History of History of political ideaspolitical ideas2nd lecture. Political ideas of 2nd lecture. Political ideas of

Medieval EuropeMedieval Europe

Lecturer: Marosán, BenceLecturer: Marosán, Bence

Constantine the Great, Constantine the Great, and the Edict of Milanand the Edict of Milan

Under Under Constantine the GreatConstantine the Great (272-337, (272-337, 313313) Christianity became the official ) Christianity became the official religion of Roman Empire, though the religion of Roman Empire, though the tension between Christianity and „pagan tension between Christianity and „pagan religions” remained long after this event.religions” remained long after this event.

The The Edict of MilanEdict of Milan (313) which was (313) which was signed by Constantine’s Fellow-emperor of signed by Constantine’s Fellow-emperor of the Eastern parts of Roman Empire, the Eastern parts of Roman Empire, LiciniusLicinius (263-325), granted a freedom of (263-325), granted a freedom of religious practice and religious conscience religious practice and religious conscience for every citizens of the Roman Empire. It for every citizens of the Roman Empire. It is a fundamental document of religious is a fundamental document of religious tolerance of the Roman Empire.tolerance of the Roman Empire.

Two periods of medieval Two periods of medieval thoughtthought

The early period of medieval thinking or philosophy is called: The early period of medieval thinking or philosophy is called: PatristicsPatristics, or the period of early Christian writers. It begins with , or the period of early Christian writers. It begins with the first founders of Church, 1st century AD and lasts till the late the first founders of Church, 1st century AD and lasts till the late 9th century, till the time of Johannes (John) Scotus Eriugena 9th century, till the time of Johannes (John) Scotus Eriugena (cca. 815-877), who is considered as the last (cca. 815-877), who is considered as the last paterpater (founding (founding father) of Church. father) of Church.

So: Patristics is between 1-9 Century AD.So: Patristics is between 1-9 Century AD. The second period of medieval thought is called The second period of medieval thought is called scholasticismscholasticism. .

The name comes from the latin „scola”, „school”; „scolasticus” in The name comes from the latin „scola”, „school”; „scolasticus” in Latin means: „that which belongs to the school”.Latin means: „that which belongs to the school”.

„„ScholasticismScholasticism is a method of critical thought which dominated is a method of critical thought which dominated teaching by the academics (teaching by the academics (scholastics,scholastics, or or schoolmenschoolmen) of ) of medieval universities in Europe from about 1100–1500, and a medieval universities in Europe from about 1100–1500, and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending program of employing that method in articulating and defending orthodoxy in an increasingly pluralistic context. It originated as orthodoxy in an increasingly pluralistic context. It originated as an outgrowth of, and a departure from, Christian monastic an outgrowth of, and a departure from, Christian monastic schools schools ” (Source: Wikipedia).” (Source: Wikipedia).

We could date the period of scholastic philosophy between the We could date the period of scholastic philosophy between the late 11st and late 16th century.late 11st and late 16th century.

Saint Augustine (354-Saint Augustine (354-430AD)430AD)

Augustine was born in 354, and till his conversion in Augustine was born in 354, and till his conversion in 386 he lived a libertine way of life. He died as the 386 he lived a libertine way of life. He died as the bishop of Hippo in 430.bishop of Hippo in 430.

The state, according to Augustine, lacks the special The state, according to Augustine, lacks the special moral value and rank that was attributed to it by the moral value and rank that was attributed to it by the ancient Greek (and Roman) philosophers. ancient Greek (and Roman) philosophers.

Man could gain Man could gain salvationsalvation only as the citizen of the only as the citizen of the City of GodCity of God. The earthly, mundane manifestation of . The earthly, mundane manifestation of the City of God is the the City of God is the ChurchChurch..

„„Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus est” – he said. „Outside Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus est” – he said. „Outside the Church there is no salvation”. the Church there is no salvation”.

The earthly, mundane, profane state possesses only The earthly, mundane, profane state possesses only a relative value: it has value only in that respect and a relative value: it has value only in that respect and for that degree if it is pervaded by the Church, and for that degree if it is pervaded by the Church, and if it is governed according to Christian rules and if it is governed according to Christian rules and values. values.

„„The City of God”The City of God” Augustine wrote his ideas about this question mainly in his Augustine wrote his ideas about this question mainly in his

last main work, „The City of God”, „De civitate Dei”, 413-426.last main work, „The City of God”, „De civitate Dei”, 413-426. The city of God evolves amongst the frames of the profane The city of God evolves amongst the frames of the profane

state. Thus tranforms the Roman Empire into a Christian state. Thus tranforms the Roman Empire into a Christian one, while it is a bearer of a special historical mission.one, while it is a bearer of a special historical mission.

This conception is expressed with the term „Holy Roman This conception is expressed with the term „Holy Roman Empire”.Empire”.

But the man, according to Augustine, is an originally wicked But the man, according to Augustine, is an originally wicked being, he is burdened by the original sin, and he is needed to being, he is burdened by the original sin, and he is needed to be disciplined. This disciplining is practiced by the forcing be disciplined. This disciplining is practiced by the forcing institutions and laws of the mundane state. institutions and laws of the mundane state.

The fundament of state thus is the originally wicked human The fundament of state thus is the originally wicked human nature, the self-love, and the peace is nothing else than a nature, the self-love, and the peace is nothing else than a cessation of arms dictated by the stronger one. cessation of arms dictated by the stronger one.

In this way one must always subordinate the mundane state In this way one must always subordinate the mundane state to the Christian state, to the state of God. This conception to the Christian state, to the state of God. This conception foreshadows the medieval conflicts between State and foreshadows the medieval conflicts between State and Church.Church.

Conflict of Church and Conflict of Church and State in the Middle AgesState in the Middle Ages

The Medieval Ages could be The Medieval Ages could be characterized with the characterized with the rivalryrivalry of State of State and Church.and Church.

In the beginning there were serious In the beginning there were serious debates concerning the question „who debates concerning the question „who possesses the power?” also in the possesses the power?” also in the Church. Many told that during the Church. Many told that during the chaotic times of their age (early Middle chaotic times of their age (early Middle Age) only a sovereign with a divine Age) only a sovereign with a divine legitimation and authorization could legitimation and authorization could make an order. Other tried to hold the make an order. Other tried to hold the Church apart from the mundane power.Church apart from the mundane power.

The Investiture The Investiture ControversyControversy

The rivalry of Church and State culminated in the The rivalry of Church and State culminated in the „Investiture Controversy”„Investiture Controversy” in the early Middle in the early Middle Age. The investiture controversy was about the Age. The investiture controversy was about the question that who has the right to nominate the question that who has the right to nominate the bishops in a country: the king or the pope?bishops in a country: the king or the pope?

Pope Gregory VIIPope Gregory VII (cca. 1015/1028-1085) (cca. 1015/1028-1085) declared that he, as the head of the Church, is the declared that he, as the head of the Church, is the only one who has the ultimate right to nominate a only one who has the ultimate right to nominate a bishop and to call him back.bishop and to call him back.

Henry IV Holy Roman EmperorHenry IV Holy Roman Emperor (1050-1106) (1050-1106) tried to confront the Pope in this question with the tried to confront the Pope in this question with the assistance of his loyal bishops, but Gregory VII assistance of his loyal bishops, but Gregory VII declared the detronization of Henry IV, who was declared the detronization of Henry IV, who was forced to retreat in this confrontation and he must forced to retreat in this confrontation and he must make his make his „walk to Canossa”„walk to Canossa”. .

Relationship of ecclesiastic Relationship of ecclesiastic and profane power. The two and profane power. The two

approachesapproaches Pope Gregory VII referred to the brief of Pope Pope Gregory VII referred to the brief of Pope GelasiusGelasius (V. (V.

century, AD), denying that the king would be the supreme century, AD), denying that the king would be the supreme leader of human community, and arguing for that the leader of human community, and arguing for that the kings gain all their power from God through the Church.kings gain all their power from God through the Church.

On the opposite, a contemporary On the opposite, a contemporary anonymousanonymous author (XI. author (XI. century, AD) defended the absolute rights of king against century, AD) defended the absolute rights of king against the ecclesiastic power of pope, saying that the king has a the ecclesiastic power of pope, saying that the king has a twofoldtwofold personality: one is due to his personality: one is due to his humanhuman nature and nature and the other is due to his the other is due to his divinedivine mission. mission.

„„The king is the immediate servant of God, The king is the immediate servant of God, minister Deiminister Dei, , and as such he is the mundane regent of Christ, and as such he is the mundane regent of Christ, vicarius vicarius ChristiChristi on Earth, consequently the sovereign is a king and on Earth, consequently the sovereign is a king and a priest, a priest, rex et sacerdos rex et sacerdos in one person”.in one person”.

In the end the majority who participated in this debate In the end the majority who participated in this debate saw a saw a counter-balance counter-balance in the ecclesiastic power of the in the ecclesiastic power of the Church and of the pope in particular, against the possibly Church and of the pope in particular, against the possibly tyrannic power of the king.tyrannic power of the king.

Conflict between Henri IV Conflict between Henri IV and Thomas Becket, (1170-and Thomas Becket, (1170-

1174)1174)„„The archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, The archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, would not be here. He was in the throes of a quarrel would not be here. He was in the throes of a quarrel with his old friend, King Henry; a quarrel so bitter with his old friend, King Henry; a quarrel so bitter and fierce that the archbishop had been forced to flee and fierce that the archbishop had been forced to flee the country, and had taken refuge in France. They the country, and had taken refuge in France. They were in conflict over a whole list of legal issues, but were in conflict over a whole list of legal issues, but the heart of the dispute was simple: Could the king the heart of the dispute was simple: Could the king do as he pleased, or was he constrained? It was the do as he pleased, or was he constrained? It was the dispute William himself had had with Prior Philip. dispute William himself had had with Prior Philip. William took the view that the earl could do William took the view that the earl could do anything-- that was what it meant to be earl. Henry anything-- that was what it meant to be earl. Henry felt the same about kingship. Prior Philip and Thomas felt the same about kingship. Prior Philip and Thomas Becket were both bent on restricting the power of Becket were both bent on restricting the power of rulers. ”rulers. ”

Ken Follett, Ken Follett, The Pillars of the EarthThe Pillars of the Earth, 1990: 614, 1990: 614

John of Salisbury. The right John of Salisbury. The right of Tyrranicideof Tyrranicide

The experience of conflict of mundane The experience of conflict of mundane (profane) and ecclesiastic power motivated (profane) and ecclesiastic power motivated Salisbury to write his work „Policraticus”, („On Salisbury to write his work „Policraticus”, („On Tyrranicide”, 1159). Tyrranicide”, 1159).

John of Salisbury made a difference between John of Salisbury made a difference between tyranttyrant and and monarchmonarch. The king is not bounded . The king is not bounded by the positive laws of the states, but he must by the positive laws of the states, but he must act in accordance with the divine laws. act in accordance with the divine laws. IfIf the the king strives to realize the king strives to realize the laws of divine laws of divine justicejustice on Earth, then his dominance is on Earth, then his dominance is legitimate, and he is a monarch. legitimate, and he is a monarch. But ifBut if he he follows only the laws of follows only the laws of his own selfish his own selfish desiresdesires, and breaks the divine law of heavenly , and breaks the divine law of heavenly justice, then he is a tyrant, and it is just to kill justice, then he is a tyrant, and it is just to kill him.him.

The assasination of Thomas The assasination of Thomas Becket, mentor of John of Becket, mentor of John of

SalisburySalisbury His mentor was His mentor was Thomas BecketThomas Becket, the , the

archbishop of Canterbury. John of Salisbury archbishop of Canterbury. John of Salisbury worked as Becket’s secretary from 1161. He worked as Becket’s secretary from 1161. He followed his master to exile to France, when the followed his master to exile to France, when the conflict between Beckett and Henri became very conflict between Beckett and Henri became very tough, (1170-1174).tough, (1170-1174).

Thomas Becket returned with John to England in Thomas Becket returned with John to England in 1174, but at the commands (or explicit 1174, but at the commands (or explicit suggestion) of Henrik II of England he was suggestion) of Henrik II of England he was murdered, before the very eyes of his discipline, murdered, before the very eyes of his discipline, right at the altar of the Church. right at the altar of the Church.

This experience made John even more convinced This experience made John even more convinced that the mundane, profane political power must that the mundane, profane political power must be subordinated to the ecclesiastic power, and be subordinated to the ecclesiastic power, and controlled by it.controlled by it.

The special importance of The special importance of the conflict between State the conflict between State

and Churchand Church These conflicts had a special role in the evolution These conflicts had a special role in the evolution

of division of power and in the emergence of of division of power and in the emergence of modern institutions of public administration.modern institutions of public administration.

Several factors made successful the modern Several factors made successful the modern Europe. One of them was the idea of Europe. One of them was the idea of autonomous autonomous institutionsinstitutions in the society, which enjoyed a in the society, which enjoyed a complete complete sovereigntysovereignty over and against the state. over and against the state. In this way e.g. the medieval Universities had a In this way e.g. the medieval Universities had a special autonomy and sovereignty.special autonomy and sovereignty.

The conflict between Church and State made the The conflict between Church and State made the kings aware for the first time that they cannot do kings aware for the first time that they cannot do everything they want, and even their power is everything they want, and even their power is restricted by other branches of power.restricted by other branches of power.

The divine source of The divine source of political legitimacypolitical legitimacy

In the Medieval Ages appeared a In the Medieval Ages appeared a thirdthird modell of political order and legitimacy modell of political order and legitimacy over and above the afore mentioned two: over and above the afore mentioned two: the the divine source of political powerdivine source of political power..

With the spread and rise of Christianity With the spread and rise of Christianity emerged the discipline of emerged the discipline of political political theologytheology..

According to this modell: God is the According to this modell: God is the ultimate source of every power, no matter ultimate source of every power, no matter it is mundane or transcendent, physical or it is mundane or transcendent, physical or political.political.

Saint Paul: „There is no sword nor power Saint Paul: „There is no sword nor power but through God”.but through God”.

Saint Augustine (354-430). Saint Augustine (354-430). De Civitate Dei, City of GodDe Civitate Dei, City of God

Saint Augustine, the bishop of Hyppo (North-Africa), was the first one Saint Augustine, the bishop of Hyppo (North-Africa), was the first one who articulated a systematic theory of political theology in his lenghty who articulated a systematic theory of political theology in his lenghty (ten volumes long) book: „The City of God”, („De Civitate Dei”).(ten volumes long) book: „The City of God”, („De Civitate Dei”).

Saint Augustine divided the universe to two regions: Civitate Dei (City Saint Augustine divided the universe to two regions: Civitate Dei (City or Domain of God) and Civitate Diaboli (City or Domain of the Devil). or Domain of God) and Civitate Diaboli (City or Domain of the Devil). Every region of the world which is under the reign of the Catholic Every region of the world which is under the reign of the Catholic Church is under the sovereignty Church is under the sovereignty of God. Every part of the world of God. Every part of the world outside the sovereignty of Church is under the influence of the Devil, outside the sovereignty of Church is under the influence of the Devil, is the City of Devil. is the City of Devil.

„„Extra ecclesiam nulla salus est” – he said. Outside the Church there Extra ecclesiam nulla salus est” – he said. Outside the Church there is no salvation.is no salvation.

The borders between the City of God and City of Devil are invisible. If The borders between the City of God and City of Devil are invisible. If one lives according to the rules and laws of the Catholic religion, then one lives according to the rules and laws of the Catholic religion, then s/he is a citizen of the City of God. If one does not follow the rules of s/he is a citizen of the City of God. If one does not follow the rules of the only true religion, then s/he is a citizen of the City of Devil.the only true religion, then s/he is a citizen of the City of Devil.

A form of state is legitimate if and only the state serves the goals of A form of state is legitimate if and only the state serves the goals of salvation and is under the reign and sovereignty of the Church. If a salvation and is under the reign and sovereignty of the Church. If a state does not serve the aims and goals of Church and through it the state does not serve the aims and goals of Church and through it the matter of salvation, then its rulership is illegitimate.matter of salvation, then its rulership is illegitimate.

The source of political power is the Church and ultimately God The source of political power is the Church and ultimately God himself.himself.

The double power in the The double power in the world. Letter of Pope world. Letter of Pope

Gelasius I.Gelasius I. According to Gelasius there could be found two powers in According to Gelasius there could be found two powers in

the world: the power of Monarch and the power of the the world: the power of Monarch and the power of the Church.Church.

According to Gelasius the secular, mundane power is According to Gelasius the secular, mundane power is subordinated to the power of Church, because salvation subordinated to the power of Church, because salvation could be hoped only through the latter. could be hoped only through the latter.

This was a main problem in the political thinking of This was a main problem in the political thinking of Medieval Ages. To whom is responsible the king? To the Medieval Ages. To whom is responsible the king? To the Church or only to God himself immediately?Church or only to God himself immediately?

The Church – as a matter of course – officially taught the The Church – as a matter of course – officially taught the first view-point. Political legitimacy everywhere every time first view-point. Political legitimacy everywhere every time subordinated to the Church. The kings over and over again subordinated to the Church. The kings over and over again through the Medieval Ages tried to grasp the ultimate and through the Medieval Ages tried to grasp the ultimate and exclusive power to themselves.exclusive power to themselves.

In this way the Church functioned many occasions as the In this way the Church functioned many occasions as the controlcontrol of the power of king. Thus the conflict between of the power of king. Thus the conflict between Church and State was an important source and forerunner Church and State was an important source and forerunner of modern division of powers.of modern division of powers.

The medieval view of The medieval view of society. Saint Thomas of society. Saint Thomas of Acquinas (1225-1274)Acquinas (1225-1274)

According to medieval autors (among others: Saint Thomas According to medieval autors (among others: Saint Thomas of Acquinas) the structure of human and non-human of Acquinas) the structure of human and non-human society was organic and hierarchic. society was organic and hierarchic.

The human society was the mirror image of the entire The human society was the mirror image of the entire universe. The universe was a hierarchy with God on the universe. The universe was a hierarchy with God on the top of it. (Then Archangels, Angels, humans, animals, top of it. (Then Archangels, Angels, humans, animals, plants and unanimate things).plants and unanimate things).

The human world is just like a hierarchy with the king, The human world is just like a hierarchy with the king, with the Monarch on the top. (Then the nobles, their with the Monarch on the top. (Then the nobles, their vassals, bondmen, etc.).vassals, bondmen, etc.).

But just as the created world is subordinated to the But just as the created world is subordinated to the transcendent divine world, the secular, non-ecclesiastic, transcendent divine world, the secular, non-ecclesiastic, mundane world must be subordinated to the Church. mundane world must be subordinated to the Church. Otherwise it would be a violence against the divine laws of Otherwise it would be a violence against the divine laws of the Universe.the Universe.

The idea of tyranThe idea of tyrannnycide. ycide. John of SalisburyJohn of Salisbury

Salisbury witnessed that his mentor and master, Thomas Beckett Salisbury witnessed that his mentor and master, Thomas Beckett (Archbishop of Canterbury) was slaughtered at the orders of king (Archbishop of Canterbury) was slaughtered at the orders of king (Henry II.), at the alter of the Cathedral.(Henry II.), at the alter of the Cathedral.

This happened after he wrote his book „Policraticus” („On This happened after he wrote his book „Policraticus” („On Tyrranycide”, 1159) – but this event convinced him even deeper Tyrranycide”, 1159) – but this event convinced him even deeper concerning the truth of his ideas.concerning the truth of his ideas.

According to Salisbury one must make a difference between the According to Salisbury one must make a difference between the monarch and the tyrant. The monarch subordinates himself to the monarch and the tyrant. The monarch subordinates himself to the rules and laws of Church, seeks to fulfill the divine justice, and strives rules and laws of Church, seeks to fulfill the divine justice, and strives after the happiness of his people in this world and the next.after the happiness of his people in this world and the next.

The tyrant follows only his desires, violates the laws and rules of the The tyrant follows only his desires, violates the laws and rules of the Church, and does not deal with the happiness and well-being of his Church, and does not deal with the happiness and well-being of his people.people.

The monarch regards the political power as a mean to make a just and The monarch regards the political power as a mean to make a just and happy society. Does not follow his own selfish interest on the first happy society. Does not follow his own selfish interest on the first hand. The tyrant regards the political power as a goal in itself, or as hand. The tyrant regards the political power as a goal in itself, or as something which has the only function to fulfill the selfish desires of something which has the only function to fulfill the selfish desires of the tyrant himself.the tyrant himself.

The monarch creates the City of God. The tyrant brings the City of The monarch creates the City of God. The tyrant brings the City of Devil. According to Salisbury it is just revolt against the tyrant, even Devil. According to Salisbury it is just revolt against the tyrant, even to kill him. to kill him.