Council of Ministers on the 3rd

of November 1978 under the name of

the Official College of Physical Education Teachers (Colegio Oficial

de Profesores de Educación Física).

As we shall see below, as Law 13/1980, the General Law on

Physical Culture and Sport was being drafted, once again the

teachers and students at the INEF in Barcelona and Madrid called for

improvements in the job status of physical education professionals.

Therefore, Spanish citizens witnessed how not many

changes took place in the early years of the transition, nor did the

transformations needed to overcome the shortcomings that would

make possible massive participation in sport and the ideal conditions

for high-quality physical education. Even though there were changes

in the discourses and political positions around these matters,

Spanish citizens would have to wait until the second half of the

transition for a clear sport policy to get underway, one that therefore

signalled a break with the previous approaches.

The regulation of physical education and sport in Spain, a slow

road towards normalisation begun during the political transition

(1978-1982)

Two of the most important milestones towards promoting

and regulating sport and physical education were the approval of the

114

Spanish Constitution and Law 13/1980, the General Law on Physical

Culture and Sport. Prior to this, we should highlight two initiatives

with the characteristic widespread participation of the era, which

were also important in the democratising process of the country and

which conditioned the government’s position on sport and physical

education: the Congress of Catalan Culture and the General

Assembly on Sport.

The course on Sport and Leisure at the Congress of Catalan

Culture ended on the 9th

of October 1977 with a series of conclusions

regarding school, social and competitive sport. They identified the

need to consider sport as a citizen right whose educational and

recreational facets could influence the citizenry’s physical and

psychological wellbeing (Congrés de Cultura Catalana, 1978). At the

same time, with regard to physical education and school sport, these

conclusions noted virtually no practice of sport at schools, the

enormous difficulty finding physical education teachers and

therefore the need to intensify physical education taught by

specialists at schools. Broadly speaking, the conclusions of this

course on Sport and Leisure concurred with the position of the

official bodies. The need to encourage a wider practice of sport both

educationally and recreationally and to stop overstating the

importance of professional sport – until then the sole focus on public

policies – was characteristic postulates of the discourses of most of

the sport agents in the country during the early years of the

democratic transition.

On a statewide scale, in late 1977, too, the 1st General

Assembly on Sport was held in Madrid, which was organised into

seven courses (Alfil, 1977a) and was closed by Benito Castejón on

the 17th

of December of that same year. At this gathering, which was

condemned by seven political parties because of a lack of

representativeness and internal manipulation (Alfil, 1977b), the

conclusions included the need to have a law on sport that fit the

current needs and to regulate and organise physical education in the

educational system. It also offered important insights on the need for

the state to make a massive contribution to the phenomenon of sport,

since “the contribution should not only be moral or legal but also

economic” (Esto es una apertura al futuro del deporte, 1997, 14). It

further concluded that independence should govern sport policy and

that “facilities for ‘sport for all’, to which spectacle sport and high-

115

performance sport should be subordinated” were urgently needed

(Alfil, 1977c, 20).

In short, the positions of the Congress of Catalan Culture

and the General Assembly on Sport dovetailed with those of the

representatives of state sport in the sense that they both revealed

virtually endemic shortcomings in sport and physical education in

Spain. Therefore, beyond the change in discourse and position

towards this matter, the government bodies had to take greater

responsibility in order to contribute to the definitive expansion of

sport and physical education, which had primarily been the

responsibility of associations until then. To this end, the approval of

the Spanish Constitution and the General Law on Physical Culture

and Sport served as the underpinning of subsequent sport and

physical education policies in Spain.

Specifically, the Spanish Constitution was passed on the 31st

of October 1978, and shortly thereafter, on the 6th

of December, it

was approved by citizens with 87.9% of votes in favour (Segura,

2000). This text was grounded upon five principles, namely the

democratic state, the rule of law, the social state, the parliamentary

monarchy and the state of the autonomies – the latter the most

controversial one, dovetailing with the approval of the draft Statute

of Autonomy in the Parliament of Catalonia on the 29th

of December

1978. Its approval led to the spread of the process of autonomy,

starting what was called ‘coffee for all’ which strove to dilute the

uniqueness of Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia. Regarding

sport and physical education, this constitutional text was crucial in

recognising citizens’ right to sport through article 43.4, which stated

that “the public powers shall encourage health education, physical

education and sport. They shall also encourage the proper use of free

time” (Martín, 1996, 107). Its approval on the 6th

of December 1978

came at a time of enormous sensibility towards collective

shortcomings (Puig & Heinemann, 1995).

After the approval of the Spanish Constitution, we should

stress the importance of Law 13/1980, the General Law on Physical

Culture and Sport. The purpose of this law, whose embryo was the

aforementioned General Assembly on Sport (1977), and which

replaced the 1961 Law on Physical Education, was to “spearhead,

guide and coordinate physical education and sport as crucial factors

in the education and holistic development of the individual” (Law

116

13/1980, dated the 31st of March 1980, the General Law on Physical

Culture and Sport). It also made sport for all a priority in general

sport policy. This text was “the first attempt to change the structures

of Spanish sport” (Puig, 1993, 98) and its main points included the

compulsory nature of physical education at different levels of

education, the organisation and competences of the CSD and the

Spanish Olympic Committee (COE), the assignment of no less than

22% of total proceeds from Mutual Sport-Charity Wagers to the

CSD, university status for the National Institutes of Physical

Education (INEF) and the declaration of the principle of

decentralisation in the government organisation to promote sport.

This last principle formed the underpinning of the actions of the

autonomous communities, the provincial councils and the island and

municipal councils (Pastor, 2000). Regarding the status of physical

education, the months prior to the approval of the law were tinged

with controversy since the teachers and students at the INEF in

Madrid (1967) and Barcelona (1975) believed that the status of

professionals in this field was not fully enough specified, nor were

the possibilities of accessing and converting degrees (Calatayud,

2002). Beyond the aforementioned law, some progress was made in

physical education and the status of professionals in this sector

during the transition, such as the creation of the Official College of

Physical Education Teachers (RD 2957/1978) and the approval of

Royal Decree 790/1981 on National Physical Education Institutes

and the education they provide.

Thus, the last years of the political transition were important

in the regulation of physical education and sport in Spain, forming

the peak of the democratisation of sport, which also came hand in

hand with a process of decentralisation and the assumption of

responsibility for sport matters by the autonomous communities,

provinces and municipalities of Spain.

Conclusions

Most of the organisational and structural changes in Spanish

sport came during the first few years after the dictatorship, and

despite the paltry progress in the statuses of physical education and

sport in the country during this period, they were extraordinarily

important in consolidating democracy and the process of expanding

117

sport. Most of these transformations, which took place between 1977

and 1980, fostered the democratisation and decentralisation of

government sport bodies, fostering participation in sport in line with

the postulates of the Council of Europe. The need to have a law on

sport and a regular, recognised physical education sector, as well as

the recognition of all citizens’ right to access sport expressed in the

articles of the Spanish Constitution were the outcome of the new

approaches to these issues.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abadia, S. (2011). Deporte, ciudadanía y libertad: la transición

política en España y el deporte (1975-1982). In X. Pujadas

(Coord.), Atletas y ciudadanos. Historia social del deporte

en España: 1870-2010 (pp. 357-392). Madrid: Alianza

Editorial.

Alfil (1977a, 16 December). La Asamblea Nacional hacia un nuevo

concepto de deporte. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 3.

Alfil (1977b, 18 December). Siete partidos políticos no aceptan las

conclusiones. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 14.

Alfil (1977c, 17 December). Con el pleno termina la I Asamblea del

Deporte. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 20.

Astruells, A. (1977, 21 September). Benito Castejón, con las cartas

boca arriba. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 23.

Calatayud, F. (2002). De la gimnasia de Amorós al deporte de masas

(1770-1993). Una aproximación histórica a la educación

física y el deporte en España. Valencia: Valencia Town

Hall.

Congrés de Cultura Catalana (1978). Resolucions III. Barcelona:

Congrés de Cultura Catalana.

Cursos del CSD en Barcelona (1978, 26 November). El Mundo

Deportivo, p. 30.

Declaración programática de la D.N.D. (1976, 3 October). El Mundo

Deportivo, p. 3.

“Esto es una apertura al futuro del deporte” (1977, 18 December). El

Mundo Deportivo, p. 14.

118

García, M. (2006). Veinticinco años de análisis del comportamiento

deportivo de la población española (1980-2005). Revista

Internacional de Sociología, 44, 15-38.

ICSA-Gallup (1975). El Español y el Deporte: datos de una

encuesta. Madrid: Delegación Nacional de EF y Deportes.

La educación física debe ser materia de especialización a todos los

efectos legales (1977, 20 July). El Mundo Deportivo, p.

30.

Law 13/1980, dated 31 March, Ley General de la Cultura Física y

del Deporte.

Martín, L. (Ed.). (1996). Constitución Española. Pamplona:

Aranzadi.

Massó, J. (1977, 2 April). I.N.E.F., en paro, requiere urgente

solución. Dicen..., p. 13.

Pastor, J. L. (2000). Definición y desarrollo del espacio profesional

de la Educación Física en España (1961-1990). Madrid:

Universidad de Alcalá.

Puig, N. (1993). Revisión histórica de la política deportiva en

España, lecciones que se pueden extraer de cara al futuro.

At the 3º Encuentros de política deportiva (pp. 93-105).

Barakaldo: Instituto Municipal de Deportes. Barakado

Town Hall.

Puig, N. (1995). Esport i societat a Catalunya. In L’Associacionisme

i l’esport (pp. 251-264). Barcelona: Secretaria General de

l’Esport.

Puig, N. and Heinemann, K. (1995). Institucions públiques i

desenvolupament de l’esport a Catalunya (1975-1994).

Proposta d’un marc teòric interpretatiu. Acàcia, 4, 123-

143.

Pujadas, X. and Santacana, C. (1999). Esport, espai i societat en la

formació urbana de Barcelona (1870-1992). Barcelona:

Fundació Barcelona Olímpica.

Pujadas, X. and Santacana, C. (1995). Història il·lustrada de l’esport

a Catalunya. Vol. 2, (1931-1975). Barcelona: Columna-

Diputació.

Se hace camino al andar (1974, 24 November). Don Balón 4, p. 5.

Segura, A. (2000). Memòria i història de la transició. In R. Aracil

and A. Segura (Ed.), Memòria de la transició a Espanya i

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a Catalunya (pp. 11-66). Barcelona: Edicions de la

Universitat de Barcelona.

Tarín, M. (1977, 21 January). Benito Castejón: deporte sin

patetismos. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 2.

Vilanou, C. (1994). L’esport a Sants-Montjuïc. Una visió històrica

(1883-1994). Barcelona: Arxiu Municipal del Districte de

Sants-Montjuïc.

120

TURKEY

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN

TURKEY

Giyasettin Demirhan, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Hacettepe

University, Ankara

Ferman Konukman, College of Arts and Sciences, Sport Science

Program, Qatar University, Doha

Correspondence

Giyasettin Demirhan

demirhang@gmail.com

Phone: 90 532 382 5352

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to review the historical

development of physical education in Turkey up to modern times. In

the process, beginning from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic of

Turkey, the early physical education courses were offered in Military

High School in 1864 and in Navy High Schools since 1884.

Application of physical education courses into other program areas.

Teacher education accelerated by the foundation of the young

Turkish Republic. The first course to train physical education

teachers was offered at Çapa Girls Teacher Training School in

Istanbul in 1926. In 1932 Gazi Teacher Training School and Terbiye

Institution Physical Education Training branch were established in

Ankara. Recently, more than 70 higher education institutions have

begun providing such services. Physical education courses at

primary, secondary and higher education levels are being offered

two-five hours weekly including extra curricular activities such as

scouting and sport organizations among the schools.

Key Words: Physical education, physical education teacher

education.

121

Sports is the literature of the physical education, physical education

is a branch of public health, and gymnastics is language of the

physical education. Movement is a sort of nourishment for the body.

If less, it does not feed, if too much, it does harm.

Selim Sirri Tarcan (1932-1943)

Physical Education in Schools

It is known that in the period ranging from the Ottoman

Empire to the Republic of Turkey, early physical education courses

were offered in Military High Schools in 1864 and in Navy High

Schools in 1884 (Abali, 1974, pp. 95). In 1869, National Education

General Directorate listed “Gymnastics” as a course offering. Also

during this early period the Galatasaray High School offered a

physical education course that was taught by French teachers

(Kahraman, 1995, pp. 641).

The most significant figure in the organization of physical

education theory in Turkey was Selim Sirri Tarcan. Tarcan began to

work in the Military Forces after finishing his education in Sweden.

Then he was assigned to the Ministry of Education as physical

education inspector in July 14, 1910. But as there was no physical

education course, he asked, “What will I inspect?” The minister’s

reply was interesting: “You will be both founder and inspector. We

have improved the Male’s Teacher School. Now its program includes

physical education courses twice each week. You will give lectures

there and train teachers. We will consider Girl’s School later”

(Tarcan, 1946, pp.47). Consequently, physical education began to be

considered in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

In 1911, physical education courses began to be offered in the first

and second years of high schools as an optional course. In 1913,

“Physical Education and School Plays” courses appeared in primary

schools (Okan, 1975, pp.8). Tarcan was trying to achieve his goals

while fighting against two fronts: Conservatism and the proponents

of old gymnastics “(Asir, 1950, pp.68). Near the end of the Ottoman

Empire, around 1916 and 1917, two views were dominant regarding

physical education. The first was “John Amaros Gymnastics” that

appeared as result of the impact of the Amaros Gymnastics. The

second was the “Swedish Gymnastics” that was supported by Tarcan

122

and made widespread by Pehr Henrik Ling. In contrast to the

Amaros approach, the Swedish gymnastics was argued to be easer,

soft. Thus, it could be stated that Swedish Gymnastics approach aims

at health. Faik Ustunidman, one of the proponents of Amaros

Gymnastics and a physical education teacher, considered Swedish

Gymnastics to be for woman (Aray, 1959, pp. 80-81). However,

Tarcan (1940, pp. 85-88) stated that Swedish Gymnastics depended

heavily on training, physiology and anatomy. For Tarcan, its aim

was to provide coherence of the body. This view assumed that the

public should accept physical education and sports work.

Picture 1: From Selim Sirri Tarcan’s Album

In 1983, physical education courses began to be offered as an

optional course in universities. The policy is still in effect today. In

elementary, secondary and high schools, physical education courses

were required for a long time in Turkey, and are required today. The

courses are offered five hours during the first three years of basic

education, two hours in the fourth-eight grades and two hours in high

123

schools. In 2014, there were 17,532,088 students and 37,000

physical education teachers in 56,506 schools (TUIK, 2015). The

number of students per teacher is 438. The number of teachers per

school is 0,65. There are significant imbalance regarding the number

of teachers and their distribution among schools.

Today, especially in the western world, a standard-based

curriculum is more common than the traditional curriculum.

According to this approach, the curriculum standards are determined

and it is assumed that children and adolescents will achieve those

standards at the end of the education process. The following question

can be asked here, “What is the meaning of standard?” Standard is a

rule or principle that is teaches students what they need to know in a

quality physical education and sport program (NASPE, 2012). It can

be seen that there is not a big difference between the standards of

Physical Education Curriculum in different countries like Turkey as

follows (MEB, 2007; 2013):

The students have certain competences in movement patterns

and kinesthetic skills in order to participate in physical

activities. While they learn and perform physical activities,

they acknowledge the concepts, principles, rules, strategies

and tactics related to movement.

The students participate in and maintain physical activities

to an extent that will keep them healthy.

The students participate in physical activities regularly.

The students perform responsible personal and social

behaviors during the physical activities.

When implement the lessons, physical education teachers should

establish a relationship with the standards and conduct their lessons

taking into consideration the ages and developmental characteristics

of children and adolescents in light of the learning fields in physical

education. The main learning fields are movement skills, knowledge,

active participation and healthy life. Motor skills and knowledge

consist of athletic activities, gymnastics, dance, games, swimming

and outdoor-adventure activities. Active participation and healthy

life include regular physical activity related to health. The lessons

are conducted according to the weight of the mentioned fields; the

assessment and evaluation activities are conducted at the end of the

lessons (Demirhan and Saçlı, 2013).

124

The most important factor in conducting a physical education

lesson, with regard to the curriculum, is to enable participation and

to develop the skills of the individuals according to their own

capacities. Individuals with more developed skills will be more

participative. Being participant means having the basic physical

skills. According to Whitehead (2000, pp.16), the participative

individual has physical literacy and is considered physically

educated. An individual with the abovementioned characteristics is

assumed to participate in physical activities that s/he has learnt in the

physical education lessons at school, or in other activities related to

the physical education course after s/he has graduated. Therefore,

physical education lessons and extra-curricular activities should be

conducted on a quality basis. This is possible only with qualified

physical education teachers conducting quality lessons. As the

teachers are educated in higher education institutions, objectives and

contents of the physical education teacher education programs

should be consistent with physical education curriculums at schools.

Otherwise, the situation would be similar to restaurants with

fabulous cooks, but only a few customers (Demirhan and Sacli,

2013).

Physical Education Teacher Education

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the founder of young Turkey,

emphasized education as a main force to establish modern Turkish

society. During that time, teachers were key elements reform, and

they had better economic and moral living conditions (Karagozoglu,

1991). During this period, American Educator John Dewey was

invited by the Turkish government in 1924 to promote educational

reform. Dewey spent three months in Turkey and prepared a report

about the Turkish education system. He recommended that the

Ministry of Education follow leadership toward more progressive

and effective modern schools in order to promote the needs of a

contemporary nation (Brickman, 1984-1985). Dewey’s report

indicated that the main purpose of the Turkish educational system

was to achieve an independent Turkey in the contemporary world

(Bursalioglu, 1991).

During the early decades of the 20th century, physical

education was a field of men because of the previous socio-cultural

structure of the Ottoman Empire. Although some efforts were made

125

to include women in such activities, these efforts were unwanted by

religious authorities of the period. “The First Science Council” was

forced to delay its activities in 1922. It resumed work during July

and August of 1923. Tarcan was also a member of that council

(Yucel, 1994 pp.21). The fifth article of the council’s work

concerned “Scouting and Physical Education”. While designing the

activity program, the council considered “High School Scouting

Administration Principles” and a Physical Education Boys’ Teacher

School”. These were incorporated into the design of the program

(Dagli and Akturk, 1988, pp.16). After that it was planned to open a

physical education teacher school in 1926. A sports complex near

Çapa Girls’ Teacher School in Istanbul was completed and a

Gymnastics Teacher Program was started. It presented theoretical

and applied courses for both males and females for a one-year

period. Tarcan was the administrator of the program. Three Swedish

teachers were assigned to the program, Inge Neiman, Rangar

Johonson and Suen Alexanderson.

Picture 2: Selim Sirri Tarcan, Inge Neiman, Rangar Johonson, Suen Alexanderson

and Women Gymnastics Teachers

The training program included courses about the theory and

application of physical education, physiology, anatomy, rough

behaviors, public health, the sport theory, and applied courses.

Primary school teachers trained in physical education and with a

strong ability and desire were invited to participate. Those who

126

passed the professional ability test participated in three months of

theoretical and applied courses. After three months, the participants

take another exam. Those who passed the exam continued to

participate in the course for another three months. Those who

completed the course successfully were assigned as “Physical

Education Teachers” at the secondary school level (Guven, 1996,

pp.75).

From these courses, 148 men and 63 women graduated

(Bilge, 1989, pp.67). Those who successfully passed the final exam

were sent abroad for further education (Abali, 1974, pp.96). During

the beginning of the course, Tarcan wrote a guide for physical

education teacher. Tarcan discussed how to teach movements, how

to organize sports activities, and problems related to equipment in

this guide. Also, the guide argued the notion of “neither an ill

thinker, nor an unwise wrestler” (Karakucuk, 1992, pp.50). As a

result of the growing need for physical education teachers, “Gazi

Secondary Teacher School and Physical Education Department”

was founded in 1932 (Yucel, 1994, pp.83). This program was

chaired by German Kurt Dainas. The lecturers at the school were all

Tarcan’s students. The program, which lasted three years, could be

regarded as a continuation of the earlier program. Some of the

courses included in the second program were, theory of gymnastics,

methods of teaching, sports and games, anatomy, and foreign

language (Karatun, 1973). The program was re-designed to require

only two years of study in 1945 but it was changed back to three

years in 1948.

As physical education became more wide spread in Turkey,

more programs were founded The Atatürk Education Institution was

started in Istanbul in 1974. In 1975 and 1976, Youth and Sports

Academies were founded in Ankara, Istanbul and Manisa

respectively to teach sport managers. During 1978 and 1982, these

institutions were all converted into Higher Teacher Education

Schools. Also the Ege University School of Physical Education and

Sports was established in 1976 in Izmir and the Middle East

Technical University Physical Education, Sports and Recreation

Department was founded in 1979.

Parallel to these developments in higher education, the

academies were attached to the Department of Physical Education

and Sports in 1982. During this period, there were only four physical

127

education teacher training departments. In 1989, another department

was established at Hacettepe University in Ankara, the School of

Sports Sciences and Technology. By 1992 the number of physical

education teacher education schools had grown to 14. In 2000, there

are 47 such departments and school about physical education and

sport. Now, in 2015, there are more than 70. In the meantime, in

2014, six schools were established as Faculty of Sport Sciences.

Physical Education Teacher Education is one of the departments of

the new organization. The duration of all programs is four years. An

analysis of the curriculum of these programs showed that the courses

of general culture include, Turkish language, foreign language,

research methods, etc. Those of subject matter knowledge contain

physiology, anatomy, and psychology, as well as skill domain such

as soccer, basketball, educational games, health related fitness, etc.

The courses within the Teaching Profession Knowledge area are

teaching methods, class management, educational, psychology,

material development and design and school application etc.

Conclusion

When it comes to physical education and physical education

teachers, physical education activities, which will support the health

and holistic development of children and adolescents, and make

them happy as well as healthy, should be carefully designed, and

highly qualified physical education teachers should be educated in

their profession. Therefore, when children and young people

participate to the daily physical education in school regularly, they

will become a physically educated people. This is important because

physically-educated person has learnt the necessary skills for certain

physical activities, is physically fit, participates in and enjoys

physical education skills, knows the importance and advantages of

participating in physical activities, cares healthy life style,

understands the contribution of physical education to personal and

social development, and takes individual and social responsibility

during the physical education lessons. In this context, the estimation

of future physical education and PETE programs to be conducted are

given below:

128

Physical education teachers and teacher educators will

include health-related physical education and information

communication technology in order to improve student

learning.

Physical education teachers and teacher educators will

improve and develop their teaching skills and knowledge

continuously.

University teaching staff will be specialized even more in

physical education, physical activity, recreation, exercise,

and sub-disciplines of human movement and sports

sciences.

Distance education will grow up in higher education.

Teachers will be active in educating and leading instead of

being regular physical education teachers.

Outdoor-adventure activities and swimming will gain more

attention because of complicated city life.

Extra-curricular physical education programs will be

increased.

Physical education teachers will want to have different

certificates related to physical activities and exercise.

Physical education teacher education and adapted physical

education teacher education will increase.

School practice will be more important for pre-service

teachers.

As a result, physical education should be explained in

relation to schools, students and physical education teachers.

Because, physical education curriculums in schools consist of basic

movement skills, specialized movement skills, sports skills and

health related fitness. Physical education teacher education program

is affected by the expectations and the culture of a society. Changes

in school practices and the contents of physical education within a

socially transformative period also shape the contents of a physical

education teacher education program.

129

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Aray, S. (1959). Bir Galatasarayli'nin hatiralari (The memories of a

Galatasaray supporter). Izmir.

Asir, V. (1950). "Selim Sirri Tarcan". Dost goz ile 75 yasinda genc

Selim Sirri Tarcan. (Selim Sirri Tarcan who is 75 years

old young). Istanbul: Ulku Basimevi, 53-71.

August 2012).

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yetistirilmesi. (Physical education teacher training in

Turkey). Ankara: Kultur Bakanligi Yayinlari.

Brickman, W.W. (1984-85). The Turkish cultural and educational

revolution: John Dewey’s report of 1924. Eastern

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systems of the world. (Ed. W.Wickremasinghe). Houston:

American Collegiate Service.

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governments and their programmes). Ankara: T.B.M.M.

Basimevi.

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context of society with the culture of movement,

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best practice (Eds. M.K. Chin & C.R. Edginton). Urbana:

Sagamore Publishing, 441-450.

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ve spor ogretmeni yetistiren okullarin egitimini hazirlayan

calismalar (Preparing studies on education for training

schools of physical education and sports teachers during

the period of declaration of Turkish Republic). Journal of

Physical Education and Sport Sciences, 1(2), 70-81.

http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/standards/nationalStandard

s/PETEstandards.cfm (Access date: 17

Kahraman, A. (1995). Osmanli devletinde spor (Sport in the

Ottoman Empire). Ankara: Kultur Bakanligi Yayinlari.

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Karagozoglu, G. (1991). Teacher education reform in Turkey. Action

in teacher education, 13(3), 26-29.

Karakucuk, S. (1992). Turk spor kurumu dergisi. (Journal of Turkish

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Ainsworth). Physical education around the world. PHI

Epsilon Fraternity, 6, 53-62.

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date: 17 August 2015).

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(Teacher qualification).

http://otmg.meb.gov.tr/belgeler/ogretmen_yeterlikleri_kita

bi/%C3%96%C4%9Fretmen_Yeterli

MEB (Ministry of National Education). (2007). Beden eğitimi

ogretim programi (Elementary physical education

curriculum). Ankara: Milli Egitim Bakanligi.

NASPE (2012). National standards & guidelines for physical

education teacher education

Okan, K. (1975). Turk spor tarihi. (Turkish sport history). Ankara:

Mektupla Ogretim Yayini.

Tarcan, S.S. (1932). Beden terbiyesi: Oyun, cimnastik, spor

(Physical education: Play, gymnastics, sport). Istanbul:

Devlet Matbaasi, 50.

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Danimarka. (Three comprehensive countries of west).

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Cumhuriyet Matbaasi, 18, 21.

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Yayinevi.

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date: 14 February 2015).

Whitehead, M. (2000). Aims as an issue in physical education.

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Piotrowski). London, New York: Roudledge/Falmer

Taylor & Francis Group.

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Yucel, H.A. (1994). Turkiye'de orta ogretim (Secondary school

education in Turkey). Ankara: Kultur Bakanligi

Yayinlari.

132

UKRAINE

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE

DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN

UKRAINE

Sergii Ivashchenko, National University of the Physical Education

and Sport of Ukraine

Correspondence

Sergii Ivashchenko

algis6274@hotmail.com

During the Middle Ages on the territory of modern Ukraine

was carried out the original system of physical education of young

people in the region of Zaporizhskaya Sich (Guba V., 2008).

This original system of physical training, designed for

Zaporizhsky Cossacks, was provided not only for the development of

some basic physical qualities of people, but also to instilling in them

the special moral and psychological characteristics necessary for

successful warfare (devotion to duty, endurance, courage, discipline,

resistance to torture , etc.).

The specificity of this training system was to use more and

more difficult exercises (in terms of intensity of physical activity and

the complexity of motor actions), as well as the rejection of any frills

and amenities, and the formation of habits to perform combat work

in extreme conditions (Pavlova Y. & Tulaydan V., 2012).

Much later, namely, during the period from 1899 to 1930 on

the territory of modern Ukraine there are numerous sports

associations, whose activities are based on the principles, that was

applied in Zaporizhskaya Sich (Vydrin V. & Pleshakov A., 2005).

During this historical period was beginning the process of

formation the Ukrainian national system of physical education,

designed for different categories of the population.

It was during these years in Ukraine is widespread sport for

all movement and created a large number of sports clubs specializing

in football, skiing, swimming, boxing, athletics and other sports. At

133

the same time, in rural areas of Ukraine were organized many special

sports courses and voluntary sports associations.

In the period from 1912 to 1930 in many regions of Ukraine

was spread so-called movement "Ukrainian scouts", which, in

principle, has much in common with the movement of "Scouts" in

other countries (Butyrskaya I., 2004).

In February 1917 was formed the Ukrainian National

Republic. Since that time, there were significant changes in the

system of education of the population, including a system of physical

training all his age (Andreeva A., & Krutzevich T., 2004).

In Kiev It was created a first national school of physical

education. The main purpose of this school was to provide education,

from the earliest childhood, physically strong young generation with

the harmonic development of physical and spiritual strength.

This required the full promotion of all kinds of mass sports

and physical education, particularly in schools and other educational

institutions, as well as engaging in physical culture movement of the

broad masses of the population, especially the youth.

In Kiev in 1963 was held a scientific conference on physical

culture and sports of all age groups. One of the major problems of

this event was to study physical education and recreation as a means

to combat premature aging (Yaremenko A., 2005).

In this period of time many professionals, working in the field

of physical education, work hard to promote the popularization of

physical culture among people of different age groups and teach

them a correct understanding of the importance of physical exercise.

In addition, their efforts are focused on the development of tourism,

as an extremely exciting and versatile sports activity, which affects

all aspects of human life: physical, moral, aesthetic and labor (Hodge

K., & Smellie L., 2008).

134

Number of schools in which the teaching of Physical

Education conducted

Academic years

Number of schools

Primary

schools

Secondary

schools

Total

number

1914 - 1915 19361 356 19717

1926 - 1927 16713 2066 18779

1927 - 1928 17832 2531 20363

1928 - 1929 17487 2958 20445

1929 - 1930 17944 3390 21334

1930 - 1931 17496 5845 23341

1931 - 1932 13191 8231 21422

After that time came a long period of headship in the sphere

of physical culture in Ukraine the soviet system of physical

education of different categories of population in the country.

Despite this, until 1920 the lessons of physical education in schools

and other educational establishments are present in the curriculum

sporadically. Based on the analysis of the structure and content of the

programs of physical education can be concluded that up to 1920, the

main aim of this programs was to develop the physical qualities

needed for employment. In 1924, there was developed approved the

first mandatory physical training program designed for all types of

schools and other educational establishments.

In 1925 it was set up a public sports society "Meadow",

which initiated the mass sports movement, aimed at the development

in various categories of the population those physical qualities and

skills, that are necessary for successful action in the process of

disaster management, as well as in the process of elimination the

consequences of all kinds of natural or technogenic disasters.

In 1926 and 1927 were created special training programs,

designed for physical education of students, who studies in labor

schools and teacher colleges. In 1927 for the first time in Ukraine

were developed some special programs of physical education, used

in auxiliary schools and designed for pupils with pathological

135

disorders of the central nervous system. This event can be considered

as beginning of development the adaptive physical education in

Ukraine.

Since 1928 was enacted official requirement for mandatory

recording in educational documents the results of physical training

control tests, that students are made twice during the school year (for

the first time at the beginning of the school year, and the second time

at the end of the school year).

It was also a mandatory requirement for the implementation

of physical training lessons according to three different training

programs depending on the age group of schoolchildren.

The first age group (schoolchildren’s age from 12 to 14

years):

1) running (boys - 50 meters, girls - 30 meters);

2) throwing the ball into the goal;

3) a running jump in length;

4) a combination of gymnastic elements.

The second age group (schoolchildren’s age from 15 to 16

years):

1) running (boys - 100 meters, girls - 60 meters);

2) shot put (boys), throwing the ball with a handle (girls);

3) a running jump in height;

4) pulling on the bar;

5) swimming 25 m (with pool).

The third age group (schoolchildren’s age from 17 to 18

years):

1) run 100 meters (boys and girls);

2) throwing grenades or training shot put 7.5 kg (boys), throwing the

ball with a handle or pushing a lightweight kernel 5 kg (girls);

3) the climbing rope or pulling (boys), abdominal exercises (girls);

4) high jump with a running start (boy), high jump with a running

start (girls); 5) swimming

100 meters (boys), swimming 50 meters (girls).

In 1930 it was has developed a new, science-based curriculum

for physical education for all categories of student youth (the

program included two hours of classes in physical training during the

school week, or three hours of training during the school ten-day).

The next step in the development of physical education in the

country has been the introduction of the complex "Ready for Labor

136

and Defense." The emphasis in physical education young people

transferred to the development of military-applied physical qualities.

Therefore, the program of physical fitness of the population

focuses on running, overcoming obstacles, carrying weights,

swimming, and cross-country skiing, throwing grenades and

shooting.

In fact, the introduction of the 1931 All-Union sports

complex "Ready for Labor and Defense" (RLD) was the first attempt

to use the special motor tests to assess the level of physical fitness of

different population groups.

It should be noted that the content of the complex "Ready for

Labor and Defense" during the period from 1934 to 1988 several

times varied depending on the results of scientific experiments and

achievements of modern sports science.

In the period from 1934 to 1944 in all fitness programs, using

in secondary schools, were introduced extra lessons in sports

rhythmic and military physical training. At this time, the school

program of physical fitness becomes completely focused on the

issues of military physical training of students.

Standards for physical education in schools and trade

schools (1934)

The name of the specification

Boys

Girls

Running

100 meters 15sec. 17 sec.

500 meters

1000 meters 3 min. 50 sec. -

Long jump from the takeoff 3 м 70 sm 3 m

High jump from the takeoff 110 sm 100 sm

Pulling from a hanging position 5 times -

Climbing rope (gymnastic stick) - 3 м

Grenade throwing 700 g 30 m 20 m

Cross-country skiing 5 km for 40

min.

3 km for 28

min.

Carrying ammunition box 50 m -

Walking in a gas mask 1 km 1 km

137

During the entire period from 1932 to 1988 the content of

physical education in school is closely connected with the use of

complex "Ready for Labor and Defense".

It should be noted that during this period, is the overriding so-

called command-bureaucratic approach to physical education of

children. Among the all Slavic peoples who lived on the territory of

modern Ukraine in the years just before World War II it was

widespread so-called Sokolsky gymnastic movement.

To the territory of Ukraine the Sokolsky gymnastic movement

came from the area where nowadays is located the Czech Republic

and gradually enveloped almost all regions of the state (Sukharev A.,

1991).

The main singularities of this gymnastic movement were its

widespread, professionally-applied orientation and diversity of

methods using in the process of physical training for all participants.

In the system of physical preparation, characteristic for Sokolsky

gymnastic movement organically combined the best and most

effective elements of Swedish, German and French systems of

physical education.

Characteristic for Ukraine was the fact that all the exercises

used in the Processes of physical education can be divided into four

main groups:

1) applied exercises (exercises on sports equipment

and exercises with gymnastic objects);

2) floor exercise (gymnastic exercises performed

without the use of any objects);

3) group exercises (typically acrobatic exercises

performed in groups of trained members);

4) military exercises (exercises with the military and

practical value, such as "Battle gopak").

In the postwar period (1945 to 1950) the State's efforts have

focused on the development of sports infrastructure in the country.

At this time, the number of schools that were closed gyms has

increased from 13% to 85%. By the end of 1947 there were about

12,640 full-time employees of Physical Education, working in

various institutions of public education on the territory of modern

Ukraine.

138

Training of specialists with higher education in the field of

physical education was carried out mainly in the higher institutions

situated in the regional centers of Ukraine: Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk,

Lviv, Odessa, Nikolayev and others. At this time, it was created the

Ukrainian National Committee for Physical Culture and Sport, as

one of the subordinate structures of the Council of Ministers of the

Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.

In the same period was increased production of manuals and

guidelines for physical training aimed at different age groups of the

population. There have been made some changes in the system of

training schoolteachers, working in the sphere of physical education.

In particular, only in 1947 of pedagogical universities in the country

were issued more than 7,500 teachers with additional specialty - a

teacher of physical education.

Personnel training in physical education (1947 - 1948 years)

City

I year

II

year

III

year

IV

year

Total

Kiev 250 258 140 96 744

Lviv 100 90 126 88 404

Dnipropetrovsk 130 126 67 79 402

Voroshilovgrad 135 81 68 73 357

Kharkiv 122 97 85 78 382

Stanislaw 100 45 35 38 218

All together 837 697 521 452 2507

During this time, there is a strengthening of scientific support

of the state system of physical education of the population. So in

1948 in Kiev was organized the first national conference on Physical

Fitness and Sports (75 experts participated in the conference).

In March 6, 1948 it was adopted the Resolution of the Central

Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine "On the physical

education of students in primary, seven-year and secondary schools

of Ukraine."

In 1949 it was created the Kiev State Institute of Physical

Culture, and then there were established some regional institutes of

physical education, opened in Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk and

Voroshilovgrad (now Lugansk).

139

During this period of time, many secondary schools, colleges

and high schools, designed to train specialists in the field of physical

education and sport, have been established in many cities of the

country: in Kiev, Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk, Voroshilovgrad (Lugansk),

Kharkov, Stalin (Donetsk ), Odessa, Stanislaw (Ivano-Frankovsk)

and other cities of Ukraine. In addition, in 1951 in educational

universities of Kharkov, Odessa and Voroshilovgrad were opened

the departments of physical education.

At this time in Ukraine, there were 11,948 schools, providing

general education (primary schools, seven-year schools and

secondary schools), besides there were opened 8812 sports clubs in

different sports disciplines inside of schools. During this time in

Ukraine were operated 156 institutions of higher education

(universities and specialized institutes).

On the territory of Ukraine that time there were more than 31

000 students and teachers, studying and working in higher

educational establishments, and who were engaged in physical

activity in special sports clubs. In addition, at this time in Ukraine

there were more than 530 colleges with their own sports clubs. In

these sports clubs more than 75 200 students and teachers were

regularly engaged in physical culture and sports.

In vocational schools, the number of which in this period in

Ukraine has exceeded 780, physical culture and sport systematically

engaged in more than 110 thousands students and teachers

(representing 63.5% of the total).

Since 1952 in all secondary schools, located on the territory

of Ukraine, were introduced mandatory daily physical exercises

before lessons, as well as short-motor exercises in breaks between

lessons for younger schoolchildren.

Over time there have been changes in the content of programs

of physical education students in all types of educational institutions.

The most significant changes were made in 1971 and in 1986. Last

version of this program provides training in four main areas:

gymnastics, track and field athletics, sports games and ski training.

This program was provided certain amount of theoretical

material designed to develop the students' logical thinking, spoken

language and memory. Also has been defined list of skills that the

students had to learn in each class, and was also set the optimum

volume of loads during endurance training (Glazyrin D., 2003).

140

In the same period of time there were developed some state

projects of new schools with mandatory presence of indoor sports

halls and outdoor sports grounds, and since 1961 - also with the

presence of their own school stadium. During these years, the

management system of physical education of the population in

Ukraine is carried out jointly by two ministries: the Ministry of

Education and Ministry of Manpower.

In Kiev in 1963, a scientific conference on physical culture

and sports of all age groups was held. One of the major problems of

this event was to study the physical culture and recreation as a means

to combat premature aging.

Carried out extensive work to promote physical culture

among people of different ages and learning the correct

understanding of the importance of exercise. The process of

developing tourism as an extremely exciting and diverse sport that

involves all aspects of life: physical, moral, strong-willed, aesthetic

and labor.

Comparative data of physical education teacher’s

education in Ukraine

The level of education of

teachers of physical

education

1 - 3 classes

4 - 10 classes

In urban schools

Complete higher education 25,6 % 91,8 %

Incomplete higher education 5,9 % 6,8 %

Specialized Secondary

Education

67,6 % -

General secondary education 0,9 % 1,4 %

In rural schools

Complete higher education 11,2 % 78,6 %

Incomplete higher education 4,2 % 14,7 %

Specialized Secondary

Education

82,8 % -

General secondary education 1,8 % 6,7 %

Since 1970, there is a radical change in the focus of teaching

activities in the field of physical education and sport in all kinds of

141

schools and other educational establishments of the country. Now the

main content of all programs of physical education is to promote

public health through the development of basic physical qualities of

young people.

In 1980 in all educational institutions of Ukraine there were

established the following types of physical education lessons:

1) educational; 2) training; 3) general (mixed); 4) control.

The main goal of physical fitness during this time is the need

to achieve a level of comprehensive physical development in young

age at which they will be able to perform high-efficiency labor and

defensive tasks (Kalinichenko I., 2009).

In this case, all students should have reached such indicators:

3 - 4 classes - I pioneer degree of physical fitness;

5 - 6 classes - II pioneer degree of physical fitness;

7 - 8 classes - III pioneer degree of physical fitness;

9 - 11 classes - delivery standards ” Ready for labor and defense”

first stage.

It was officially established that the lessons of physical

training should consist of the following component parts: 1)

Introduction (duration 5 - 8 minutes); 2) Préparation (duration 8 - 10

minutes); 3) Main part (duration 20 - 25 minutes); 4) Final part

(duration 3 - 5 min.).

After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, on the territory of

Ukraine begins to apply a new national curriculum for physical

training of young people, which consists of two parts: mandatory and

optional. This curriculum contains a theoretical section, which

explains not only what you need to learn, but also how to conduct

training. So, nowadays, physical education of young people is an

integral part of modern education system in Ukraine.

142

REFERENCES

Andreeva A., & Krutzevich T. (2004). Analysis of motivational

theories in improving physical education and recreation

Theory and Methods Physical Education and sport, 26

(2), 81 – 84.

Butyrskaya I. (2004). Features of the health for pupils’ middle and

high school age at the boarding schools. Kiyv, Ukraine:

Olympic literature.

Glazyrin D. (2003). Foundations of differentiated physical

education. – Cherkassy: Vidlunnja-plus.

Guba V. (2008). Scientific-practical and methodical bases of

physical education for young students. M: Sovetskiy

Sport.

Hodge K., & Smellie L. (2008). Motivation in master’s sport:

Achievement and social goals. Physiology of Sport and

Exercise, 9(1),157 – 176.

Kalinichenko I. (2009). The state of children health in educational

institutions with different modes for organized physical

activity. Kiyv, Ukraine: Olympic literature.

Pavlova Y. & Tulaydan V. (2012). Physical activity quality of life

for first and second year students. Young sport science of

Ukraine, 12(3), 92 – 99.

Sukharev A. (1991). Health and physical education of children and

teenagers. Moscow: Medicine.

Vydrin V. & Pleshakov A. (2005) Physical education as a cultural

phenomenon of the individual and society. Physical

Culture and Health, 8(2), 23 – 37.

Yaremenko A. (2005). Physical education as an indispensable

component of a healthy lifestyle of young people. K.:

Zdorovya.

143

UNITED KINGDOM

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND

Ken Hardman (Emeritus Professor), Institute of Sport and Exercise

Science, University of Worcester

Gillian Parry, Physical Education Consultant

Correspondence

Ken Hardman

ken.hardman@tiscali.co.uk

Phone: 0044 (0)1457854262

Introduction

The history of physical education in England reveals

influences variously shaped by military, political, economic, social,

cultural, philosophical and pedagogical factors fostered either by

individuals or institutions. Essentially, school physical education in

England has evolved out of two (‘dual’) traditions: organised games

and competitive sports associated with Public Schools1 (that is

Independent or Private Boarding Schools); and physical training

associated initially with military drill and then Swedish therapeutic

gymnastics in the Ling tradition in State Elementary Schools from

1871 on.

Shaping Traditions

Developments in sport as an important component of the

physical education curriculum are inextricably linked with

antecedents in English mainly Independent (Boarding) Schools in the

19th

century. Though not exclusively so, these institutions for the

sons (and later daughters) of the privileged laid down enduring

foundations. Initially sporting activity was encouraged to structure

boys’ leisure as an antidote to ill-discipline, immorality and general

anti-social conduct, i.e. as a form of social control. This was an early

1 For purposes of clarity, Public Schools are generically referred to as “Independent” schools. As such they can also be distinguished from schools provided by the State.

144

indicator of one of the ascribed roles in present day society in school

and out of school settings of sport being administered to assist in the

resolution of anti-social behaviour. The later 19th

century English

Independent Schools’ ‘muscular Christianity’-grounded athletic

traditions and belief in character development, social

accomplishments and moral and ethical codes inspired the ideal of

participation outranking winning. The Independent Schools 19th

legacy was potent not only for subsequent developments in sport in

wider society in general but also for curricular programmes in

schools, because by the early 20th

century, sport was fast emerging as

a significant feature in generically termed physical education

programmes in all continental regions of the world. Over time, the

legacy also produced a school physical education and sport delivery

system functioning interdependently and epitomised in the

emergence of a comprehensive programme of extra-curricular

activity, traditionally serviced by teachers on a voluntary basis. In

the State sector of the late 19th

and early 20th

centuries, the spread of

universal education facilitated the extension of school sport beyond

Independent Schools. Hence, within the development of physical

education, there has been an implicit notion of education through

sport, which increasingly after 1945 became more explicit as Sport,

and Games in particular came to dominate the physical education

curriculum. Testimony to the significance of Games even in State

Schools in the generally practised Secondary Schools curriculum

were time-table allocation and subject nomenclature, which ascribed

one or two lessons (‘PT’, later ‘PE’) and an afternoon of Games up

to the 1960s-1970s. The relationship between Physical Education

and Sport became more overt in the 1990s when it was well reflected

in the terminological shift to ‘Physical Education and School Sport’

and later highlighted in central governmental departments’ joint

publications respectively entitled High Quality Physical Education

and School Sport for Young People and Learning through Physical

Education and Sport (Department of Education and Skills

(DfES)/Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), 2004).

Thus, from informally arranged 'sides'/games in school playgrounds,

competition in a range of sports developed through local

town/district, county, regional to national levels, administered by

hierarchically structured associations. Extra-curricular activity came

145

to encompass a broad range of sporting activity engagement and its

significance has been by and large sustained, though changing

societal attitudes and leisure activity patterns, curriculum

developments, and teacher 'industrial' action over contractual issues

etc. contributed to a reduction both in numbers of pupils willing to

participate and in teachers prepared to offer or contribute to the

programme around the 1990-1995 period. Nevertheless, the basic

template of extra-curricular activity laid down over a century ago,

still plays an important role in the physical education system in

English schools.

The second of the ‘dual’ traditions emanated from what

essentially represented a ‘victory’ of Swedish over German

influences in a ‘battle’ initially largely fought outside the education

sector. The Rousseau inspired pioneering work of Basedow,

Salzmann and GuthsMuths at the Dessau ‘Philanthropium’ had

inspired Swiss Army Officer Phokion Heinrich Clias to develop a

system of gymnastic exercises, which the British Army and Navy

were quick to adopt in their respective recruits’ training courses in

the early part of the 19th

century. The drill orientation in Clias’

adaptations was deemed to be suitable for instilling discipline of a

military kind. It was only after Archibald MacLaren opened his

Oxford Gymnasium and after an invitation to run courses at Army

Headquarters’ in Aldershot that the German system was introduced

into Independent Schools, where Friedrich Ludwig Jahn’s ‘Turnen’

formed the basis of inter-school gymnastic competitions, and after

1875 into some elementary schools by Non-Commissioned Officer

(NCO) trained Instructors. It is relevant here to point to the perceived

necessity for physically fit armed forces’ personnel to extend and

defend the British Empire: the politics of colonialism were bound up

with military might! It was the likes of Swedish Central Gymnastics

Institute graduates Indebetou, (1838), Ehrenhoff (1840) and Georgii

(1849) who, through courses and with the aid of pamphlets,

introduced Swedish ‘Medical Gymnastics’ based on Per Henrik

Ling’s system into the country. Hungarian immigrant, Mathias Roth,

a homeopathic medical practitioner championed the cause of this

form of medical gymnastics because of its allegedly held therapeutic

values for homeopathic ‘medicine’ and perceived wider benefits.

146

Thus began the battle of the two systems with Roth fervently

lobbying Army, Government and Government Boards, Royal

Commissions, School Boards, politicians and Her Majesty’s

Inspectors of Schools (HMIs) by alluding to comparative situations

in Sweden, Prussia, Switzerland, Russia and France and pointing out

that the neglect of physical education and hygiene within the English

education system was the principal cause in the decline in the

general health of the nation. Roth’s vociferous arguments heralded

the addition of medical health and social welfare to factors shaping

developments in physical education. At the time of the Franco-

Prussian War, the early post-Forster Education Act (Elementary

Education Act, 1870) introduced non-denominational State Schools

with bye-laws requiring attendance of children aged 5-13. An

Amendment to the Act in 1871 permitted the inclusion of ‘drill’ in

the curriculum. These initial 'physical education' programmes reflected

methods utilised by the Army; indeed in the last thirty years of the 19th

century, part-time ex-army, non-commissioned personnel taught much

of the permitted 'military drill' syllabus.

The Swedish case was enhanced by London School Board

invitations to Concordia Löfving in 1878 and Martina Bergman

(later Bergmann-Osterberg) in 1881 to develop training programmes

for elementary school teachers. Bergmann-Osterberg was instrumental

in founding courses at Hampstead (1885) and then a two-year Course

for Women teachers at Dartford in 1895. Her ‘disciples' subsequently

fostered a number of Women's Training Colleges (Anstey in

Birmingham, Bedford, Chelsea, I.M. Marsh in Liverpool, Maria Grey

and Whitelands in London, Girton and Newnham in Cambridge),

graduates of which placed female physical educators at the forefront of

developments in England. By 1888, the government established Cross

Commission in seeking a “safe and scientific system of physical

training” reported against elaborate gymnastics apparatus (associated

with German gymnastics): physical exercises, largely comprising,

gymnastics and 'Swedish drill' came to be included in the curriculum

from 1890 on - the bottom line was that Swedish gymnastics was

financially cheap! Economic realities were a significant influence in

the adoption of the Swedish system: large numbers of children could

experience drilled exercise with minimal facility or equipment

147

provision; and in any event ‘therapeutic gymnastics’ were seen to be

more health beneficial (concerned with whole body development)

and so accorded with social policy. Moreover, the discipline,

obedience and order inculcated through systematic exercises to

command met both with military requirements and the politically

motivated social control of the children of the working classes. In

any case, German Gymnastics were regarded as male and

performance oriented: they were unsuitable for ‘rational’ Physical

Training requirements (too acrobatic and apparatus oriented), over-

developed the upper body and were ‘non-scientific’!

The 1902 Board of Education Model Course of Physical Training was

based on the Army training handbook of the day. The early 20th century

connection between physical training and military drill began to fade

when exercises for therapeutic purposes overshadowed the discipline

purpose. The concern for health, the physical and the intellectual

brought a new significance to physical activity. The official shift away

from military drill was initially seen in the 1904 Syllabus of Physical

Exercises, which contained elements from the Swedish system and then

in the appointment of the national Chief Medical Officer (CMO), Dr.

(later Sir George), Newman at the Board of Education with

responsibility for school physical education. The subsequent revisions

of the 1904 Syllabus in 1909, 1919 and 1933 reflected a change in

concept and methods from drill, exercises and physical training to a

more enlightened ‘Physical Education’. Indeed, the use of the term

‘Physical Education’ “symbolized a change of attitude away from a

pre-occupation with muscles and joints to one taking account of the

whole child” (Munrow, 1963). However, despite these various

indicative uses of the term Physical Education for another half a

century, it was not overtly represented as such in the school

curriculum.

The evolutionary development of Physical Education in the

late 19th

-early 20th

century period was reflected in the establishment

of professional Associations. The Ling Association (an Association

for female Physical Education practitioners) was established (for

women practitioners) in 1899. In 1919, it underwent a name change

to the Ling Association (and affiliated Gymnastic Bodies), a title that

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was modified in 1925 to the Ling Association of Teachers of Swedish

Gymnastics (and affiliated Gymnastic Bodies). Another yet highly

significant change was made in 1937, when the name Ling Physical

Education Association was adopted2. Another independent

organisation (for men) emerged in 1921, the National Association for

Physical Education Organisers and was soon followed by the

foundation in 1925 of another male only organisation, the North

Western Counties Physical Education Association - this Association

still exists as an influential independent regional Association but is

no longer male only! Meanwhile, other institutions were adopting a

Physical Education label: the British Medical Association (an

advisory body to the then ministerial department – the Board of

Education) established a Physical Education Committee in the

1920s; a government Board of Education Circular (Circular 1445) in

1936 extended government support for Physical Education; and

Carnegie College of Physical Training (the first male specialist

teacher training college in England), established in 1933, changed its

name to Carnegie College of Physical Education in 1947.

The Emergence of an ‘English System’ and Curriculum Change

Diffusion of organised games and competitive sports

throughout wider society was in part reinforced by the 1902

Education (Balfour) Act, which was responsible for the introduction

of nation-wide State Secondary education. The Act facilitated a

merging of the two ‘traditions’, for it was in Secondary Schools that

the sport and games institutionalised in Independent Schools were

more developmentally appropriate. The gradual pervasion of the

Education System by Sport and Games was manifested in the

government Board of Education's Supplementary Syllabus Handbook

on Games in 1927 and the 1933 Syllabus of Physical Training for

use in State Elementary Schools. The Board of Education Syllabi

(1909, 1919, and 1933), as well as showing a gradual decline in

support for the Swedish system, reveal the changes in philosophy

2 After a series of mergers with other bodies, the Ling Physical Education Association

became the lead national professional body in 1994 when it was renamed the Physical

Education Association of the United Kingdom; it now has the name of the Association for Physical Education.

149

from a drill-based programme, mainly concerned with inculcating

discipline and obedience, producing good posture and promoting

fitness through exercise of muscles and joints to an 'English System',

which drew from an amalgamation of the various imported (other

influences included Danish Gymnastics, the Scandinavian ‘glädje’

movement and the Austrian ‘natural movement) and home-grounded

systems, and aimed at optimum development of the individual

through a broader-based curriculum. This philosophical shift was

also a clear indication of pedagogical change, which was associated

with developments in educational psychology. It was a ‘shift’ that

was identifiable in the McNair Report (1942) commentary that "this

subject...is a fundamental and integral part of general education” with

every teacher knowing “something of it, for wherever children are

being educated their bodies are a factor in the process. To embody such

a conception...we find the term physical education preferable to p.t."

(Board of Education, 1942). Perhaps just as overtly, if not more so, the

shift was demonstrated in physical education curricular trends in the

second half of the 20th

century. The final demise of the subject’s

inclusion on remedial and therapeutic grounds occurred in 1945

when responsibility for Physical Education was passed from the

CMO to the Ministry of Education. Indeed, the CMO Report for the

years 1948-1949 highlighted the change of focus (particularly in

Primary Schools) intimating that the Board of Education’s

administrative absorption of physical education represented an

acknowledgement of its educational purpose and function. The CMO

specifically linked physical education with the term "Movement", a

“fundamental means of ensuring growth and development in all

forms of life” (Ministry of Education, 1952(a), p.16). It was a

prophetic link as subsequent developments especially in its official

acceptance at ministerial level in 1972 were to prove.

Further impetus to physical education curriculum change

occurred in 1952-53, when the then Ministry of Education published

syllabus guidelines, respectively entitled Moving and Growing

(1952b) and Planning the Programme (1953), which offered a

rationale for physical education, flexibility of programme content

and at the same time included advice on less formal learning

processes through guided exploration and discovery methods.

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Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, conferences and In-Service

Training (INSET) courses tended to concentrate on educational

gymnastics or "movement", which was perceived to be an all

encompassing term for either educational gymnastics or "modern

dance" based on Laban's basic concepts of space, time, weight and

flow. However, there was a considerable divergence of opinion in

defining the term. The work of Dudgeon, Bilborough and Jones had

a major impact initially respectively on developments in the north of

England regions of the West Riding of Yorkshire and Lancashire,

and later in other parts of the country in physical education in

Primary and early Secondary Schools’ years, though implementation

of ideas was subject to level of teacher competence, extent of a head

teacher’s commitment and availability of suitable facilities,

apparatus and equipment.

Some two decades on from the CMO’s prophetic

commentary and Ministry of Education’s guideline publications, the

Department of Education and Science (DES) issued its Movement -

Physical Education in the Primary Years (1972), in which value was

placed on children being given more responsibility for their own rate

and pattern of work, with teachers being sensitive to individual needs

and differences. Notably, this publication marked a change from

teacher centred and directed to child centred delivery. Teaching

methods had become more informal; the formal commands,

performance of exercises in unison and strict class organisation had

given way to conversational teaching and recognition that children

needed to work at their own rate and at their own level of ability.

These significant modifications of the ‘English System’ were

embedded in influences stemming from discovery learning theory

and Rudolf Laban’s analysis of movement, which pre-empted

innovative approaches to gymnastics’ teaching (educational

gymnastics), movement education in general with its variations in

didactical approaches in both Primary and Secondary Schools, and

which arguably were forerunners of the activity for understanding

approaches of more recent years.

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A National Physical Education Curriculum

After over a century of state-provided education, a

government sponsored National Curriculum for children aged 5-16

was implemented in phases in England (and Wales) in 1989 with

Physical Education introduced for the first time in its history as a

statutorily required curriculum subject in 1992. Prior to this

innovative government initiative, physical education in its various

‘guises’ was not a compulsory subject in the school curriculum3

rather it was generally practised. The National Curriculum was born

out of then Labour Prime Minister, Jim Callaghan's inspired "Great

Debate" and subsequent discussions of the late 1970s-1980s,

highlighting the need for changes in how children should be educated.

The resultant 1988 Education Reform Act embraced a package of

changes in State education for children aged 5-16. The legislation

ushered in changes in school admissions, school financing and school

curriculum. The National Curriculum was intended to provide a broad

and balanced curricular framework, through which there would be an

all-round improvement in the quality of the teaching process and

learning experiences. Its development generally and for Physical

Education specifically, reflected central Government's concern for a

return to 'traditional' values and content in the school curriculum.

Physical Education was included as a Foundation Subject

throughout the compulsory years (ages 5-16) of school attendance

over four key-stages: 5-7 years (year groups 1-2); 7-11 years (year

groups 3-6); 11-14 years (year groups 7-9); and 14-16 years (year

groups 10-11). Beyond key stage 4, in Further and Higher Education

Institutions it generally became optional (though not exclusively so

because some ‘continuing’ further education establishments did offer

obligatory recreationally based programmes) and participation more

often than not was voluntary. Notably relevant here is that during the

consultation phase, the Physical Education Curriculum Working

Party was informed by the Minister for Education that time

allocation for physical education was a non-negotiable issue. In the

event a notional 7½% appears to have been expected, though this

3 Interestingly the only compulsory subject legally required up to this time was “Religious Studies/Education”.

152

was reduced in 1994 (two years into the new curriculum) to a

notional 5% because of the nature of the overloaded planned

curriculum content. In pursuit of the various goals, it was recognised

that the notional 5% of curriculum time allocation was in itself

insufficient to achieve the desirable outcomes of healthily fit young

people associated with physically active lifestyle; additional (extra-

curricular) time was advocated, a ‘back to the future’ restatement of

the values of the historically embedded school extra-curricular

activity programmes.

This first National Physical Education Curriculum model

contained so-called Programmes of Study activity areas (Athletics,

Dance, Games, Gymnastics, Outdoor and Adventurous Activities and

Swimming) over the designated four 'key stages'. The introduction of a

statutorily required curriculum should have produced, at least in theory,

a nationally applied general pattern. However, in practice, the picture

was confused and local variations prevailed, such as those between

schools in time-table allocation and activities taught within the same

local education authority or local community. This confused pattern

originated from an intention to represent the National Curriculum more

as a framework rather than as a prescription. It was designed to take

account of school teaching staff interest and expertise as well as school

resources and location (thus, facilitating the fostering of local

traditions). To a large extent also, this pattern reflected the situation,

within a statutory framework of local management of schools, of

powers of responsibility devolved to school governing bodies, through

head teachers, for budget management and control, spending priorities,

the curriculum and its delivery. Many issues concerning curriculum

development were matters for individual schools and teachers to

decide upon (e.g. curriculum time allocation and teaching methods).

Hence, the National Curriculum varied between schools because of the

extant freedom and flexibility.

Nonetheless, the reality of the situation in many schools was

a tendency to reinforce the importance of sport, games and

performance. In essence, a sport-oriented programme resulted, in

which, Games as the only ‘Programme of Study’ compulsory

throughout the four key stages was “established as the dominant and

153

defining feature of physical education" (Penney and Kirk, 1997, p.34).

The sport-games dominated focus was reinforced through central

government-driven initiatives announced in a White Paper (policy

document), entitled Sport - Raising the Game. In a prefatory statement,

then British Prime Minister, John Major, referred to competitive sport

teaching valuable lifelong lessons and “putting sport back at the heart

of weekly life in every school” (Department of National Heritage,

1995, p.2). The case for sport was based on Victorian era values in

character formation, health promotion, moral development and

socialisation: the Government believed “fair play, self-discipline,

respect for others, learning to live by laws and understanding one's

obligations to others in a team are all matters which can be learnt from

team games properly taught" (Department of National Heritage, 1995,

p.7). Further evidence of the emphasis on sport was seen in the White

Paper's references to future initial teacher training courses (for

primary teachers and secondary PE specialists) as having an explicit

focus on games: trainees were to be prepared "to teach team games…"

and "… all teachers of PE will be equipped to teach at least one

mainstream game played in summer and one mainstream game played

in winter..." (pp.14-15).

Arguably, the bias in content of the Physical Education

National Curriculum merely reinforced what already was widely

practised. Any analysis of curriculum content even in the earlier

halcyon days of Movement Education would have revealed the

dominance of Games. Surveys in the 1980s by HMI (DES, 1983;

DES, 1985) looked at the education offered to children in middle

schools and found that whilst games, gymnastics, athletics and

swimming were offered, not all aspects were given equal emphasis

within each year group or in each school: in the 1983 DES Survey,

expressive movement and dance were less frequently taught than

other areas of the Physical Education curriculum; in the 1985

Survey, dance was offered in only half the sample. The generic

activity ‘Games’ accounted for at least 40% of the physical

education curriculum. Clearly, the ‘movement' orientation in the

1972 publication was little more than policy rhetoric when compared

with reality of practice.

154

Notwithstanding the sport/games-related domination, the

inclusion of Physical Education within the National Curriculum

established its legitimacy and increased its credibility as a subject in

the school curriculum, already somewhat enhanced through its status

as an examinable subject at both General Certificate of Secondary

Education (GCSE) Ordinary ('O' (1970s) and Advanced ('A') levels

standard (1988). However, this status was insufficient to save the

subject’s compulsory position in Primary Schools (key stages 1 and 2),

when the government temporarily suspended the statutory order

relating to physical education provision for a two-year period (1998-

2000) in order to divert time to the development of literacy and

numeracy skills. The suspension inevitably led to widespread

substantial reduction in physical education lessons taught in Primary

Schools, a situation from which subsequent recovery was largely

expedited by a range of funded measures, governmental and quasi-

governmental driven initiatives.

Physical Education-School Sport Dualism

The deterioration in Physical Education provision in

Primary Schools in the latter part of the 1990s extended to

Secondary Schools. Indicative of the deterioration were decreases in

curriculum time allocation, impoverished facilities and equipment,

perceived lower esteem and status, inadequate teacher preparation

(especially so in Primary Schools) and reductions in In-Service

Training (INSET) programmes and courses as well as below par

British performances in international competitions. The then quasi-

governmental agency, the Sports Council, seized the initiative to

become actively engaged in school physical education developments.

Its Strategy for Sport contained within its 1997 policy document,

England, the Sporting Nation, expressed the view that school is

where most children first encounter sport and hence, schools are in a

prime position to encourage young people's lifelong participation in

sport. A Sportsmark scheme, with the addition of an annual Gold Star

award for the most innovative schools demonstrating outstanding

achievement, was introduced. In order to extend this so-called

'sporting culture' beyond the confines of school, the Policy document

expressed the need for a corporate approach and identified Further

155

and Higher Education Institutions, sports clubs, local government

authorities, youth services, the Sports Council and regional agencies,

National Governing Bodies of Sport (NGBs), as well as private

sector sponsorship as having contributory roles to play and acting in

partnership with central Government. The vision was one of integral

partnership of Physical Education and Sport within broad-ranging

educational and social institutional agencies’ partnership providers.

It was an illustration of envisaged government and quasi- and non-

governmental agencies policy interventions with the dualism of

physical education and sport working in unison. The Sports Council

acknowledged that the activities on offer in the curriculum did not

necessarily match those preferred by young people but, nevertheless,

emphasised the importance of ensuring that young people experience

a breadth of sporting opportunities in compliance with the National

Curriculum. The document also stressed the values of sport within

the ‘extended’ curriculum asserting that extra-curricular activities

contribute to personal development, broaden pupils' interests and

experiences, expand their opportunities to succeed and help to build

good relationships with the school (Sports Council, 1997).

Subsequently, the Council in its re-packaged form, Sport England,

articulated the value and role of sport in schools in the context of

schools having a statutory role for the delivery of physical education.

Sport England recognised the role of schools in the development of

physical competencies and positive sporting attitudes within the

curriculum and then in encouraging young people to continue

participation in sport, through the provision of links and

opportunities in the extended curriculum and by community links

established by the school. At national level, it launched several

initiatives aimed at “more people involved in sport, more places to

play sport and more medals through higher standards of

performance in sport” (Sport England, 1999, p.2) and underpinned

by the principle of inclusion through equal opportunities to

participate. One of these initiatives was the so-called Active Schools

with programmes for groups aged 4-7 years and 7-11 years,

involving teaching and equipment resource support in Primary

Schools, aims to support Physical Education and School Sport to

provide school children with opportunities to learn foundation skills

and to participate in the sport or physical activity of their choice.

156

These programmes were supported by the Sportsmark Award, which

acknowledged provision of quality physical education and sports

programmes at school and in the local community and the

Sportsmark Gold Award for exceptional provision.

National Physical Education Curriculum Modification

Under advice of the then School Curriculum and

Assessment Authority (SCAA) in response to concerns within the

physical education profession about the predominance of Games and

issues surrounding relevance of the content of the physical education

curriculum, ministerial orders for curricula were modified in a

revamped National Curriculum in 1999. The Physical Education

curriculum introduced in 2000 retained the four key stages’

Programmes of Study with designated activity areas at each key

stage: key stage 1, dance, games and gymnastics; key stage 2, dance,

games, gymnastic and two activity areas from swimming activities

and water safety4, athletic activities, outdoor and adventurous

activities; key stage 3, games and three of the following (at least one

of which had to be dance or gymnastic activities), dance, gymnastics

swimming and water safety, athletics, outdoor and adventurous

activities; and key stage 4, two of the six activity areas. The modified

curriculum provided opportunities to emphasise personal and social

skills that are an intrinsic part of Physical Education, including team

work, co-operation and leadership opportunities. National strategy

guidance by the Department of Education and Skills (DfES) for

Information Communication Technology (ICT) and Physical

Education suggested the use of ICT within data and information

sources (e.g. comparative analysis with peers etc.), models and

modelling (e.g. replaying and analysing performance) and control

and monitoring (e.g. comparing pupil results with others). For the

end of each key stage, the National Curriculum specified Attainment

Targets (ATs), which comprised eight level descriptions, plus one

for “exceptional performance”. Descriptions ascribed types and

4 Swimming activities and water safety had to be chosen as one of these areas of

activity unless pupils had completed the full key stage 2 teaching requirements in

relation to swimming activities and water safety during key stage 1. The National Curriculum specified that pupils should be able to swim unaided at least 25 metres.

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range of performance characteristically demonstrated at each level:

at age 7 – level 2; at age 11 - level 4; at age 14 – level 5/6; at 16 –

usually national qualifications (GCSE ‘O-level’ or vocational

qualification equivalent). Curriculum 2000 aspired to two hours (that

is 120 minutes) for Physical Education AND extra-curricular

activities per week at all four key stages5.

The ‘sting remained in the tail’ because the DES/QCA

continued to expect schools to provide competitive games for

children who wished to exercise this option. The spirit of John

Major’s prefatory comments in Sport – Raising the Game and the

deeply embedded legacy of 19th

century Independent Boarding

Schools in the physical education curriculum was not exorcised.

Moreover, the continuing problems faced by physical educators in

delivering a balanced and pupil relevant curriculum encouraged the

national Sports Council and Sports Governing Bodies to lay

sustained siege to physical education in schools primarily to serve

their own specific ends.

Physical Education, School Sport and Creating a Sporting

Legacy

Central in the drive to build more sport into school curricula

in the UK was the Physical Education, School Sport and Club Links

(PESSCL) Strategy. Launched by the Prime Minister in October

2002, the PESSCL Strategy was jointly delivered by the DfES and

the Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) as part of a

shared Public Service Agreement. The Strategy was overseen by a

Project Board comprising representatives from a broad range of

central and local government, quasi-government and non-

governmental agencies and schools (head teachers). The Strategy

was an example of active partners working together to promote a

5 The DfES/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) recommended that at

least 75 minutes curriculum time be required per week to deliver the physical education Programme of Study at key stages1 and 2 (Primary phase) and 90 minutes

at key stage 3 (Secondary phase); no recommendation was made for key stage 4 where

the focus was essentially health, fitness and wellbeing.

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common cause and achieve a common goal. In order to deliver the

Strategy, Government committed to invest £978m between 2003-04

and 2007-08. In addition, £686m lottery funding was allocated to

improve school sports facilities: a total of over £1½ billion was to be

invested in Physical Education and School Sport in the five years up

to 2008. Following consultations, Sport England together with the

DfES and DCMS, agreed (in 2004) to introduce changes to the Sport

kitemarks. From 2006, the kitemarks (Activemark, Sportsmark and a

new Sports Partnership Mark), were linked to the delivery of the

PESSCL Strategy and only open to schools in Schools Sport

Partnerships. The key indicator determining whether a school

qualified for one of the kitemarks was its success in enabling pupils

to take up their then entitlement to at least 2 hours of high quality

physical education and school sport each week. The overall objective

of the Strategy was to increase the proportion of 5 to 16 year-olds

who engaged for a minimum of two hours each week in physical

education and school sport to 75% by 2006 and to 85% by 2008. A

key aim of the modified Physical Education, School Sport (PESS)

Strategy was to promote high-quality Physical Education and School

Sport to facilitate positive attitudinal change in young people and

their schools. To achieve this, several approaches were employed

including re-designing the Physical Education curriculum,

developing playground activities, making the most of time before,

and after school, and finding better ways to support and develop

teachers and junior leaders. Primary Schools were assessed on the

range of sports/activities (including dance) offered and how many

pupils participated in club sport; Secondary Schools were also

assessed on the range of sports/activities (including dance) offered,

how many pupils participated in club sport, how many pupils took

part in competitive school sport, and how many took on volunteering

and leadership roles. Each year, a Panel (comprising a Primary and

Secondary School head teacher, a Special School head teacher, and

representatives from the DfES, the DCMS, Sport England, the QCA,

the Youth Sport Trust (YST), the afPE as well as from a NGB met to

agree the standards schools and partnerships needed to demonstrate

in order to be awarded one of the kite marks. The Strategy also

included a target (announced by the Prime Minister in December

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2004) of all pupils taking part in a further two to three hours of sport

beyond school by 2010.

Prior to the introduction of the PESSCL strategy, Specialist

Sports Colleges (SSCs) had already evolved as a concept and some

had been established. Originally they were conceived by the

Conservative government in the early 1990s and then adopted and

expanded by the succeeding Labour government to provide

opportunities for educational centres of excellence initially in

Technology, Arts and Languages, later extended to include Sport.

The first SSCs were designated in 1996. Each school developed its

own special ethos and worked with others to spread best practice and

raise standards. Once granted, specialist status was subject to re-

application after four years to maintain status. The SSCs were

intended to have an extended school day, improved coaching,

improved facilities and to work closely with neighbouring Secondary

Schools as well as establish links with ‘feeder’ Primary Schools,

through Sports Co-ordinator appointments and designated ‘Link’

Primary teachers. They were well resourced and were seen by

government as central to sport strategy in terms of talent

development. Practices varied: some SSCs emphasised broad

participatory models, others followed more narrow and selected

activities’ models; some developed positive relations with feeder

schools, whereas others neglected links because of time/distance

constraints.

SSCs were involved in partnerships of families of schools.

These so-termed School Sport Coordinator Partnerships collectively

served to enhance sports opportunities for all. The Partnerships were

made up of clusters of a Specialist Sports College, up to eight

secondary schools and around 45 Primary or Special Schools. Each

Partnership received a grant of up to £270,000 each year to cover

costs of a full-time Partnership Development Manager, the release

of one teacher from each Secondary School for two days a week to

take on the role of School Sport Coordinator, the release of one

teacher from each Primary or Special School for 12 days a year to

become Link Teachers and employment of Specialist Link Teachers

to fill the gaps created by teacher release. The Partnerships'

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Scheme’s overall aim was to assist schools in ensuring that pupils

spent a minimum of two hours each week engaged in high quality

Physical Education and School Sport. Strategic objectives included:

development and implementation of a Physical Education/Sport

Strategy; links with Primary Schools, particularly to provide a bridge

between Key Stages 2 and 3; provision of enhanced opportunities for

all pupils out of school hours; increased participation in community

sport; provision of opportunities in leadership, coaching and

officiating for senior pupils, teachers and other adults; and raising

standards of pupils' achievement. As part of the overall PESSCL

Strategy, the School Sport Partnerships were intended to guide

young people into NGB affiliated or otherwise accredited clubs

linked to those Partnerships. This School/Club Links Project initially

focused on seven major sports (tennis, cricket, rugby union, football,

athletics, gymnastics and swimming), but schools were then

encouraged to establish links in a broader range of sports and

physical activity.

In July 2007, Government demonstrated further commitment to

Physical Education and Sport with additional funding of £755

million over three years to facilitate a co-ordinated approach to

ensure that all 5-16 years olds would have access to two hours PE

and three hours beyond the curriculum and 16-19 year olds would

have three hours of sport outside of the curriculum. Collectively, this

was referred to as the Five Hour Offer. In a government

Comprehensive Spending Review for 2008-11, the Department for

Culture Media and Sport’s Public Service Agreement (PSA 22)

referred to the delivery of a successful Olympic Games and

Paralympic Games with a sustainable legacy and increasing

children's and young people's participation in high quality Physical

Education and Sport, through the creation of a world class system. In

2008, the new Physical Education and Sport Strategy for Young

People (PESSYP)6, committed to improving the quantity and quality

of PE and Sport undertaken by Young People aged 5-19, was

6 PESSYP had ten work Strands as follows: Club Links, Coaching, Competition,

Continuing Professional Development, Disability, Extending Activities, Gifted and Talented, Infrastructure, Leadership and Volunteering, and Swimming.

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launched to build upon the perceived success of the PESSCL

Strategy, and set out how this would be reached through the delivery

of the 'five hour offer'. The Strategy entailed an investment of £755

million over three years and joint overall responsibility of the

Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) and the

Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), working in

particular with the Department for Universities, Innovation and

Skills (DIUS) in relation to 16-19 year olds and with strong links to

the Department of Health. The evidence-based view (e.g. Bailey et

al., 2009; Stead and Neville, 2010; and Montague, 2012) that high

quality Physical Education and Sport provision contributed to

improving educational standards, which embraced not only

development of physical skills but also helped young people to

become more active, understand the importance of being healthy and

supported the development of personal, social, creative, thinking

skills, qualities and attributes was paramount to achieving the wider

government policy of Every Child Matters7.The Strategy required

the co-ordinated School Sports Partnerships infrastructure (described

above) already in place. A Further Education Sports Co-ordinator

(FESCO) was also established in every Further Education Institution

later in 2008. The immediate antecedent of this initiative to

encourage increased participation in sport and involving partners and

one that was clearly related to the successful London bid to host the

2012 Olympic Games was the UK School Games. The vision for

these Games comprised seven key themes:

1. planning and delivery of a UK level sports event

showcasing talented young sports people

2. using the event to bring about a step change in the content,

structure and presentation of competitive sporting

opportunities for young people

7 The then Labour Government’s aim was for every child to have a chance of

fulfilling their potential by reducing education failure, ill health, substance misuse and

neglect, crime and anti-social behaviour. Five outcomes were specified: being healthy, staying safe, enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution and economic

well-being. Physical Education and School Sport were deemed to contribute to a

greater or lesser extent in all areas.

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3. developing a themed branding programme for local and

regional level competitive activity managed by the sports

engaged in the main event

4. integrating an Olympic and Paralympic theme into the event

and ensuring that the Olympic and Paralympic values are

promoted through the event, including volunteer training,

opening and closing ceremonies and an athletes village

5. using the event to profile, at a local and regional level,

young people taking part and, through this, to promote the

work undertaken in each nation to improve Physical

Education and School Sport

6. using the event to create opportunities for young people to

become engaged in volunteering at major sports events

7. ensuring that the event advocates and demonstrates the

highest level of child protection and welfare systems.

The first UK Games, organised by the YST in September 2006

in Glasgow, included athletics, swimming, gymnastics, table tennis

and fencing plus ‘disability’ events in swimming and athletics.

The attempt to building a lasting legacy of competitive sport in

schools was reinforced in January 2009 by an extension to the

infrastructure network to include 225 Competition Managers, who

were given a support role to the SSPs to deliver a broad range of

inter-school competitive opportunities to a wider range of young

people, delivered through the implementation of the School Games

national competition framework for young people. For these Games

at levels 1-4, all schools have the opportunity to create a year round

calendar of approximately 30 sports available to attract young people

into competing at all levels intra-, inter–school levels culminating in

local regional and national events (the first School Games national

Final took place in May 2012). Physical Education was now assured

as a compulsory component of the National Curriculum, though

paradoxically, somewhat contrary to the 2012 London Olympic legacy

philosophy, as early as August 2012, the Conservative-Liberal

Democratic Coalition's Department of Education seeking to empower

head teachers and de-bureaucratise the organisation of physical activity

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in schools, dropped the requirement for the weekly provision of 120

minutes of Physical Education and Sport (Patton, 2012).

Further legacy measures have embraced additional links

between schools and community sports clubs at least 6,000

Partnerships by 2017 and, echoing policies in the 1960s and 1970s,

additional investment in facilities to include funding for schools to

open up their sports facilities for wider public use. However,

Coalition Government politics soon came to the fore and funding for

School Sports Partnerships was removed only to be tempered by a

Government announcement, in April 2013, of funding of £150

million for Physical Education and Sport. This funding was

earmarked for improvement of the quality and breadth of Physical

Education and Sport provision. Primary Schools’ were/are expected

to monitor the funding and most importantly demonstrate the

impacts on pupils. The impacts are now subject to Ofsted

inspections. The Association for Physical Education (afPE) in

partnership with Ofsted has produced a Quality Mark, which

provides evidence of quality Physical Education and School Sport.

The Quality Mark will become significant in relation to School Sport

Premium funding. It would seem from early indicators (Ofsted,

2014) that impacts are perceived as positive with better quality PE

teaching, more opportunities for physical activity and sport

participation, and head teachers noting that the Premium had brought

a renewed and sharper focus on PE and Sport.

The transition of Physical Education/School Sport appeared to

produce beneficial outcomes. The government target for 2006 of

75% of children in schools aged 5-16 receiving at least two hours of

high quality Physical Education and School Sport was exceeded with

actual achievement being 80%, a figure that increased to 86% in

2007 and 90% in 2008 across England thus, favourably comparing

with the 2002 figure of 27%. Nonetheless, at the same time,

participation rates in sports amongst young people declined

dramatically after leaving school at 16. There was particular concern

over girls’ sports engagement with only a third participating aged 18

compared with two-thirds of boys. Youth Sport Strategy major aims

have consistently been to increase the number of young people (age

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14-16) habitually engaging in sport over the life-span, through

establishing a lasting network of links between schools and sports

clubs in local communities hence, breaking down barriers that have

prevented young people from continuing their interest in sport into

adulthood. Sport England has invested heavily in working with

schools, colleges and universities, as well as local County Sports

Partnerships, National Governing Bodies for sport, local authorities

and voluntary sectors agencies. In April 2013, it was announced that

Sport England, already investing £100m a year in grassroots sport,

would inject an extra £24m into a programme to attract teenagers

and young adults (aged 14 to 24 years) and a further £10million per

year up to 2017. It was estimated that some 190,000 14-24 year olds

would benefit from free/discounted sports courses in a wide range of

activities.

National and Secondary School Physical Education Curriculum

Revision

Developments in Physical Education came thick and fast after

the advent of the 2000 millennium. The importance and

understanding of Physical Literacy was building momentum with a

deal of confusion of what it was, what it meant, and why it was

regarded crucial to each and every individual throughout life. It was

a period that saw the introduction of a new Secondary School

Curriculum, formalised consultation for which took place between

February and April 2007. The new Curriculum for Key Stages 3-4

was part of a wider vision to develop a modern, world-class

curriculum that would inspire and challenge learners and prepare

them for the future. It was a curriculum that embraced a whole

school perspective and impact to better meet the needs and interests

of all pupils. It was the first English National Curriculum to be a

‘schools based curriculum’ with linked learning between all subject

areas with cross-curricular dimensions and personal development. Its

overarching aim was to develop a modern, coherent and flexible

curriculum that recognised the needs of young people and provided

opportunities and experiences to inspire, challenge and prepare them

for the future. Its implementation commenced in Autumn 2008,

though schools were not required to fully implement changes until

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2011. Conceptually it encompassed: Successful learners; Confident

Individuals; and Responsible Citizens. The revised Physical

Education Programme of Study for Key Stage 3 had greater

adaptability, was more meaningful and had increased

personalisation. Similar to all other subjects, it contained the

following five sections.

The importance of Physical Education

Key concepts; Competence, Performance, Creativity,

Healthy Active Lifestyles

Key process with three main areas:

(i) developing improving range and quality of

skills in physical activity;

(ii) making and applying decisions

(iii) evaluating and improving, and making

informed choices about healthy and active lifestyle

Range and content: the breadth of Physical Education that

areas of study were to be drawn from with an emphasis on

'thinking skills'

Curriculum opportunities: a significant area that helps all

pupils to engage and understand Physical Education,

opening up a new world for pupils to contribute and

personalise the curriculum, including ‘Learning Outside the

Classroom’, work with for example professional dancers

and sports people in physical activities and specific sports

context centres.

Physical Education Teaching: Initial Training and Continued

Professional Development

As intimated in the earlier section, Shaping Traditions, from

1881 on, Madame Bergman-Osterberg ‘disciples’ established a

number of Women's Training Colleges (graduates of which taught

mainly in girls’ Independent Schools). This placed female physical

educators at the forefront of physical education developments in

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England. Meanwhile in the newly established Elementary Schools, the

‘military drill’ included in the Revised Code of Regulations, which

followed the 1871 Education Act was the only officially approved

form of physical education in State sector schools until 1890. It was

‘taught’ by non-commissioned Armed Forces instructors. In 1902, the

Board of Education reflecting general concern for the health of the

nation turned its attention to physical training in schools. In doing so, it

consulted with the War Office, which made “available facilities for the

formation of teachers’ classes under qualified Non-commissioned

Offices of the Gymnastic Staff” (Board of Education, 1903). Two

years later, Colleges (largely ‘Church’ provided) received the Board of

Education Circular 454, inviting them to draw up two year teacher

training courses that included Physical Training.

After the end of World War I in 1918, recruitment and

training of teachers was quickly planned. The Board of Education

based the organization of physical education on three groups: (i)

class teachers, familiar with techniques of Physical Training but no

advanced training; (ii) specialists for secondary and continuation

schools; and (iii) organisers to advise and to help train non-

specialists. Vacation courses and the men's Training Colleges catered

for the needs of the class teachers, and specialists were trained in

Silkeborg or attended the former Broman's College, taken over by

London County Council for short courses. The Board of Education

gave its support to a one-year course for women Certificated

Teachers at Reading and in the summer of 1919 sponsored a three -

month course at Sheffield Training College designed for men who

had gained experience of Physical Training during their service with

the Forces. In September, 1919 the Sheffield experiment resulted in a

one-year course to train men for posts as Organisers of Physical

Training under Local Education Authorities and for other

responsible positions. The ‘Church Colleges’ were at the vanguard of

developments in Physical Education Teacher Training for men

throughout the 1920s into the 1930s. Changes of provision for

specialist training were signaled when in 1930 the University of

London agreed to a Diploma Course in theory and practice of

physical education and came to full fruition (for men’s specialist

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training) when Carnegie Physical Training College8 was established

with a grant of £30,000 from the Carnegie Trustees and provision of

a site by the City of Leeds Education Committee. Loughborough

(1935) and Goldsmiths (1937) followed suit to make three specialist

Colleges for men. The post-World War II era up to the 1970s was

marked by a proliferation in Higher Education Institutions providing

so-called Specialist, Wing and Main Physical Education training

courses for both men and women. By the early 1970s, there were

some 147 Teacher Training Colleges involved in the initial

preparation of certificated teachers of physical education.

Rationalisation, commencing in the mid- to late 1970s, rapidly

altered this situation: closures and mergers reduced the numbers to

around 20 Institutions offering three year Bachelor of Education, or

four year Bachelor of Arts/Science plus Qualified Teacher status and

one year Post-graduate Certificate of Education courses for Primary

and Secondary School physical educators.

One of the ten strands for investment of the PESSCL

Strategy, introduced in 2002, was Professional Development with an

allocation of £9.3million. The Continuing Professional Development

programme introduced aimed to raise pupils’ attainment levels,

improve understanding of how high quality Physical Education and

School Sport could be used as a tool for whole school improvement

and to support healthy lifestyles and physical activity, and encourage

schools to interpret the Physical Education Programme of Study in

more innovative ways. The implementation of the Programme was

through established Local Delivery Agencies responsible for

developing, delivering high quality PE and Sport professional

development for teachers and adults supporting learning in school

settings. The need for Continued Professional Development and

support for teachers of physical education classes, as exemplified in

previous references to inadequate delivery of Physical Education,

especially in Primary Schools, was clear. Physical Education was

also to address children’s health, especially obesity, thus underlining

8 In 1930, the Board of Education had decided that it was not desirable that physical

education should be taught by those whose qualification was limited to physical

training. The Carnegie course was only open to those with a teacher’s certificate or a degree.

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the importance of working with different government bodies,

associations including the Department of Health. A focal feature

was the process of Learning and Teaching, and Inclusion, that is

meeting the needs and abilities of all children. Guidance models

emerged for Foundation (early years and Key Stage 1) and

Formative (Key Stage 2) including supportive resources. The

emergence of such models highlighted inherent weaknesses in the

delivery of Physical Education by Primary School teachers, caused

by deficiencies in Initial Teacher Training (ITT), including

insufficient time, lack of preparation and post-ITT support.

The national profession Association (AfPE)9 set up a

National College for Continuing Professional Development (this was

a development role envisaged by the DfES for afPE). The National

College focuses on needs of practitioners and ensures compliance

with Training and Development Agency (TDA) standards for class

teachers. The opportunities on offer embrace a broad spectrum of

themes and topics, which variously address didactical, pedagogical,

leadership/management and health and safety issues etc.

In September 2010, the new Coalition Government released

a ‘White Paper’, The Importance of Teaching. Amongst other things,

its policy message signalled changes to teacher training, pupil

behavioural issues, curriculum reform, raising of compulsory

education to 17 in 2013 and to age 18 by 2015, extension of the new

schools system of Academies (directly funded rather through local

9 The Association for Physical Education (formally launched in March 2006 after a

merger of the PE Association UK and British Association of Advisors and Lecturers

in PE) is recognised by the DfES and its agencies, DCMS, Sport England and NGBs

etc., as the lead professional association. The Association meets its mission objectives through lobbying government, publications including a member’s journal (Physical

Education Matters), a research-oriented journal (Physical Education and Sport

Pedagogy), regular electronic updates of professional development initiatives, production of resource packs, establishment of good practice benchmarks (e.g.

Standards for Safeguarding and Protecting Children in Sport), involvement in

professional development programmes and courses as well as an annual conference. In July 2006, it launched the National College for Continuing Professional Development,

which aims to provide leadership in physical education, raise professional standards

and share exemplary practice

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education authorities), refocus of school inspections and reform of

performance tables, devolvement of responsibility to schools for

improvement, an aspect that eventually resulted in the

decline/demise of local authority PE Strategic leads, advisors,

teacher advisors etc., and school funding (the Pupil Premium) aimed

at increasing resources for deprived pupils by injecting £2.5billion

annually into the schools budget over the next four years. Further

reform within the education system was sign-posted in the Wolfe

Report (2011), specifically in Further Education Vocational Schools

as raising of the compulsory school leaving age was about to be

implemented.

Ofsted’s (2013) most recent Report on Physical Education

in English schools, which was based on evidence from HMI and

Ofsted Inspections between September 2008 and July 201210

and

also drew on evidence from four visits to schools to observe good

practice in physical education, noted that a major weakness in

primary schools was the lack of specialist subject knowledge among

teachers. It is, therefore, not surprising that, even in schools known

to have strong practice in Physical Education, a significant part of

the new funding is being used to improve the quality of teaching in

the subject. In the schools visited, this was mainly achieved by using

the funding to employ specialist Physical Education teachers and

sports coaches to work with other teachers and teaching assistants.

However, some schools were also using it to improve the skills of

existing members of staff so that they could provide good quality

training for their colleagues in school. This concurs with the DfE

Survey, which found that 86% of the sample schools were using the

premium to provide extra physical education training for staff.

Inspectors also found that the new funding was being used

effectively to increase pupils’ participation in sport and physical

activity. In some schools, part of the funding was used to help

selected pupils overcome personal difficulties and as a platform to

improve their physical and social development. Although most of the

schools visited were using the premium in effective ways, some

common weaknesses were noted: strategic planning was reported as

10 120 Primary Schools, 110 Secondary Schools and 7 Special Schools were inspected

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generally poor; and monitoring and evaluation of the impact of

actions to improve the provision of Physical Education and Sports

were not rigorous enough (Lloyd, Fry & Wollny, 2014).

Now due to support from coaches and other professionals in

schools more opportunities are available for wider groups of children

to follow their interests, before school, breaks, lunchtimes, after

school, school to club links. There are, however, concerns within the

physical education profession that some coaches in Primary Schools,

who have no teaching qualifications, are undermining teachers and

‘de-skilling’ teachers as they move into teaching physical education

classes! The ‘bottom line’ is that within Initial Teacher Training

programmes, there remains insufficient inclusion of Physical

Education, BUT the situation seems to be improving and some

specialist Primary Physical Education teachers’ training programmes

are now available in a few teacher training establishments.

The Present Situation: A New National Physical Education

Curriculum

In 2013, Government announced yet another new National

Curriculum to be introduced in schools in 2014. Important features

of the Curriculum embrace:

shorter Programmes of Study for ALL children to excel no

matter what background

subject content, what should be taught, what pupils should

know and be able to do

allowance of maximum level of innovation at school level

in developing content of Programmes of Study

and design of curriculum pathways that meet all learners

needs and interests.

In relation to Assessment, there are no level descriptors and

schools are required to develop new assessment systems. The focus

is on all pupils reaching an expected standard rather than on labelling

differential performance. Explicit in the new National Curriculum is

the development of Numeracy and Literacy in/through all subjects.

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Physical Education is one of only four subjects that is statutorily

required across all four Key Stages. Within a conceptual context of

lifelong physical activity participation and opportunities for all, this

latest Physical Education Curriculum aims to ensure all pupils 5-16

develop confidence and competence to excel in a broad range of

physical activities, are physically active for sustained periods of

time, engage in physical activities and competitive sports and lead,

healthy active lives. It is not overly dissimilar to the 2008

curriculum, being less prescriptive and has a more flexible offering

with choices in physical activities and sports to learn in, and through.

An over-riding mantra is the need to be specific to the needs and

interest of the school and pupils. Greater emphasis is placed on

Fundamental Movement and Physical Literacy throughout the

curriculum stages and especially so in Key Stage 1. There is a

greater focus on competition in the widest sense including self-

challenge, developing cognitive, creative, personal and social skills,

including fair play, and learning from winning or losing.

Additionally, there is a specific focus on sustained activity over time

and health impact. Despite logistical problems in provision and

delivery, Swimming remains a compulsory part of the Primary

School curriculum.

Concluding Comments

Physical Education in England has made significant progress

since its 19th century antecedent foundations. In the early years the

concern was for the immediate health and fitness of the nation and

the emphasis was on training the ‘physical’ in State Elementary

Schools and the cult of 'Athleticism' for the privately educated rich

elite. From the early decades of the 20th century, when most of the

initiatives were discipline and short-term fitness related, Physical

Education in English schools has developed from a narrowly defined

teacher directed subject to its current position of orientation to pupil-

centred learning, with an accent on learning 'how to learn', health-

focused physical education, links with other subject areas, development

of assessment procedures and partnership schemes with the local

community. The progression has been variously marked by the

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emergence of an English System shaped by ‘imported’ external

influences on to which were grafted indigenous ‘English Games’ and

other competitive sport activities and which was subsequently modified

by innovative pedagogical and didactical approaches. These

innovations ushered in discovery learning, movement education and

activity for understanding approaches to the teaching/learning interface.

From the 1950s onwards, teachers were encouraged to adopt

different teaching styles and to apply more general educational

principles to the teaching of physical education; more emphasis was

placed on the acquisition of movement skills, which placed greater

demands on the teacher to understand fundamental principles of

movement to plan balanced progressive schemes of work for the

pupils. Inexorably, the trend in the second half of the 20th century was

from the ‘doing’ child, through the ‘doing and thinking’ child to the

‘reflective thinking’ child of the post-1990s physical education national

curriculum era. In the 1990s, the inclusion of Physical Education

within the national curriculum established its legitimacy as a subject

and gave credibility to its status. However, despite the philosophical

and pedagogical intention supported by politico-ideological will, it is

clear that the dominant physical education curriculum ideology in

schools continued to lie with Sport, particularly Games. The

pedagogically inspired movement approach era was replaced (if ever it

needed to be replaced) in the return to the quest for ‘traditional values’.

It was a return, which was endorsed by government supported agencies

and the autonomous National Governing Bodies of Sport.

Since 2002, central Government in England has

demonstrated clear commitment to a partnership of Physical

Education and Sport with large-scale financial investment. The

policy plan for delivering Government commitments was contained

within the Cabinet Office Strategy Unit’s Game Plan (2002)

Strategy document, in which it was claimed that sport can contribute

in the key areas of social inclusion, community cohesion, youth

crime, life long learning, regeneration, economic benefits and health

and well being of communities, and in which there was a vision to

make England an active and successful sporting nation. The mission

was to work with others to create opportunities for people to become

involved in sport, to stay in sport and to excel and succeed in sport at

173

every level. The Game Plan recommended that the government

should adopt a ‘twin track’ approach to increasing participation in

sport and physical activity and developing sustainable improvements

in success in international competition. Further evidence of central

Government’s commitment to excellence and winning was seen in

the DCMS Agenda (Caborn, 2004), where there was a clear

confirmatory statement on what was actually being done: increasing

access to school sports through two hours’ entitlement; improving

the quality and quantity of community sport clubs; focusing upon

quality coaching in schools and the community; and investing in

facilities and protecting playing fields.

The historical development of physical education in

England has been marked by ambivalence and ambiguity. Earlier

perceptions of the duality of physical education and sport have been

in recent years reconciled into unison variously through strategic

policy and/or opportunistic interventions by Government (DfES and

DCMS), and quasi-governmental (Sport England) and non-

governmental (NGBs and afPE) agencies working in collaborative

partnerships to raise standards of provision and delivery of high

quality Physical Education and Sport and increase participation

across a broad spectrum of physical activity in general but sports-

related activity in particular. Significantly, the joint Department for

Education and Skills/Department of Culture, Media and Sport

(2004) published High Quality PE and Sport for Young People

offered guidelines for the recognition and achievement of high

quality Physical Education and Sport in schools and clubs with a

clear indication that leaders, managers, teachers and coaches should

work together to positively influence young people’s physical

activity behaviours. Now, beneficially, because of support from

coaches and other professional in schools, more opportunities are

available for wider groups of children to follow their interests, before

school, during breaks and lunchtimes, after school, and through

school to club links.

Historical factors have produced a complex set of

arrangements in Physical Education teacher training. Each Higher

Education Institution has enjoyed a deal of autonomy in how it

174

delivers teacher training. Nevertheless, all have been subject to

national quality control procedures related to accreditation of Initial

Teacher Training and have modified programmes to meet the needs

of national curricula and requirements. Inadequacies in Initial

Teacher Training programmes are slowly being alleviated with

support for Teaching and Learning in, and through, Physical

Education via what is becoming a comprehensive network of

Continuing Professional Development programmes, especially for

Primary School teachers. The alleviation process may well be aided

by the training of specialist Primary School Physical Education

teachers in the hitherto small number of training institutions and

establishments across the country.

Since the introduction of a National Physical Education

Curriculum in the 1990s, there has been an unprecedented array of

central, quasi- and non-governmental agencies initiatives and

interventions. It is clearly evident that a veritable ‘jungle’ of

agencies is involved in provision and delivery of physical education

in schools. It is equally clear that over the years there have been

marked shifts in ideological make-up from ‘drill’ and ‘exercise’,

through ‘physical training’, ‘physical education’ and ‘movement

education’ to its present representation as ‘physical education and

school sport’. The latter is coming to transcend the school and

moving into the domain of wider communities involving

partnerships of interest-vested agencies in the name of lifelong

learning, notions of physical literacy and the physically educated

person and at the same time being instrumentally charged with

combating sedentary lifestyle diseases and anti-social behaviour,

increasing levels of obesity and inactivity and producing pools of

young talented people, capable of medals successes in international

sport. Thus, Physical Education and School Sport has become a high

profile sphere of inclusive activity. Nevertheless, a balanced

curriculum is a rhetorical ideal, the reality is a school physical

education curriculum, which is dominated by the potent legacy

inherited from sporting traditions established in 19th century

Independent, mainly Boarding, Schools.

175

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Youth Sport Legacy’ Jeremy Hunt , Secretary of State for

Culture, Olympics Media and Sport.

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Media and Sport (2004). High Quality PE and Sport for

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Lloyd, C., Fry, A., & Wollny, I., (2014). Physical Education and

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Munrow, (1963). Pure and Applied Gymnastics. London, Edward

Arnold Publisher. pp.21-22.

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and Sport on Education Outcomes: A Review of

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Ofsted (2013). Evidence of PE and Sport in Schools. Ofsted. June.

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delivering Government’s sport and physical activity

objectives, London, HMSO.

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179

COLOMBIA

PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING

SCHOOLS IN LATIN AMERICA: GENESIS

Luis Felipe Contecha Carrillo, Research Group “ESPARTACUS”,

University of Tolima, History International Section

“FIEP”

Correspondence

Luis Felipe Contecha Carrillo

lfcontec@hotmail.com

Abstract

This article accounts for the beginnings of the teacher

training schools in some countries in Latin America. This document

is a result of visiting Institutions and having personal interviews with

a group of Physical Education – PE Professors. It is aimed to

specifically register the antecedents and processes that originated the

institutionalization of the profession: PE teacher.

CHILE

Referring to the history of the Teacher Training School in

Chile, is to journey back in time, in an itinerary that starts in The

Central Institute at Stockholm and to chronologically locate in the

year 1889, in which Joaquin Cabezas G., travelled to Europe in his

study mission, (1936, pg. 404), as he claimed in 1936 in his speech

for the celebration of the 30 years of the institute and his 50 of

service as an educator.

Consequently with what has been said, and with the

importance of the primary source, in this case, the speech published

in the magazine of the Institute, was taken, to write this quick glance

to the creation of the Institute of P.H in Chile.

Professor Cabezas had a scholarship to study in Europe, his

first period lasted four years; in his return to Chile in 1893, he

understood and spread his knowledge, pointing out the necessity of

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starting a process that allows the teaching and training of pedagogue

teachers in the PE field.

These ideas had refuge in the Ministry of Education,

Federico Puga Borne who hired him in 1897 to organize a temporal

course on vacation for primary teachers, focused on handwork. Of

course, everything learnt in Europe was focused on handwork,

pedagogical games, and the Educational Gymnastics of Ling.

Before this event, in 1902, Manuel Borros Borgoño,

Principal of the University of Chile, included in the syllabus of the

Pedagogical Institute, the subjects of Drawing, Arts, and Physical

Education, the only teacher that leaded those classes was professor

Cabezas.

The situation and support of these classes was not the best,

there were not physical places, tools, and willing from the managers;

this circumstance was the device that got professor Cabezas to think

of the necessity of creating an establishment to train teachers of P.E

in Chile.

Higher Institute for Physical Education

In 1905, the proposal of including in the National Budget an

entry for the creation of an Institute of Higher Physical Education

and hand work, was presented at the National Congress.

In March 1906, with the direction of the just placed teacher

Cabezas, the Institute received the first students in a rented house in

the Arturo Prat Street. It depended from the Ministry of Public

Instruction: its syllabus was based on Handwork, drawing, domestic

economy, shorthand, calligraphy, and Physical Education. Teachers

for Secondary Schools and Normal Schools were being trained. As a

result, the aspirants had to meet the requirements of being a Normal

School graduate Teachers with good grades or at least having

finished fifth year of humanities. Students graduated in two years. Its

first graduates received a certificate in 1907.

In 1918, the graduate students from the school received the

title of State Teacher as the teachers from the Pedagogical Institute

already did.

In 1922 the General Direction of P.E was born. With this

new organism, the title of State Teacher was lost. Professor Cabezas

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was the principal of the Institute until 1928 when he quit after

realizing his ideas did not meet the ones of the new direction created.

The category of Higher Institution was recovered with the

reform of 1931, when the Institute turned into a dependence of the

General Direction of Physical Education and the Council of Higher

Physical Education of the Ministry of War; by then, and for the

request of the President of the Republic Arturo Alesaadri, Professor

Joaquin Cabezas was principal again.

University of Chile

In 1932, after removing the Superior Council and the

General Direction of Physical Education, the Institute integrated to

the School of Philosophy and Sciences of Education of the

University of Chile, From then on, it was called Physical Education

Institute.

In this phase of the Institute, Professor Cabezas does well

retirement and delegates as Director, Doctor and Professor of P.E

Luis Bisquertt Susarte, graduate teacher from the Institute in 1919.

(Guarda, 2006. Pág. 19).

In 1981 the University status got lost again, which was gain

again in 1936, when the Metropolitan University of Sciences of

Education was created.

ARGENTINA

Antecedents of Teacher Training

Romero, E., when referring to the origins, says, “the

Institute was finally, the forced crowning by that ideological

evolution in the European environment of the time, carried then,

from time ago, in our country” (1938, Pg. 41); he claims that mainly,

the influences came from the French, especially Lagrange’s ideas

and the implantation of the English sports in the Educational places.

It was the Colegio Nacional de Corrientes, directed in 1890

by Principal Fitz Simón, where the seed was planted, of what was

going to be, the Institutionalization of the Physical Education in

Argentina; Professor Tomas Reeve was hired to teach outdoor sport

games, as well as, light tool gymnastics. Pablo Pizzurno, was allied

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to Fitz in the starting of these activities in a particular institution

called Instituto Nacional de Caballito, the professor was Enrique

Romero Brest. (Martin, L. En Holze. Pág. 8)

When the Law of Common Education in 1884 (Nº 1.420),

and until 1898 Physical Education was not well seen by Ministries of

Public Education.

With the reform of 1898, promoted by Pizzurno, secondary

PE was organized in the national schools; from army like and

athletic exercises, it turned into programs with physical rational

exercises based on physiology that assisted the scientific needs of PE

in this effort Pizzurno was supported by Romero Brest in the

technical redacting and regulation of the Decree.

Afterward, and given the success of the reform of 98, in

national schools, Romero Brest redacted the Decree that extended its

limits to the Normal Schools and the Educational Establishments

Is the Decree of 1898 the one which ruled and provided the

creation of athletic clubs in every school in the Argentina. These

organizations were composed with students, alumni and faculty:

their objectives were from the organization of games and exercises to

the realization of annual parties, the setting of musical groups and

the competence between blubs. The associates were forced to

contribute with an economic fee every month. From courses on

vacation for teachers to Normal High School of PE in 1909

In fact, to guide and carry out the established in the reform,

suitable teachers were required which let the programming of a

course on vacation, called in the time, temporal courses of Physical

Education to which not only teachers from D.F., could attend but

also the ones from province schools; there were five courses carried

out in total, between the years 1901 and 1907, there were 309

teachers were trained, the courses were directed by the doctor and

professor Enrique Romero Brest.

The courses on vacation were followed by the Normal

Course theory-practice of physical exercises for teachers from the

three Normal Schools (Decree of April 11th

1902). A second course

was programmed and officialised by the Vice-president for the year

1905, Figueroa Alcorta, appointed Romero Brest as Director, as

teacher, Mr. Sebastian Duran Gauna and as auxiliary Mr. Nicolás

Bergally. To Romero Brest, this document was the record of the

foundation of the Institute. (Pg.56).

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The Vacation Course was carried out at Escuela Roca, in

the Rivadavia School and finally in 1908, in a house located in the

Azcuénaga Street 886.

After discomfort and budget and tools insufficiencies, a

period of change came, in which the authorities looked with bigger

clarity the work that was being carried out. In a normal day of

activities in the house of Azcuénaga, the course was visited by

Minister of the Public Instruction of that time, Romulo S, Naón who

observed carefully, questioned and informed the conditions and

perspectives of the course and decided that existing budget and given

the results of the courseit was necessary to improve its state and

proceeded to manage and work, getting the President Figueroa to

decree the creation of the Normal School of P.E. like a dependence

of the Ministry of Public Instruction through a Decree of May 14th

1909. The Decree ordered the consecution of the Laboratory of

Physiology, from the sufficient material for the classes and named as

professor of anatomy Miguel Sussini.

From Normal of Physical Education to National Higher Institution

of Physical Education.

The name of Normal School of P.E. was only for three

years. In 1912, by management of the Minister Juan M. Garro it

passed to be called Superior National Institute of PE. The change

was based on the title students both men and women already had and

because it was thought that the training received was isolated from

the Higher Education given at different universities. This name was

also changed in the law of the budget which allowed the entailment

of professors and equipped it with the budget needed to face the

challenges put by the new designation.

With the new syllabus and the increment of student’s

registration the Institute required a new facility and the headquarters

was in Coronel Diaz 2180. There were years of strengthening and

institutional progress. A specialization was offered so whoever got it,

wasn´t going to study three but five years.

Doctor Romero Brest continued as Director until 1932, year

in which he resigned his place after 33 years of being entailed with

the Institute.

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One of the reasons for the resignation of Dr. Romero was

the removal of the Budget Law of the Superior Category, as its new

name was National Institute of PE.

BRAZIL

The teaching of physical exercises and the practice of some

sports in Brazil is linked to the army schools created with the

purpose of training officers in charge of leading the troops. Some of

the masters – in the army – of the time, were Antonio Francisco da

Gama and Pedro Guihermino Meyer, 1858 and 1860 teachers of

fencing and gymnastics respectively.

De Mello, (1996), quoting Merinho, says that the first

attempts for teacher training in Brazil were in 1902, with the

initiative of Coronel Pedro Diaz de Campos in a army school of

fencing in Sao Paulo.

Army Centre of Physical Education

The method of German gymnastics was followed in Brazil

until 1921, when the President of the Republic of the United Stated

of Brazil, Epitacio Pessoa, by Decree No° 14.784, ordered to replace

it by the French gymnastic method, the Centre assumed the method

Hébert. The regulation had aspects related to to the army physical

instruction.

Afterwards, on June 10th

1822, the Army Centre of Physical

Education, its objectives were to lead, coordinate and spread the new

method of army Education and its sports applications. The

instruction was given in three courses; the first one was about P.E.

for officers; the second one was the P.E. for sergeants and the third

one was a course of demonstrations for officers. The two first

courses lasted three months and the third one a month, its objective

was to train instructors for guiding the officials in charge of the

direction e instruction of the soldier. (Marinho, I. p.g 53) Lieutenant,

Ilído Rômilo Colònia, Lieutenant, Joao Barbosa Leite, Lieutenant

Jair Dantas Ribeiro, Lieutenant Freitas Rolim, were some of the

leaders of the Army trainers’ training.

In 1928, Commander Pierre Segûr of the French army was

hired for the Direction of P.E. in the army school; the general

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regulation of P.E. started, and created a program where practice of

the physical exercises was integrated with a sport in the Army Centre

of PE.

General Nestor Passoas in 1929 presented a preliminary

project to the Commission of P.E. that had into account the necessity

of the practice by the Brazilian citizens in P.E. and the mandatories

of the teaching in the Educational Centres applying the French

method. Marinho (p.g 57) says that it was a project that received

hard critiques by the mandatories of the French method.

Later, courses, where not only army members could register

but the civilians too. There, instructors were trained, as well as,

monitor, gun masters, fencing monitors, and army specialized

doctors.

By the end of the 20’s the PE. and the training of teachers

was a concern not only for the army but also for the civilians who

were claiming proper training for school teachers for being

indispensable agents for the development of the national physical

culture.

Some examples are the departments and schools of PE

created in the states of San Paulo and Espiritu Santo. The Decree N°

19.402 of November 14, 1930 created the ministry of Education and

Public Health. These developments and questions were the

beginning of the necessity for the creation of what in 1930 was

heard, the National School of Physical Education.

National School of Physical and Sports Education -

NSPSE

In the VII National Congress of Education, which central

theme was PE the idea of Ciro de Morais was presented, where he

proposed the creation of a school for training teachers of P.E. among

the conclusions of the congress the possibility of creating a normal

school of P.E. that was subscribed to the University of Rio de Janeiro

Brazil was also had into account.

In 1937, in the Ministry of Education and the Health

through Law 378, the division of Physical Education – D.P.E – was

created; its first director was Joâo Barbosa Leite; as consequence of

the work of the D.P.E the National School of Physical Education and

Sports – NSPES – was created.

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The exhibition of reasons was presented by Gustavo

Copanema and Getuliio Vargas; the NSPES, was founded in the year

1939, through Decree Law 1212; it was the first Brazilian School

that was part of a University, the University of Brazil – UB –.

Currently, the School is integrated to the Federal University of Rio

de Janeiro – FURJ –.

Its functions were to train professionals for the P.E. area; to

spread the knowledge related with the field; and to carry our research

about perspectives of the Brazilian physical education.

Colonel Otavio Saldanha Nazza delivered, in an official

ceremony, to the Commander Inacio Freitas Rolim the

administration and direction of NSPES; and was its principal until

1948. (De Melo, 1996)

COLOMBIA

National Institute of Physical Education in Colombia

Former professor of the Universidad Pedagígica Nacional

Mr. Vaca, H. – R.I.P. – stated that the Colombian P.E. started in

November 1925 with the spreading of Law 80 of the same year, in

the same way, Gómez Moreno and Parra Parra1, called that law, “the

cornerstone of the Physical Education in Colombia”.

Is important to highlight that Echeverry2 member of the

House of Representatives was a lecturer of the Law and the

presentation of reasons, made it clear, which part of what was

presented was copied textually from article 6° of the Law 7 July

1911 from Uruguay.

The transcendence of the Law is based on the importance

given to the P.E. and to sport, so through a National Physical

Education Plan, would be carried out to the schools and universities,

in the same way, the Law created halls or plazas of sports,

procreative associations, placed parameter for the building of

1 GÓMEZ M. Y PARA, L. Historia de la educación física en Colombia como profesión. 1936-1986. Universidad Central Bogotá, 1986 2 Was a diplomatic agent of Colombia in Uruguay, which let him be part and

Exchange ideas and concepts with the National Commission of P.E. in that country, he redacts what would later be, the great charter of the P.E.

187

stadiums, and for the organization of sport events in all the places in

the country3.

The first course for teachers was motivated for the urgent

need of giving fulfilment to the Law 80 of 1925. The Colombian

State had hired the services of German Professor Hans Hubers, who

as head of the P.E. section, was in charge of teaching courses, he

also was in charge of the celebration of the Olympiad during four

years. These Olympiads were the first movement that later would

build the organization of National Olympiads and the passing to the

National Games that are celebrated today. Nevertheless, Hans

Hubers, was not heard by the government of the time and as an

urgent recommendation in his report, he suggested the necessity of

preparing Specialized Teachers.

Forero narrated how initially, the Swedish school product of

Chilean work influenced PE in Colombia4. So in August 1936, 180

people, among them, professors, lieutenants and police officers,

registered to the first course of P.E. training programmed by the

National Direction of Physical Education. The course was guided

between May 11 and September 5. The National Ministry of

Education and the Chilean mission, gave them the title of trainers of

gymnastics5

This first step to the training and instruction gave birth to

the National Institute of Physical Education NIPE, which was

created through Decree 1528, 25 June 1936, and depended from the

National Direction of P.E. its first principal was the Chilean

Candelario Sepúlveda La Fuente. The Colombian president of the

time was Alfonso López Pumarejo6.

The conditions for entering to NIPE were:

3 For deepening the information, see: VACA H Ángel H. Historia de la Educación

Física Colombiana a través de sus Normas. Bogotá, 1987. 4 Forero Nougues, In interview said, Agustin Nieto Caballero met professor Joaquín

Cabezas who was pupil of Per Henry Ling. In his return to Colombia, he asks him to

come to Colombia too, but because of his age, he recommends Candelario Sepulveda as leader of the Chilean mission and Ramón Quintana as his assessor. 5 The clases carried out were about Anatomy, Philosophy, Chemistry, Nutrition

Sociology, and Gymnastics. 6 Leads the Liberals to power after almost fifty years in the opposition. He starts in

Colombia a campaign of renewing and changing, under the slogan “The revolution in

March” at the moment of creating NIPE, the minister of education was Educación Darío Echandía Olaya (1897-1989)

188

- Being a high school or normal school graduate student

- Presenting a certificate of good health

- Having a minimum height of 1.55 mts – women – and 1.65

mts – men –

- Presenting and pass the physical efficiency

Between its first students, the NIPE had Alberto Gómez

Moreno, Cecilia Navarrete, Miguel Forero Nogues and Numae

Hernández, who were later the professors to continue the teachers

training in Colombia.

The NIPE depended from the National Direction of P.E.

and its function was to train teachers of P.E. as well as, instructors,

masseuses and managers of sport plazas; developing research

projects in health and growing of Colombian children.

In this first phase of NIPE two promotions were graduated

in 19377 and 1938 respectively. The career lasted three years

By Decree 868, 19 of April 1939 NIPE was incorporated to

the Universidad Nacional de Colombia its directors were all doctors,

by 1942, three promotions are graduated according to record 03 of

January 20, agreement number 4, it is closed by the Universidad

Nacional and the government is asked to continue again being in

charge of it. It’s important to mention that the first sport facilities of

the Universidad Nacional de Colombia were built for the PE

activities

The NIPE was closed by Decree Nº 166 of January 27,

1942, what originated the Physical Education team at the Superior

Normal School. And the National Institute of PE was integrated to it.

Normal Superior School and the imminent closing of

NIPE

When added to the Normal School, the Institute was

directed in 1942 and 1951 by six professors: German Salesian José

Mosser who it’s remembered for teaching Gymnastics with different

7 First Graduates of NIPE: Ana María Chávez P, Gilma Wills O, Rita Perdomo, Elisa

Gaviria, Rosa Cubillos, Josefina Chávez S, Carlos Arias, Justo Peñalosa, Alberto Rendón, Enrique Vargas, Luis E Sánchez y Miguel García.

189

devices, Spanish Manuel Usano8 Francisco Acosta, Mike Forero

Nougues, José Rivera, and Carlos Alberto Guzmán. In this period,

the Colombian Association of P.E. teachers, was created (1941).

During the functioning as Institute added to the Normal

School, important events happened, like the graduation of professor

José Velandia, first teacher of P.E. who acted as physical trainer in a

professional football team9 the visit of Professor Mayor J.G Thulin,

the transformation of the Normal Superior School, to Normal

Superior University School and its masculine team transfer to Tunja.

In the last graduation of NIPE, the graduates were given the

Title of Bachelor of Arts, being these the first of Colombia to receive

such title; the honour was conceived after studying an extra year,

otherwise they would have receive just a certificate of trainer.

Finally, the institute was closed on November the 6, 1951.

Creation of the National School of Physical Education

NSPE

After some months of uncertainty, and with pressure of

students and teachers, in 1952 through Decree N° 1052 of April 22,

the National School of Physical Education – NSPE – was open; it

was a Ministry of Education independent organism. Its headquarters

would be in Bogotá and the masculine and feminine sides were still

separated, the career was three years long10

. Although it had two

headquarters, legally it was just one.

In 1954, by action of Decree N° 221, the NSPE was legally

turned into two entities completely independent. Paradoxically, the

unification (1959) of the schools was done by a management

decision that only conceived budget ownership to one entity11

. The

8 For more information read MARTINEZ G. María E. En Historia del Deporte en España y Colombia: Manuel Usano Martín (1907-1987), en

www.sportquest.com/revista/ Digital Magazine – Buenos Aires – year 5 – May 2000 9 VACA H Ángel Humberto. Op. cit 10 For more information read VACA H Ángel Humberto. Historia del Alma Mater de

la Educación Física en Colombia. Second part. Universidad Pedagógica Nacional.

Bogotá 1998. 11 Decree N° 1013 of Abril 6, 1959, Determined that the establishment named

National School of Physical Education dependent of the Sports Section Ministry of

Education, which was in charge of teachers training in both sexes and technicians training in physical Education activities and in the other branches related to

190

united NSPE started labours with 73 students. Until 1962, 311

students were graduated in 18 promotions, six syllabuses were

designed. The biomedical training was kept as well as cleaning,

sports, dancing, general culture, gymnastics history. There was not

any training in the research field.

MEXICO

Superior School of Physical Education "SSPE"

Previous to the rising of the Superior School of P.E. in

Mexico, affords to dignify the role of the teacher as a protagonist of

the consolidation of the educational project of the Normal Schools.

in 1885, courses of improvement where the importance of the

corporal work was highlighted and the teaching of principles of P.H

and sanitation in the training of the teachers; this training was done

in the Escuela Modelo de Orizaba and in the Normal School of

Xalapa under the direction of Enrique C. Rébsamen.

Afterward, with the creation of the Normal School of

Teachers of Primary school, in the city of Mexico in 1887, in the

syllabus the subject gymnastics was offered. Consequently, National

congresses and upgrades to the curriculum of the Normal High

School carried out between 1889 and 1896 the gymnastics, PE

teaching and army exercises.

The creation of the Magerly School of Fencing and

Gymnastics in 1907, led to the institutionalization of teachers

training, it was an Army instruction; one of the directors of the

school was the French Lucien Merignac.

In 1921, this effort was complemented with the creation of

the Secretary of Public Education "SPE" as an initiative of José

Vasconcelos, who was also the promoter of the creation of the

General direction of P.E.; these actions originated the elemental

course of P.E. ascribed to the brand new School of Elemental PE

(1923).

organization of courses of improvement. The law also regulated the requirements for

being accepted like age (between 17 and 30 years old) minimum height 1.65 mts.

191

The methodological focus of the Elementary School of PE

was focused mainly in the theoretical foundations of the game and

the sport, the concept: mind, body and a corporal ideal based on the

moral; also had into account the teaching of sports as well as the

rescue of the autonomous and folklore. it worked until 1927, when

through Agreement N° 94 of June 11 was closed giving way to the

Academic School of PE ascribed to the National University of

Mexico "NUM". Five groups were graduated from this school who

made up the first generation of professionals in PE in Mexico

By circumstances of the university life, in 1932, the school

is isolated of the University and the Normal School of Physical

Education.

From the Normal School of Physical Education in 1936 to

National School of Physical Education

In the period of the Normal School of PE the teaching of PE

was declared mandatory in the schools, the National Direction of

Physical Education (NDPE), the preliminary teaching was decreed

so the NDPE was turned into a dependence of the secretary of

National Defence: besides, the Normal School of PE joined the

Department of Pedagogical Studies of the Direction of Superior

teaching and scientific research in the "SEP" (1943).

In 1947 when the Normal School of PE was incorporated to

the Department of Normal and Urban Teaching of the General

Direction of Normal Education. Two years later, the General

Direction of PE (Agreement 26 of January 1949), was created, and

one of its effects is that the Normal School of PE changed its name

to National School of Physical Education “NSPE” and during 24

years functioned at the Centro Social y Obrero: Deportivo

Venustiniano Carranza.

From the National School of Physical Education “NSPE” in 1949

to Superior School of Physical Education, “SSPE” 1979.

This was a period of institutional consolidation in teachers

training in the P.E area, as the opening of schools in different regions

of the country. With it the Army focused proposal changed to a

technical-sporty one, now the time of the career changed from three

192

to four years; the title to achieve was Bachelor or Arts (Secretarial

Agreement N° 11140 of 1976).

The adjudication of the lands located in the sport city for

the construction of the headquarters of the National School of P.E.

Construction that started in 1958; these facilities were inaugurated

being the president Adolfo López Mateos and secretary of public

education Jaime Torres Bodet.

The school students played an important role during the

development of the XIX Olympic Games, as an example, we can

quite Manuel Guerrero Sainos and Angel Fernando Rangel Munguia,

who officiated as Athletics judges and were present as witnesses of

the world record in long jumping Bob Beamon.

By requirement of student movements inside de NSPE, the

building of a laboratories, the modernization of physical facilities,

were changed, as well as, the name of the institution for Superior

School of Physical Education SSPE

Superior School of Physical Education, “SSPE”

Through agreement N° 36 of the Secretary of Public

Education, with date: 31 October 1979. The syllabus had been

updated in several opportunities attending the necessities, reforms

and realities of the Mexican context; post-graduate programs are

offered since 1997 not only in the SSPE, but also in the Normal

Schools of D.F.

URUGUAY

As requirement for achieving the objectives of the National

Commission of Physical Education, (NCPE) courses were organized

under the model and methodology of the Young Christian Men

Association (YMCA), this work was directed by Jess Hopkins, from

Kansas, USA. Between 1920 and 1936 six courses were

organized, for training the teachers that were going to work in the

available places for Physical Education, in a systematic way.

193

Normal Institute of Physical Culture

In 1938, Anibal Roig who worked as a secretary of the

NCPE presented the creation project of the Normal of Physical

Culture Institute. And through Decree of December the 3 1939, the

courses started. The first promotion graduated in 1942. Professor

Julio J. Rodiguez. And professor of gymnastics Pedro De Hegedeus,

was who introduced the guidelines of the Neosueca School. For

1948, Professor Alberto Langlade who helped De Hedeus, assumed

the course of gymnastics; Langlade left an important legacy as he

was boss of studies, changing teacher’s training in Uruguay. In 1952,

by lead of the students, the name of the course was changed for

Superior Institute.

BOLIVIA

Superior Institute of Physical Education SIPE

In 1936, Diaz Vera wrote: “the serious step for the physical

Education in Bolivia, was given in 1909, when the Normal School of

Sucre was founded” (Physical Education bulletin. Year II N° 7)

By year 1909 being President Ismael Montes and Daniel

Calvo as Minister, the idea of creating a school of physical

improving for young men who wanted to dedicate to training

teenagers, the National Army delegated this task.

In 1914, the Physical Education General Direction was

created and Belgian professor Henri de Gents. In 1918 the Physical

Education Section was created and the Superior Normal of Peace

was annexed to it. Later on May the 7, 1926 through Decree of the

President Hernando Siles, the course of PE was created, which had

to be executed in two years. The contents of the rapid course was

distributed in the following areas, Gymnastics and Sports,

Methodology and Didactics, directed by General Inspector of PE

professor Saturnino Rodriguez, who later travelled to Europe to get

informed about the new tendencies of PE in that continent.

The contents of the medical area, were guided by Dr. Carlos

Valenzuela; the Experimental Psychology by Professor Juvenal

Mariaca. Form this course 43 teachers graduated, 17 ladies and 26

gentlemen on December the 31 1931.

194

On February 3, through Supreme Decree of 1931, the

Superior Institute of P.E. was founded – SIPE – its first Director was

Professor Saturnino Rodriguez. During his years of Functioning it

has changed its name, after it was created; its name was changed to

Superior Normal Institute of Physical Education “Antonio José de

Sucre” (Supreme Decree of February 1951)

PERÚ

National School of Physical Education

Created by Supreme Resolution N° 326 of September the 6

1932, trained teachers specialized on Physical Education and

technical sports. This Institution was an achievement of professors

Carlos Caceres Alvarez, who was its first director. As collaborators

on this idea, he counts on Jorge Romaña, Yori Carlos Alvarado,

Jesus D. Lopez, Miguel Alegre, Luis E Palma and Juan Ojeda.

195

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CIP - Каталогизација у публикацији - Народна библиотека

Србије, Београд

371.3::796(4)(091)(082)

HISTORY of Physical Education in Europe. 2 / [editors Petar D.

Pavlovic

... et al.]. - Leposavić : University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and

Physical Education ; [Bratislava] : FIEP Europe, History of Physical

Education and Sport Section, 2015 (Bratislava : ABL Print). - 197

str. :

ilustr. ; 21 cm

Tiraž 100. - Napomene i bibliografske reference uz tekst. -

Bibliografija

uz svaki rad.

ISBN 978-86-82329-53-4 (FSPE)

ISBN 978-86-82329-54-1 (niz)

a) Физичко васпитање - Историја - Европа - Зборници

COBISS.SR-ID 218578444

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