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INTRODUCTION

As a weak student of history, I always felt uncomfortable during

various interviews, academic discourses and casual discussions,

involving historical references. Feeling of inadequacy in this vital

subject rose with the passage of time, but my professional

commitments and poor time management skills barred me from any

reparation effort. Thanks to the bewilderness offered by the UN

shelters in Eastern Chad that I could spare some time to read

through the pages of history. Gradually, I developed interest in the

subject and decided to compile a quick read history of the world for

casual students of history like me.

In my compilation, I have endeavored to include all significant

happenings of history, in various time spans and in different parts of

the world. Almost all important events from pre-history till the 21st

century, which have influenced the world to take the shape as we

look at it today, have been chronologically ordered for easy

assimilation of the readers. I have earnestly tried to remain unbiased

in my compilation of history and present divergent points of view on

various controversial issues. However, it is a straight narration

without any judgments or conclusions, leaving this leverage to the

worthy readers.

A Quick Read History of The World is in your hands. Please

pardon any omissions or mistakes in the document. I shall also

welcome dissenting views, if any.

Muqeem Ahmed Subhani

PART – 1

ANCIENT HISTORY (PRE-HISTORY TO 20 th CENTURY BC)

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1. Prehistory is a term generally used to describe the period prior to recorded

history. The term is often used in referring to the period of time since life appeared on

Earth. Fossil remains found by the archeologists in Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania), has

allowed them to know something about the history of human being. The

archeologists now believe that human being existed even before 2,000,000 BC. Early

human being moved from Africa across much of the world. Archeologists term this

time as “Ice Age”, during which the human being first reached America,

Russia, Alaska, Japan and Australia.

2. In dividing up human prehistory, the historians typically use Three Age System

i.e. the division of human prehistory into three consecutive time periods, named for

their respective predominant tool-making technologies; the Stone Age, the Bronze

Age and the Iron Age.

a. Stone Age (Paleolithic)

(1) Early part of the Stone Age predates Homo sapiens.

Anatomic changes indicating modern language capacity arose during

this time. The systematic evolution i.e. burial of the dead, the music,

early art, and the use of increasingly sophisticated multi-part tools are

also the highlights of this period. Throughout the Stone Age, humans

generally lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers. Hunter-gathering societies

tended to be very small and egalitarian, though societies with abundant

resources or advanced food-storage techniques sometimes developed

sedentary lifestyles with complex social structures such as chiefdoms

and social stratification.

(2) Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) is termed as a period for the

development of human technology that led to the introduction of

agriculture with varied timings (10000 BC – 6000 BC), in different

geographic regions. In Near East, where agriculture was already

underway, Middle Stone Age was short and poorly defined. However,

regions that experienced greater environmental effects had a much

more evident Middle Stone Age. In Northern Europe, societies were

able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands fostered by

the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human

behaviors and delayed the coming of the New Stone Age until as late

as 4000 BC.

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(3) New Stone Age (Neolithic) was a period of primitive

technological and social development, towards the end of the Stone

Age. This period saw the development of early villages, agriculture,

animal domestication, tools and the onset of the earliest recorded

incidents of confrontation and warfare.

(4) A major change of the time, described by historians as the

"Agricultural Revolution", occurred about the 10th millennium BC

with the adoption of agriculture. The Sumerians (people of

Southern Mesopotamia) began farming in 9500 BC. Jericho

(Palestine) is the oldest farming settlement yet discovered and

estimated to have existed as early as 8000 BC. The largest agricultural

settlement has so far been discovered in Turkey (Catal Huyuk), which

dates back to 6500 BC. Agriculture was developed in the Indus valley

(Mehrgarh) and South America (Peru) by 7000 BC, followed by the

Niles valley (Egypt) in 6000 BC and China by 5000 BC. Farming spread

in Europe and to islands of the Eastern Mediterranean like Cyprus and

Crete through Greece. Moving along the valleys of the Danube and

Rhine Rivers, farmers reached Northwest Europe by 4000 BC. By 3500

BC farming had reached the British Isles. However, North American

Great Plains were so suited to the hunting way of life that it survived

until modern times. Similarly, some nomadic peoples, such as the

Indigenous Australians (Aborigines) and the Bushmen of southern

Africa did not practice agriculture until relatively recent times.

b. Bronze Age

(1) The term refers to a period in human cultural development

when the most advanced metalworking techniques developed for

smelting copper and tin ores and then smelting those ores to cast

bronze. The Bronze Age is the period of which we have direct written

earliest accounts, since the invention of writing coincides with its early

beginning.

(2) Writing began in Mesopotamia and Sumerians started to use

picture writing (cuneiform) in 3500 BC. Egyptians followed the

Sumerians in picture writing and carving (hieroglyphics). Chinese

writing began about 4000 BC. While the ancient writings of the

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Egyptians and the Sumerians died out, the Chinese writing remains the

foundation from which modern Chinese language grew. Indians also

followed the suit but most of the ancient Indian writings could not be

deciphered. Writing was not introduced in Europe until almost 2000 BC,

as evident from absence of any written account of mysterious

Stonehenge (London), estimated to have been built as late as 2500

BC to 2000 BC.

c. Iron Age . Iron Age refers to the advent of ferrous metallurgy. The

adoption of iron coincided with other changes in some past cultures, often

including more sophisticated agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic

styles.

3. Early Civilizations . Only when there was a surplus food, could some people

stop farming and live in cities doing those different things essential to a civilization.

Therefore, all early civilizations appeared in those parts of the world which were the

most fertile i.e. the river valleys such as the Euphrates and Tigris valleys in

Mesopotamia (Iraq), the Niles valley in Egypt, the Indus valley in the Indian

subcontinent, and the Yellow River valley in China.

a. Mesopotamian Civilization

(1) First ever civilization of the world commenced in Mesopotamia

(Iraq) and the oldest cities in history were built between (3500 BC -

2000 BC), by the inhabitants of Mesopotamian civilization called the

Sumerians, in the land of two rivers (River Tigris and River Euphrates).

Early prophets like Prophet Adam (a.s), Prophet Idrees (a.s) and

Prophet Noah (a.s) are also reported to have lived and preached in this

region and neighboring Arabian Peninsula.

(2) Sargon the great, established the Akkadian Empire, the first

ever empire of the world in 2300 BC. He made his capital at Akkad

(Baghdad) and strengthened his empire from the Mediterranean to the

Persian Gulf. His people traded with the island of Crete in the west to

the Indus valley in the east.

(3) Mesopotamian governments were organized enough to

build great temples and palaces out of clay bricks. They dug

canals, constructed irrigation channels and used wheeled carts.

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(4) With the passage of time, other people moved into

Mesopotamia and a new civilization appeared around the city of

Babylon, on the banks of River Euphrates. The empire changed hands

between the Assyrians and the Babylonians and later between the

Persians and the Greeks, before it was finally annexed to the Muslim

territories.

b. Egyptian Civilization

(1) The ancient Egyptian civilization began in 3200 BC, when

Pharaoh Menes united the northern (Egypt) and southern (Sudan)

kingdoms. Pharaohs were very powerful and marked three distinctive

periods of their rule in Egypt; the old kingdom (2660 BC -2550 BC), the

middle kingdom (2050 BC – 1780 BC) and the new kingdom (1550 BC -

1070 BC).

(2) The Egyptians built magnificent temples and great

Pyramids. They also followed the custom of mummification. The

Egyptians were less advanced than the Mesopotamians in mathematics

and astronomy, but they were better at medicine and herbal treatment.

What made ancient Egypt different from any other civilization were its

religion and its belief in life after death.

(3) Egyptian civilization came to a slow demise when they found

themselves weak enough to fight off other empires like the Assyrians,

the Persians, the Greeks and finally the Romans before the advent of

Islam in the Niles valley.

c. Indus Valley Civilization

(1) Historically, one of the world's earliest urban civilizations

emerged in Indus valley, simultaneously with Mesopotamia (Iraq) and

ancient Egypt. Remains found at Mehrgarh (Baluchistan) prove a

modern town built as early as 7000 BC. The Indus valley civilization

(3300 BC - 1300 BC) was centered on the Indus River valley and its

tributaries, extending into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley, the Ganges-

Yamuna Doab, Gujarat, and southeastern Afghanistan.

(2) Another sophisticated and technologically advanced urban

culture developed in the Mature Harappan period (2600 BC - 1900 BC)

that marked the beginning of the urban civilization in the subcontinent.

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The civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibangan,

Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Lothal in modern day India and Harappa,

Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro in modern day Pakistan. The civilization

was noted for its large and well planned cities built of brick, road-

side drainage system and multi storied houses. Inhabitants of

Indus valley civilization, the Harappans, developed new

techniques in metallurgy, too.

(3) In contrast to the Sumerians and the Egyptians who were very

religious, no temples are found in ancient Indian civilization. Legends

like Maha Bharata laid deep imprints on belief system of the

inhabitants of the civilization, and continue to be a centerpiece in

Hindu mythology till today. There is no record found about who ruled

the region and how they were destroyed in 1000 BC. Historians believe

that well armed Indo-Europeans (Aryan) people suddenly invaded from

the northwest (Hindu Kush Range), destroying the cities and killing

most of the inhabitants.

(4) Some of the Aryans made homes in the Indus valley, while the

others moved further east, over the low hills which divide the Indus from

the Ganga valley, and settled in the Ganga-Yamuna corridor. The

Aryans started to live in communities led by clan chiefs called as Rajas

and the priests or Brahmins who were a powerful group, too. The

Aryans seem to have been a lively, adventurous and risk taking people.

Gambling, music and dance were an important part of their life.

However, the people found themselves born into four separate castes;

the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the untouchable

Shudras.

(5) By the 6th century BC, there were sixteen separate kingdoms in

the Indus-Ganga valleys, fighting with one another. Similar independent

states existed throughout the Indian history before another wave of

invasions from south and northwest followed by establishment of

several Muslim empires there.

d. Chinese Civilization

(1) Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers along

the Yellow River. The written history of China can be found, without a

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break, to the Shang Dynasty (1700 BC – 1046 BC). However, the

origins of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy developed during

the Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC - 256 BC). For most of her history, China

has been cut off from rest of the world, though it is very large and highly

populated country.

(2) The conventional view of Chinese history is that of alternating

periods of political unity and disunity, with China occasionally being

dominated by Inner Asian peoples, most of whom were in turn

assimilated into the Han Chinese population. Cultural and political

influences from many parts of Asia, carried by successive waves of

immigration, expansion, and cultural assimilation, are part of the

modern culture of China.

(3) Bronze products of Shang China were the best in the

world at that time. They also discovered how to produce cloth

from silk and traded it through ancient Silk Road. In early Chinese

societies, the nobles were more important than the priests. Throughout

the Chinese history, the Chinese civilization remained very strong, even

if the emperors were weak, at times.

e. Europe

(1) In Europe, evidence of permanent settlement commences from

the 7th millennium BC in the Balkans. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture

(5508 BC - 2750 BC), that nurtured in modern day Romania and

Ukraine, was the first big civilization in Europe and among the earliest

in the world.

(2) This was a time of changes and confusion in Europe. The

most relevant fact is the infiltration and invasion of large parts of the

territory by people originating from Central Asia, considered by

mainstream scholars to be the original Indo-Europeans (Aryans).

Another phenomenon was appearance of the first significant economic

stratification and, related to this, the first known monarchies in the

Balkan region.

(3) The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was that

of the Minoans of the island of Crete (1900 BC – 1400 BC), and

later the Mycenaens (1600 BC – 1100 BC) in the adjacent parts of

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Greece. Cretans were once the most powerful people of the region.

They traded all round the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly with

Egypt, and ruled many coastal areas like Athens. These tribal societies

slowly transformed into states and these complex societies turned into

civilizations.

(4) The Greek civilization is considered to be the foundation of

modern day Europe. The civilization is known for its legends like King

Aegeus of Athens (Aegean Sea in named after him), Battle of Troy

(invasion of city of Troy, located in modern day Turkey, by soldiers

hiding in a wooden horse) and the war hero Achilles (famous for

Achilles heal).

PART - 2

EARLY HISTORY (20 th CENTURY BC TO 5 TH CENTURY AD)

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1. This was the age of philosophical development of the human beings.

German philosopher Karl Jaspers coined the term the axial age to describe

the period of 1st millennium BC, during which, according to Jaspers, similar

revolutionary thinking appeared in China, India and the Occident. Jaspers

identified a number of key axial age thinkers as having had a profound influence

on future philosophy and religion, and identified characteristics common to each

area from which those thinkers emerged. Jaspers saw in these developments in

religion and philosophy a striking parallel without any obvious direct transmission

of ideas from one region to the other, having found no recorded proof of any

extensive intercommunication between Ancient Greece (Platonism), Middle

East (Abrahmic Religion), Iran (Zoroastrianism), India (Buddhism /

Hinduism), and China (Confucianism). Jaspers argued that during the axial

age, the spiritual foundations of humanity were laid simultaneously and

independently. And these are the foundations upon which humanity still subsists

today. These foundations were laid by individual thinkers within a framework of a

changing social environment.

2. Abrahmic Religion . Historians have a general consensus that

Prophet Abraham (a.s) lived during early 20th century BC.

a. Terah, a descent from Prophet Noah (a.s), fathered Prophet

Abraham (a.s), Nahor and Haran. Prophet Lot (a.s) was the son of Haran

and thus nephew to Prophet Abraham (a.s). Prophet Abraham (a.s) is

believed to have been born in Ur of the Chaldees (Mesopotamia, Iraq). But

the family later moved towards Canaan (Palestine), but settled in Haran on

their way to Canaan.

b. Prophet Abraham (a.s) married Hazrat Sara (a.s) but they did not

have any children for a long time. During a preaching voyage to Egypt

along with Hazrat Sara (a.s), Egyptian Pharaoh offered his daughter Hazrat

Hajra (a.s) to serve Hazrat Sara (a.s). The Jews believe that Hazrat Hajra

(a.s) was Pharaoh’s maid and not the daughter. Later, Hazrat Sara (a.s)

suggested Prophet Abraham (a.s) to marry Hazrat Hajra (a.s) and have

children.

c. Prophet Abraham (a.s) was blessed with a son Prophet Ismael (a.s)

but that led to a split in the family. Prophet Abraham (a.s) took Hazrat Hajra

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(a.s) and their new born son to Makkah and left them there following a

divine message. He however, continued to visit them time to time.

d. Prophet Abraham (a.s) received a divine message to leave the land

of his birth, his father's house and go to the land where he would become a

great nation and be the vehicle for the blessing of all mankind. So Prophet

Abraham (a.s) left Haran with Hazrat Sara (a.s), Prophet Lot (a.s), their

followers and flocks and travelled to Canaan (Palestine), where, at

Shechem (near Nablus - West Bank), Allah (s.w.t) granted land to him and

his descendants. Prophet Lot (a.s) was granted the prophet-hood in a

nearby land lying east of the Jordan River near Sodom and Gomorrah. The

land has now been encroached by the Dead Sea. In his old ages, Prophet

Abraham (a.s) was blessed with another son, Prophet Isaac (a.s) from

Hazrat Sara (a.s).

e. Prophet Abraham (a.s) is held as a founding father in the Jewish,

Christian, and Islamic religions. The nation of Israel descended from him

through his second son, Prophet Isaac (a.s), whereas the Muslims

descended from him through his first son, Prophet Ismael (a.s). The

Muslims and the Jews / Christians also differ on the sacrifice offered by

Prophet Abraham (a.s); the Muslims believe it was for Prophet Ismael (a.s)

and the Jews / Christians believe him to be Prophet Isaac (a.s). As a

reward for his act of faith in one Allah (s.w.t), he was promised that Prophet

Isaac (a.s) would inherit the Land of Canaan (Palestine). On the other hand

Prophet Abraham (a.s) during one of his visits to Makkah constructed

Ka’aba along with Prophet Ismael (a.s) and prayed to Allah (s.w.t) for grant

of multitude; Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h) and his following is considered

to be the fulfillment of the prayer.

f. The Israelites are referred to as the children of Israel, who are from

the family of Prophet Abraham (a.s), his son Prophet Isaac (a.s) and the

latter's son Prophet Yaqub (a.s) who was known as Israel (Abdullah).

Prophet Yaqub (a.s) had twelve sons. Popular convention is that the

Israelites comprised of twelve tribes, emanating form Prophet Yaqub’s (a.s)

each son. When Prophet Yusuf (a.s), one of the twelve sons, was 17 years

old, his brothers intentionally lost him in a jungle. He was picked up by

some passing by convoy and later rose to the status of the Viceroy of

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Egypt. Almost 20 years later, when famine had ravaged Canaan

(Palestine), Prophet Yusuf (a.s) persuaded his father, Prophet Yaqub (a.s),

to come with his entire family, and to settle in Egypt. Later, the family

returned to Canaan (Palestine). Phoenician Civilization, centered in the

north of Canaan (Palestine) with its heartland along the coastal

regions of modern day Lebanon , Syria and Israel emerged during this

time. The civilization was an enterprising maritime trading culture that

spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC.

g. Prophet Moses (a.s), another descendent among children of Israel,

is believed to have lived in 13th and early 12th century BC. He was born at a

time when Egyptian Pharaoh of the time had commanded that all male

Hebrew children born be killed. His mother was commanded by Allah

(s.w.t) to place the child in an ark and cast him on the waters of the Niles.

Pharaoh's wife Asiya spotted Moses floating in the river and convinced

Pharaoh to adopt him as their son because they had none. Prophet Mose’s

(a.s) own mother was engaged as the child's nurse.

h. When Prophet Moses (a.s) reached adulthood, he went to see how

his brethren were faring. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, he killed

the Egyptian and made his escape over the Sinai Peninsula in regret. In

Midian, he stopped at a well, where he helped two shepherdesses scared

from a band of rude shepherds. The shepherdesses' father, Prophet

Shoaib (a.s), a priest of Midian was immensely grateful for the assistance

Prophet Moses (a.s) had given to his daughters. Prophet Shoaib (a.s)

adopted Prophet Moses (a.s) as his son and married one of his daughters

to him.

i. Prophet Moses (a.s) sojourned for several years at Midian before

being granted prophet-hood. Mission assigned to Prophet Moses (a.s) was

to invite the Pharaoh to accept Allah’s (s.w.t) divine message as well as

give salvation to the Israelites. He was also joined by his elder brother,

Prophet Harun (a.s) in his struggle. Finally, Prophet Moses (a.s) led his

people across Red Sea towards Canaan (Palestine) and Pharaoh’s army

got drowned.

j. Following the conquest of Canaan (Palestine), at the hands of

Prophet Joshua (a.s), the Israelite tribes were allotted tribal territories.

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From that time until the formation of the first Kingdom of Israel in 1050 BC,

the Israelite tribes formed a loose confederation. No central government

existed, and in times of crisis the people were led by ad-hoc leaders. With

the growth of external threat, the Israelite tribes decided to form a strong

centralized monarchy to meet the challenge.

k. Following the famous fight against giant warrior Goliath, Prophet

Daud (a.s) rose to power in the region. During the reigns of Prophet Daud

(a.s) and his son Prophet Suleiman (a.s) who ruled Palestine around 970

BC and 930 BC respectively, the Kingdom of Israel is considered to have

reached the limits of the Land of Israel promised to Prophet Abraham's

(a.s) descendants. However, Prophet Daud (a.s) and Prophet Suleiman

(a.s) maintained actual government jurisdiction only over the Israelite

tribes, although they received tribute from the vaster region defined by

these borders. Prophet Suleiman (a.s) is believed to have built the Holy

Temple for the first time in around 950 BC. As per the Muslim belief,

Al Aqsa Mosque was also constructed by him.

l. Babylonians, the successors of Akkadian Empire (2300 BC – 2150

BC) fought with the Assyrians for the control of the region between 800 BC

till 539 BC. The Assyrians were known to be the most fearsome warriors of

the ancient world. Assyrian kings attacked the kingdom of Israel in 772 BC,

captured the capital city Samaria (West Bank, Palestine) and took

thousands of captives to the Assyrian capital of Nineveh (Mosul, Iraq). The

concept of the Ten Lost Tribes who were taken away coincides with the

accounts of the Assyrian deportations. Some historians believe that the

Pashtuns of Afghanistan and Pakistan are the historical descendants of the

"ten lost tribes". Some historians even believe that the black races are the

lost Israelites – literally or spiritually.

m. The Babylonians made their come back to power in early 6 th century

BC. In 597 BC, the Babylonian kings sacked Jerusalem and exiled the

Jews to Babylon (present day Babil Province, Iraq). In 586 BC they

destroyed the Holy Temple and left Jerusalem in ruins. In 538 BC,

after 50 years of Babylonian captivity, Persian King Cyrus the Great

conquered the region and invited the Jews to return to their land and

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rebuild the Temple. Second construction of the Holy Temple

completed in 516 BC.

n. The region remained under the Alexander of Macedonia in around

200 BC and went under the Roman / Byzantine rule in 63 BC. Second

Holy Temple was destroyed during Jewish-Roman War in 70 AD. Only

western wall remains of that destruction. Jews believe that they will

rebuild the temple before the re-arrival of Prophet Jesus (a.s).

o. Prophet Jesus (a.s) was the last of the prophets among the Children

of Israel, though Prophet Yahya (a.s) also lived and preached at the same

time. With non acceptance of Prophet Jesus (a.s) by the Jews, Christianity

became a separate religion. Later, Christianity was reformed on the basis

of Trinity; that the one God comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing

persons; the Father, the Son (incarnate in Jesus Christ), and the Holy

Spirit. Prophet Jesus (a.s) was sentenced to death by the Jews’ priestly

court (under Roman rule) for being guilty of Blasphemy. The Muslims

believe that he was raised alive by Allah (s.w.t) towards Himself, whereas

the Christians / Jews believe that he was crucified and died a natural

death; a holy sacrifice that atones for humanity's sin and makes salvation

possible. Church of the Holy Sepulcher in the Christian Quarter of the old

city of Jerusalem is considered to be the place of crucifixion. The Muslims

and the Christians await resurrection of Prophet Jesus (a.s), whereas the

Jews await Messiah David (Anti Christ).

p. Newly founded Roman Empire and its people were dissatisfied with

the old religions based on Greek mythology. Their thirst was satisfied by

the newly known religion of Christianity. Christianity found a popular

acceptance, especially among the poor and slaves. However, the

Christians suffered badly at the hands of Roman rulers during first 300

years. Saint Paul; a Roman citizen and a Jew converted Christian first

authored the Holy Bible and exerted great religious influence on the

masses under the Roman Empire. The Anno Domini (year of Lord)

dating system is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the

conception or birth of Prophet Jesus (a.s), with AD denoting years

after, and BC denoting years before the start of this epoch.

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3. European Empires . From 8th century BC to the 6th century AD

(Classical Antiquity), the Greeks and the Romans left a legacy in Europe that is

reflected in extant language, thought, law and minds.

a. Ancient Greece

(1) The Hellenic civilization (Ancient Greece) took the form of a

collection of city-states or poleis, having vastly differing types of

government and cultures. Strongest amongst these city-states were

Athens and Sparta. Athens, the most powerful city-state, governed itself

with an early form of direct democracy. Athens was the most developed

city and cradle of learning from the time of Pericles (famous Greek

statesman). Citizens’ forum debated and legislated on the state

policies. Sparta, in contrast, was very different than Athens. Its strength

lay in its army and the soldiers. They were feared rather than admired

by the rest of Greece, for their army was terrifying.

(2) The Hellenic city-states founded a large number of colonies on

the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, Asia Minor

(Turkey), and Southern Italy. In the 5th century BC, their eastward

expansions led to retaliation from the Achaemenid Persian Empire. In

the Greco-Persian Wars, the Hellenic city-states formed an alliance and

defeated the Persian Empire, repelling the Persian invasions.

(3) The Greeks were leading the league against Persia, but

Athens’s weakening position as leader of this league led Sparta to form

another league. The two leagues began a rivalry over leadership of

Greece and fought a protracted Peloponnesian War (431 BC – 404

BC), resulting in Spartans victory. Continued Hellenic infighting made

the Greek city states an easy prey for King Philip of Macedon, who

united all the Greek city states. The campaigns of his son Alexander

the Great, later became the hallmark of the Greek Empire. Alexander

the Great took with him, the Greek culture into Persia, Egypt and India.

(4) From here arose some of the most notable classical

philosophers, such as Socrates (469 BC–399 BC), Plato (428 BC–

348 BC) and Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC). Socrates was put on trial

and sentenced to death for "corrupting the youth" of Athens, as his

discussions conflicted with the established religious beliefs of the time.

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(5) Plato was a classical Greek philosopher, mathematician,

writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in

Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western

world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle,

Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy

(Platonism) and science.

(6) Greek scientists and academics also flourished under the empire

and contributed a great deal in their respective fields of expertise. One

of the earliest scientists was Thales, who lived in modern day Turkey in

the 6th century BC. He is said to have predicted an eclipse in 585 BC

and argued that everything in the universe was a different form of one

thing i.e. water. Other Greek thinkers preferred four basic elements

(substances), water, earth, fire and air. One of his contemporary,

Pythagoras, was a mathematician, politician and a religious thinker. He

is well known for his theories about geometry, not least his theorem

about right angle triangles. Probably, greatest of the Greek

mathematicians was Archimedes, who lived in the 3rd century BC and

made important discoveries in geometry and calculus. He is supposed

to have said “give me a long enough lever and I can move the world.

b. Alexander the Great

(1) Alexander of Macedon (356 BC-323 BC), popularly known as

Alexander the Great was a Greek king of Macedon. Alexander was

tutored by the famed philosopher Aristotle. He succeeded his

assassinated father to the throne in 336 BC and died thirteen years

later at the age of only 32 years. Although both Alexander's reign and

empire were short-lived, the cultural impact of his conquests lasted for

centuries. Alexander was known to be undefeated in battle and is

considered one of the most successful commanders of all the time. He

is one of the most famous figures of antiquity, and is remembered for

his tactical ability, his conquests, and for spreading Greek culture into

the East (marking the beginning of Hellenistic civilization). He created

one of the largest empires in ancient history.

(2) King Philip (Alexander’s father) had already brought most of the

city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony, using

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both military and diplomatic means. Upon Philip's death, Alexander

inherited a strong kingdom along with an experienced army. He went

on to execute the expansion plans, unaccomplished by his father.

(3) He invaded Persian-ruled Asia Minor (Turkey), and led a series

of campaigns lasting ten years. Alexander repeatedly defeating the

Persians in battle, marched through Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia,

and Bactria; and in the process he overthrew the Persian King Darius to

conquer the Persian Empire in entirety.

(4) Pursuing his desire to conquer the ends of the world and the

Great Outer Sea, he invaded India, but was eventually forced to turn

back due to the near-mutiny mindset of his troops. During his

campaigns in central Asia, he founded a series of new cities, all

called Alexandria. Egyptian Alexandria is the only one that still exists.

(5) After establishing himself in Persia and central Asia, Alexander

was finally free to turn his attention to the Indian subcontinent.

Alexander invited all the chieftains of Gandhara (Northern Pakistan), to

come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (whose actual name

was Ambhi), ruler of Taxila. His kingdom extended from the Indus River

to the Hydaspes (the Jhelum River), complied, but the chieftains of

some hill clans, refused to submit.

(6) In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a

campaign against these hill clans; the Aspasioi of Kunar Valley,

the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat

and Buner valleys. A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which

Alexander himself was wounded but eventually the Aspasioi lost the

fight. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought bravely and

offered stubborn resistance to Alexander. The fort of Massaga could

only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which

Alexander himself was wounded seriously. Alexander slaughtered the

entire population of Massaga and reduced its buildings to rubbles. A

similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the

Assakenoi. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous

Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close

17

behind their heels and captured the strategic hill-fort after a bloody

fight.

(7) Subsequently, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and

won an epic battle against a local ruler Porus, who ruled a region

in the Punjab, in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC. Alexander was

greatly impressed by Porus for his bravery, and therefore treated him

as a king, making an alliance with him and appointed him as his deputy

in his own kingdom, even adding land he did not own before.

(8) Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, before realizing a series of

planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia.

Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of

Achilles, and features prominently in the history and myth of Greek

and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which

generals, even to this day, compare themselves, and military

academies throughout the world still teach his tactical exploits.

c. Roman Empire

(1) Ancient Roman history includes the recorded Greek history

beginning in about 776 BC (The year of first Olympics). This coincides

roughly with the traditional date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC and

the beginning of the history of Rome. Much of Greek learning was

assimilated by the Roman state, as it expanded outward from Italy,

taking advantage of the inability of his enemies to unite.

(2) The 3rd century BC marked the start of Roman hegemony. First

governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the Roman Republic),

Rome finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC,

under Augustus and his authoritarian successors. In 44 BC, its

leader Julius Caesar was murdered on suspicion of subverting the

Republic, to become dictator. The Roman Empire had its centre in

the Mediterranean Sea, controlling all the countries on its shores.

(3) The empire under Emperor Trajan, during 2nd century, reached

its maximum expansion, including Britain, Romania and parts of

Mesopotamia (Iraq). The empire brought peace, civilization and an

efficient centralized government to the subject territories but in the 3rd

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century a series of civil wars undermined its economic and social

strength.

(4) In the 4th century, the Roman emperors managed to slow down

the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western and an

Eastern part. The Western Roman Empire centered in Ravenna, and

the Eastern Roman Empire (later to be referred to as the Byzantine

Empire) centered in Constantinople. While the Western Empire

severely persecuted Christianity, the Eastern Empire declared an

official end to state-sponsored persecution of Christians, thus setting

the stage for the empire to later become officially Christian in about

380. In addition, the Eastern Empire officially shifted the capital of the

Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek town of Byzantium, which he

renamed Constantinople.

(5) The Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading

armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally fell. Another

significant development of the time was the ingress of Islam in

European circles after 632. The historians argue with regards to the

decline and fall of the Roman Empire that the Romans had become

decadent as they had lost civic virtue. Moreover, adoption of

Christianity, meant belief in a better life after death, and therefore

made people lazy and indifferent to the present. However, many

scholars maintain that rather than a fall, the changes can more

accurately be described as a complex transformation. Several theories

have been evolved as to why the Empire fell, or whether it fell at all.

4. Persian Empires

a. The Achaemenid Empire (550 BC–330 BC), was the largest Persian

Empire by geographical extent in ancient times. Cyrus the Great

conquered Babylon in 539 BC and forged an empire that spanned over three

continents: Asia, Africa and Europe. He was succeeded by King Darius who

expanded the Persian Empire that stretched from Indus valley to the

Mediterranean. At its greatest extent, the empire included the modern

territories of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, parts of Central Asia, Turkey,

Macedonia, much of the Black Sea coastal regions, Iraq, northern Saudi

Arabia, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and all significant population centers of

19

ancient Egypt as far west as Libya. The empire had a centralized, bureaucratic

administration under the emperor and a permanent large army and civil

service, inspiring similar developments in later Persian Empires.

b. The Achaemenid Empire is noted in western history as the foe of

the Greek Empire during the Greco-Persian Wars, for emancipation of

slaves including the Jews from their Babylonian captivity, and for instituting the

usage of official languages throughout its territories. It was King Darius who

first invaded the Greek mainland in 490 BC. However, his successors could

not prevail in the Greco-Persian Wars rendering the empire to grow weaker

and subsequently collapse at the hands of Alexander the Great, in 330 BC.

c. Persian rule was re-established in the region starting from the rise of

Parthian Kings (247 BC - 224 AD). The Sassanid Empire (224 - 651)

succeeded the Parthian Empire and was recognized as one of the two

main powers in Western Asia and Europe, alongside the Roman /

Byzantine Empire, for a period of more than 400 years. The Sassanid

Empire was founded by King Ardasher and lasted until it lost in a series of

invasions from the Muslim armies. During its existence, the Sassanid Empire

encompassed all of today's Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, the Caucasus

(Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Dagestan), southwestern Central Asia,

part of Turkey, certain coastal parts of the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf

area, and areas of southwestern Pakistan. The Sassanid era, during Late

Antiquity, is considered to have been one of Iran's most important and

influential historical periods. It influenced Roman civilization considerably

during the Sassanid period, and both the empires regarded one another as

equals.

d. Zoroastrianism, a religion and philosophy based on the teachings

of priest Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra), gained prevalence during

successive Persian Empires. The theology was founded some time before the

6th century BC in Persia (Iran). In Zoroastrianism, the creator is all good, and

no evil originates from him. Zoroastrianism, in some form or the other, served

as the national or state religion of a significant portion of the Iranian people for

many centuries before it was gradually marginalized by Islam from the 7th

century onwards. The political power of the pre-Islamic Iranian dynasties lent

20

Zoroastrianism immense prestige in ancient times, and some of its leading

doctrines were adopted by other religious systems.

5. Chinese Empires

a. The written history of China can be found as early as the Shang

Dynasty (1700 BC to 1046 BC). Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC to 256 BC)

succeeded the powerful Shang Dynasty but it began to bow to external and

internal pressures. By the start of the 8th century BC, its ability to control its

regional lords subsequently lessened, and the kingdom eventually broke apart

into smaller states.

b. In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang united the various warring kingdoms

and created the first Chinese empire, contemporary of the Roman

Empire. Successive dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic

systems that enabled the Chinese Emperors to directly control vast territories.

From the founding of the multi-ethnic First Empire, China saw itself as the

centre of civilization and a universal empire in terms not fundamentally

different from those of the Romans at their zenith.

c. Confucianism, the teachings of the Chinese philosopher

Confucius (Kung-fu-Tzu or Master Kong, 551–478 BC) developed as an

ethical and philosophical system during these times. It is a complex system of

moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had

tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia. In Confucianism,

human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and

communal endeavor especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. A

main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of

moral perfection for which one should even give up his life, if necessary. The

followers of Confucianism believe in the importance of family life and in

worshiping ancestors.

6. Africa

a. North Africa experienced colonization from Europe and Western Asia in

the early historical period, particularly Greeks and Phoenicians (ancient

civilization developed by the Children of Israel). Phoenicians founded a

number of colonies along the North African coast. Some of these were

founded relatively early. Carthage (Tunisia), was established around 800

BC, that became a major power in the Mediterranean by the 4th century

21

BC. The Carthaginians themselves sent out expeditions to explore and

establish colonies along Africa's Atlantic coast.

b. Under Egyptian Pharaoh Amasis (570-526 BC), a Greek mercantile

colony was established near modern day Alexandria (Egypt). Greeks also

colonized Cyrenaica (Libya) around the same time. Another attempt to

establish a Greek colony near Carthage resulted in the expulsion of the Greek

colonists by the locals.

c. Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) founded Alexandria during his

conquest of Egypt. This became one of the major cities of Hellenistic (zenith of

Greek influence in the ancient world) and Roman times.

d. Carthage encountered and struggled with the Romans. After the third

and final war between them, the Third Punic War (150-146 BC), Rome

completely destroyed Carthage. Julius Caesar and Augustus in the mid and

late 1st century BC established a new Roman colony near the same site

(Tunisia) served as the capital city of the Roman province of Africa. Later in

the 5th century, the colony fell to the Byzantine Empire. Whole of the Roman /

Byzantine North Africa eventually fell to the Arabs in the 7th century, who

brought Islam and Arabic language with them.

7. Indian Subcontinent

a. Since about 1500 BC to 500 BC, Indian Subcontinent witnessed the

Vedic period, characterized by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the

texts of Vedas (Vedic Sanskrit), sacred to Hindus. The Vedas are some of

the oldest extant texts, next to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Vedic

period laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early

Indian society. The Aryans established Vedic civilization all over North India,

and increasingly so in the Gangetic Plain. The Vedic Period also established

republics which existed as early as the 6th century BC and persisted in some

areas until the 4th century AD. The later part of this period corresponds with an

increasing movement away from the prevalent tribal system towards

establishment of kingdoms. During this period, a number of small kingdoms or

city states had covered the subcontinent. Sixteen monarchies and 'republics'

known as the Mahajanapadas, stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from

modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of

22

the second major urbanization in India after the Indus Valley Civilization. The

swastika remained a major Hindu iconography.

b. It is believed that in 537 BC, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the

state of "enlightenment", and became known as the 'Buddha'. Around

the same time, Mahavira propagated a similar theology that was to later

become Jainism.

c. Much of the northwestern subcontinent (present day Eastern

Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid

Empire in 520 BC, during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for

two centuries thereafter. In 326 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Asia

Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the

Indian subcontinent. Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as

Pahlavas) came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern

Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers in the Gandhara region. The

Sassanid Empire of Persia, who was contemporary of the Guptas, expanded

into the regions of present-day Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian and

Persian cultures gave birth to the Indo-Sassanid culture.

d. The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on

Indian civilization. The political system of the Persians was to influence future

forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the

Mauryan dynasty. In addition, Gandhara Region, or present-day eastern

Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian,

Persian, Central Asian and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid

culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century and

influenced the artistic development of Buddhism. Roman trade with India

started around 1 AD following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of

Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the West.

e. The Mauryan Empire (322 BC to 185 BC), ruled by the Mauryan

dynasty, was geographically extensive, powerful, and a political military

empire in Ancient India. The great Mauryan Empire was established by

Chandragupta Maurya and was flourished by Ashoka the Great. At its greatest

extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the

Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it

23

reached beyond today’s Pakistan, annexing Baluchistan and much of what is

now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces.

f. Ashoka propagated Buddhism across the world and established many

Buddhist monuments. Chandragupta's minister Chanakya authored his

famous Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises on economics,

politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion,

produced in Asia.

g. The period when much of the Indian Subcontinent was reunited under

the Gupta Empire (320 AD to 550 AD), was period of peace and prosperity

that enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India. This

period is called the Golden Age of India and was marked by extensive

achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic,

literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that

crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.

The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in

India during this period. The high points of this cultural creativity are

magnificent architectures, sculptures and paintings. Science and political

administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties

also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a

base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka,

Malay Archipelago and Indochina.

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PART - 3

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY (6 TH TO 15 TH CENTURY)

1. This was the time, world witnessed the rise of a great religion, Islam, as the

divine message for all times. The religion not only found a popular approval in large

parts of the world, but also laid a significant impact on the history of the world that

followed. Expansion of the Muslim Empire during late 6 th century, and Muslims’

unparalleled rule for about one millennium left deep imprints in shaping the future

world. Islamic virtues spread across the globe and attracted rest of the world to the

centers of learning and civilization, developed in the Muslim world. Trade prospered

under the Muslim Empire due to their control over all the prevalent land and sea

routes and due to the fact that Letter of Credit signed by the Muslim governors in

Western Africa was also honored by their colleagues serving in Indochina. Expansion

of the empire therefore, not only caused stir in Christian world giving rise to Crusades

for the control of sacred land, but also agitated the Europeans to explore new trade

routes resulting in famous voyages of Christopher Columbus and Vasco Da Gama in

late 15th century.

2. Muslim World

a. Advent of Islam . Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h) was born in 570 and

was granted prophet-hood in 610. He preached Islam for twenty three years

during which he along with his companions had to migrate from Makkah to

Medina, encountered with the non believers of Makkah at several occasions

and made an epoch making peace deal (Sulah Hudebiya) with them. Makkah

was finally conquered by the Muslims in the year 630. Though, Prophet

Muhammad (p.b.u.h) died in 632 but the following centuries witnessed great

expansion of the Muslim Empire from western coasts of Africa to Indochina in

east and from southwestern Europe and Central Asia in north to southern

edge of Africa. Muslim expansion took place initially at the hands of Rashidun

Caliphate, and later under Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasside Caliphate and

Ottoman Empire. Fatimid Caliphate of Cairo / Tunisia, Safavid Caliphate of

Azerbaijan / Iran and Mughal Empire of India also mark the rise of Islam

across the world. Biggest disaster in the history of Muslim Empires came from

25

Mongols, with sacking and destruction of Baghdad in 1258. Later, split Muslim

Empires emerged in various parts of the world until the fall of the last one, the

Ottoman Empire, in the early 20th century.

b. Rashidun Caliphate (632 - 661)

(1) After the death of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) in 632, Muslims

debated which of them should succeed the Prophet in running the

affairs of the Muslims. Hazrat Omar Bin Khattab (r.a) and Hazrat Abu

Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (r.a) pledged their loyalty to Hazrat Abu Bakr

(r.a), with the Ansar and Quraish soon following suit. Hazrat Abu Bakr

(r.a) thus became the first Caliph (Khalifa-tul-Rasul-Allah), and

embarked on consolidation of newly established Islamic dominion and

the campaigns to deliver the Message of Allah (s.w.t). Caliph Abu Bakr

(r.a) was not a monarch and never claimed such a title nor did his three

successors do so. They lived in a humble house, milked sheep and

goats and roamed in public without any guards and rested sitting

beneath a tree when tired. Later, Umayyad and Abbasids also did not

claim such a title but treated themselves as one.

(2) Shia Islam took its roots from this occurrence as they

considered that Hazrat Ali Bin Abi Talib (r.a) was the rightful

successor of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h), and therefore doubt the

legitimacy of the first three caliphs. However, Hazrat Ali (r.a) himself

accepted the caliphate of all three of his predecessors, despite some

initial reservations, and stayed with all of them as a respected

companion until he was nominated as the 4th Caliph of Islam. Shia and

Sunni Muslims also differ with regards to the traditions (Sunnah) of the

Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h); Shia Muslims exclusively use sermons

attributed to Hazrat Ali (r.a), in contrast to the Sunni Muslims where the

Sunnah is largely narrated by companions of the Prophet Mohammad

(p.b.u.h). Ithna Ashari (Twelvers) is the largest branch of Shia Islam

who believe in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as the Twelve

Imams, Hazrat Ali (r.a) being the first, and that the Hazrat Mahdi will be

none other than the returned Twelfth Imam that disappeared and is

believed to be in occultation. Smaller branches of Shia Islam include

the Ismaili and Zaidi.

26

(3) The foremost challenge confronting Caliph Abu Bakr (r.a)

was to harness the rebellion within Arab tribes. Apostasy had

become general and some tribes withheld the zakat, though they did

not otherwise challenge Islam. False prophet-hood claims, after the

death of the Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h), was yet another front to

handle. Caliph Abu Bakr (r.a) declared war on all these rebels. The

Campaign against apostasy and false prophet Musaylima was fought

against and accomplished within one year after the death of the

Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h). Hazrat Khalid bin Walid (r.a) was the

main punch of the Muslims in this drive.

(4) Once the rebellions had been put down, and Arabia was united

under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina, Caliph Abu Bakr

(r.a) began a war of conquest. He set in motion a historical

trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the

largest empires in history. Caliph Abu Bakr (r.a) maintained his

caliphate from 632 to 634. He desired Omar to be his successor, for

which he persuaded the most powerful of the followers of the Prophet

Muhammad (p.b.u.h) to go along.

(5) Caliph Omar (r.a) was gifted with innate qualities both

militarily and politically; He was one of the great political geniuses

of history. While the empire was expanding at a mind-numbing rate

beneath his leadership, he also began to build the foundations for a

political structure that would hold it together. Caliph Omar (r.a) did not

require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam nor did he

try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations

to retain their religion, language, customs, and government relatively

untouched. The only intrusion would be a governor (Ameer) and a

financial officer called an Amil. Caliph Omar's (r.a) most far-reaching

innovations were in the area of building a financial structure for the

empire. To this end, he built an efficient system of taxation and brought

the military directly under the financial control of the state. He also

founded the Diwan, a unique Islamic institution, which consisted of

individuals that were important to the Islamic faith and the Islamic

world, such as the companions of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h). Their

27

contribution to the faith was so great that they were given pensions on

which to live, which freed them up to pursue religious and ethical

studies so as to provide spiritual leadership to the rest of the Islamic

world. Among his most lasting traditions was the establishment of the

Muslim calendar, beginning from the year in which Prophet Muhammad

(p.b.u.h) immigrated to Medina.

(6) Caliph Omar (r.a) was mortally wounded in an assassination

attempt by the Persian slave Abu Lulu Fieroz, during morning prayers

in 644. Before he died, Omar appointed a committee of six men to

decide on the next caliph. The committee narrowed down the choices

to Hazrat Othman (r.a) and Hazrat Ali (r.a). The choice was hard but

ultimately Hazrat Othman (r.a) was selected as the third Caliph.

(7) Caliph Othman (r.a) reigned for twelve years as caliph, during

the first half of his reign he enjoyed a position of the most popular

caliph among all the Rashiduns, while in the later half of his reign he

met increasing opposition. Unrest grew steadily and precipitously. In

656, rebels entered Medina, and a riot broke out there. The rebels then

laid siege to Caliph Othman's (r.a) house. The Caliph refused to initiate

any military action to avoid civil war between Muslims, and preferred

negotiations. Polite attitude of Caliph Othman (r.a) towards the

rebels emboldened them and they broke into his house and killed

him while he was reciting the Holy Qur'an.

(8) After the assassination of Caliph Othman (r.a) in 656, the

Companions of the Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) in Medina

selected Hazrat Ali (r.a) to be the fourth Caliph. Soon thereafter,

Caliph Ali dismissed several provincial governors and transferred his

capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq.

(9) Following the assassination of Caliph Othman (r.a), the first

Muslim civil war started, which continued during the brief

caliphate of Hazrat Ali (r.a). This civil war is often called “Fitna”,

and marked as the end of the early unity of the Islamic Ummah.

Demand for revenge of the blood of Caliph Othman grew, and a large

army of the Muslims led by eminent companions of the Prophet

Mohammad (p.b.u.h), Hazrat Zubayr (r.a) and Hazrat Talha (r.a), and

28

the widow of the Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h), Hazrat Ayesha (r.a) set

for revenge from the rebels. Two armies battled near Basra (Iraq).

Though neither Caliph Ali (r.a) nor the leaders of the opposing army

wanted to fight, a fight broke out suddenly at night between two armies.

Sunni Muslim traditions maintain that the rebels, who were involved in

the assassination of Caliph Othman (r.a), triggered the combat as they

were afraid of the consequences, in case the negotiations were

successful. The battle thus fought was the first battle between

Muslims and is known as the Battle of the Camel. After the

Caliphate had won and the dispute was settled, Caliph Ali (r.a)

sent his son Hazrat Hassan (r.a) to escort Hazrat Ayesha (r.a) back

to Medina. Hazrat Talha (r.a) and Zubayr (r.a) were killed in the battle

when they withdrew from the battlefield refusing to fight against

Muslims.

(10) Following this dark episode of Islamic history, another cry for

revenge for the blood of Caliph Othman (r.a) arose. This time it was by

Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah, kinsmen of Caliph Othman (r.a) and governor

of province of Syria. Some of the historians even regard this move as

an attempt of assuming the caliphate by Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah than

to take revenge for the murder. Caliph Ali (r.a) fought against Hazrat

Ameer Muawiyah at the Battle of Siffin to a stalemate and then lost

a controversial arbitration that confronted him with his own

mutinous soldiers (the first Kharijites).

(11) Caliph Ali (r.a) was assassinated in the Mosque of Kufa in

661, by a relative of one of the rebel soldiers who was defeated

and then killed by Caliph Ali (r.a). His last words were "The Lord of

the Ka'bah, I have succeeded”. His son Hazrat Hassan (r.a), the

grandson of the Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h), briefly assumed the

caliphate, but soon realized that he could not prevail. He came to an

agreement with Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah, of which various accounts

are given. Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah assumed control of the empire

and founded the Umayyad Dynasty, with it the Rashidun Caliphate

dismantled in 661.

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(12) Military Expansion Under Rashidun Caliphate

(a) Rashidun Caliphate was the time of great military

expansion and with that the expansion of the faith. Muslim army

maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess,

organization along with motivation and self initiative of the officer

corps. For much of its history this army was one of the most

powerful and effective military forces in all of region. The rule of

caliphate expanded gradually and within a time span of 24 years

of conquest a vast territory was occupied by the Muslims.

(b) Caliph Abu Bakr (r.a) sent his most brilliant general

Hazrat Khalid ibn Walid to conquer Iraq, the richest province of

Persian Empire in 633. After completing the conquest of Iraq, he

was transferred to the Syrian front in 634 for a decisive operation

there.

(c) Caliph Omar (r.a) pressed into the Sassanid Persian

Empire itself, but he also headed north into Syria and Byzantine

territory and west into Egypt. These were some of the most

powerful states of the time. Muslim armies easily prevailed in

war. Jerusalem was seized in 637 and by 640, the conquest had

brought all of Iraq, Syria and Palestine under the control of

Rashidun Caliphate. Egypt was conquered by 642 and the entire

Persian Empire by 643. Arab trade with sub-Saharan Africa led

to a gradual spread into Africa that led to a small number of

West African cities developing Arab quarters.

(d) Despite internal troubles, Caliph Othman (r.a) continued

the wars of conquest so brilliantly carried out by his predecessor.

The Rashidun army conquered North Africa from the Byzantines

and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the

Iberian peninsula, as well as the islands of Rhodes, Sicily and

Cyprus. Its eastern frontiers reaching the lower Indus river in the

Indian subcontinent and western frontiers reaching up to the

Atlantic Ocean, the caliphate controlled the Middle East, North

Africa, Transoxiana (Central Asia), the Caucasus (Chechnya),

most of Anatolia (Turkey), the whole of the Sassanid Persian

30

Empire, the Greater Khorasan (the region now shared by

Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan), number of islands in

Mediterranean Sea and Baluchistan.

(e) During the civil war under Caliph Ali (r.a), large sections of

the new empire created during the conquests of 24 years (632-

656) were lost. Sicily, North Africa, coastal areas of Spain and

some forts in Anatolia were lost to the Byzantine Empire, which

to some extent allowed the empire to recover.

(13) Legacy of Rashidun Caliphate

(a) Rashidun Caliphate offered a true manifestation of Islamic

rule. With regards to political administration, Dar al-Islamiyyah

(The abode of Islam) was already laid down in the days of the

Prophet. Caliph Abu Bakr (r.a) stated in his sermon when he was

elected "If I order any thing that would go against the order

of Allah (s.w.t) and his Messenger (P.B.U.H); then do not

obey me". This is considered to be the foundation stone of the

caliphate.

(b) Most significant characteristic of the Rashidun

Caliphate was just treatment of the non-Muslims. The non-

Muslims were given entire freedom to follow their own religions

and there has been no mention in history about forced

conversions to Islam. Caliph Omar (r.a) was the first caliph to

provide allowance to non-Muslims after they reached old age.

The very first non-Muslim to receive pension from the

Rashidun Administration was a Jew. This is how non-Muslims

were being given relief from Jizya, though Jizya was not

abolished. Caliph Omar (r.a), with brilliant and dazzling

administrative qualities, could establish the most of the

administrative structure of the empire. Twelve provinces and

over 100 districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were

administered by a Governor or Wali, who was in most cases the

Commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province.

General instructions from Caliph Omar (r.a) to his officers were:

"Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and

31

tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead,

so that the people may follow your example. Give the

Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become

abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the

error of conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces,

lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And

do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is

tyranny over them."

(c) The state was on its way to economic prosperity,

therefore Caliph Omar (r.a) treated the officers very strictly so as

to prevent the possible greed of money that may lead them to

corruption. The principal officers were required to come to

Makkah on the occasion of the Hajj, during which people were

free to present any complaint against them. Caliph Omer (r.a)

also established a department of accountability to

investigation of the complaints against the officers of the

State. Window for impeachment of the ruler was also kept open.

In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Caliph Omar (r.a)

made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff.

(d) In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the

people, an effective system of judicial administration was set up;

hereunder justice was administered according to the

principles of Islam. Caliph Omar (r.a) was the first ruler in

history to separate judiciary from the executive. High

salaries were fixed for the Qazis so that there was no temptation

to bribery. Men of high social status were appointed as Qazis so

that they might not have the temptation to take bribes, or be

influenced by the social position of any body.

(e) Institutes of Majlis-e-Shura (Parliament) for

consultation on decision making and Bait-ul-Maal to deal

with the revenues and all other economical matters of the state

were also established and successfully functioned during the

caliphate. System of allowances was also introduced by Caliph

32

Omar (r.a) for the family of Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h) and

other Muslims according to their merit with reference to Islam.

(f) Caliph Othman's (r.a) greatest and most lasting

achievement was the completion of formal rescension of the

Holy Qur'an. Until that time, the Holy Qur'an was largely an oral

text that was recited by followers who had memorized it. It is this

definitive version which became the central text of Islam and the

bedrock on which all Islamic history would be built.

(g) Caliph Ali (r.a) is respected for his courage, knowledge,

belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to the

Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h), equal treatment of all Muslims

and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies. Moreover,

Caliph Ali (r.a) holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders

which trace their lineage through him to the Prophet Muhammad

(p.b.u.h). Caliph Ali (r.a) retains his stature as an authority on

Quranic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought.

c. Umayyad Dynasty (661 – 750)

(1) According to tradition, the Umayyad family and Prophet

Muhammad (p.b.u.h) both descended from a common ancestor, Abd

Manaf ibn Qusai and they are originally from the city of Makkah.

Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) descended from Abd Manaf via his son

Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from Abd Manaf via a different

son, Abd-Shams, whose son was Umayya. The two families are

therefore considered to be different clans of Quraish Tribe.

(2) While the Umayyads and the Hashimites may have had

bitterness between the two clans before Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h),

the rivalry turned into a severe case of tribal animosity after the Battle

of Badr. The battle saw three top leaders of the Ummayyad clan (Utba

ibn Rabi'ah, Walid ibn Utba and Shaybah) killed by Hashimites, namely

Hazrat Ali (r.a), Hazrat Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib (r.a) and Hazrat

Ubaydah (r.a) in a three-on-three melee. This fueled the opposition of

Abu Sufyan, the grandson of Umayya, to Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h)

and to Islam. However, on the eve of the conquest of Makkah and

impressed by Prophet Mohammad’s (p.b.u.h) show of magnanimity,

33

Abu Sufyan embraced Islam and so did his wife Hind and their son

Muawiyah. The conquest of Makkah while overwhelming for the

Umayyads for the time being, further fueled their hatred towards the

Hashimites; the reflection of which could also be seen in battle between

Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah and Caliph Ali (r.a), another battle between

Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah with Caliph Ali’s (r.a) son Hazrat Hassan (r.a)

and then killing of Hazrat Hussain Ibn Ali (r.a) along with his

companions on the orders of Yazid Ibn Muawiyah at the battle of

Karbala. Shia Muslims hold this tribal rivalry to be one of the main

reasons for the divide.

(3) After the assassination of Caliph Ali (r.a) in 661, Hazrat Ameer

Muawiyah marched to Kufa, where he persuaded a number of Caliph

Ali's (r.a) supporters to acclaim him as caliph instead of Caliph Ali's (r.a)

son, Hazrat Hassan (r.a). Following his elevation as a result of a truce

with Hazrat Hassan (r.a), Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah moved the capital

to Damascus (Syria) which remained the base of Umayyad power

until the end of the dynasty in 750. However, this dynasty became

reborn in Cordoba (Andalus or today's Iberian Peninsula i.e. Portugal

and Spain) in the form of an emirate and then a caliphate, lasting until

early 11th century. Muslim rule in Iberia, however, continued in several

forms until the 16th century.

(4) Following Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah's death in 680, he was

succeeded by his son, Yazid. The hereditary accession of Yazid was

opposed by a number of prominent Muslims, including Hazrat Husain

(r.a), grandson of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) and younger son of

Caliph Ali (r.a). The resulting conflict is known as the Second Fitna

in the history of Islam. While Hazrat Ibn al-Zubayr (r.a) decided to

defend the strongholds of Makkah and Medina, Hazrat Husain (r.a)

decided to travel on to Kufa to rally support. However, on the

instructions of Yazid, a large Umayyad army intercepted and

mercilessly slaughtered Hazrat Husain (r.a), his family members

and companions including women, children and the elderly, at the

Battle of Karbala, in 680. The massacre is mourned by the Shia

Muslims till to date. Following the massacre, Yazid dispatched an army

34

to suppress Hazrat Ibn al-Zubayr (r.a) and his followers in Makkah and

Medina. The Ka’aba was badly damaged during the protracted siege.

However, Umayyad army was unable to conquer Makkah until 692.

Hazrat Ibn al-Zubayr (r.a) embraced martyrdom in the attack.

(5) In 750, the Abbasides overthrew the Umayyads, but were not

completely annihilated. The remnants of the family ultimately made

their way to Spain where they established an independent emirate.

Later, Umayyad rulers established a caliphate at Andalus from Cordoba

as a rival to Baghdad as the legitimate capital of the Islamic Empire.

(6) Legacy of the Umayyad Dynasty

(a) The Umayyad Dynasty was marked both by territorial

expansion and by the administrative and cultural problems that

such expansion created. Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah waged

unceasing war against the Byzantine Empire. During his reign,

Rhodes and Crete were occupied, and several assaults were

launched against Constantinople. Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah also

oversaw military expansion in North Africa and in Central Asia

including the conquest of Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand.

(b) The dynasty continued and successive rulers strengthen

their position across the empire. Abd al-Malik (685-705) is

credited with centralizing the administration of the Umayyad

dynasty, and with establishing Arabic as its official language.

Another major event of the early reign of Abd al-Malik was

the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Al-

Walid succeeded Abd al-Malik; he was also active as a

builder, sponsoring the construction of Masjid al-Nabawi in

Medina and the Great Mosque of Damascus. A major figure

during the reigns of both al-Walid and Abd al-Malik was the

Umayyad governor of Iraq, Hajjaj bin Yusuf (661-714), notorious

for his tough, cruel, draconian or even savage rule. However,

another Umayyad ruler, Omar ibn Abd al-Aziz (717-20), is

commonly recognized by subsequent Islamic tradition as a

genuine caliph and not merely as a worldly king.

35

(c) In the year 710, Muhammad bin Qasim, an Umayyad

general sailed from the khaleej into Sindh and conquered

both the Sindh and the Punjab regions along the Indus

River. The conquest of Sindh and Punjab were major gains for

the Umayyad Dynasty. This also proved to be the introduction of

Islam in mainland Indian subcontinent, though certain Muslim

quarters already existed in the coastal areas, owing to the

influence of Muslim traders.

(d) Despite some notable exceptions, the Umayyads

tended to favor the rights of the old Arab families, and in

particular their own, over those of newly converted

Muslims, who often were better educated and more civilized

than their Arab masters. Traditional feud between Syria and

Iraq further weakened the empire. Modern Arab nationalists

regard the period of the Umayyads as part of the Arab Golden

Age which it sought to emulate and restore. This is particularly

true of Syrian nationalists and the present-day state of Syria,

centered like that of the Umayyads on Damascus.

(e) This was the time of Tabi’in, the generation after the

companions of Prophet Mu h ammad (p.b.u.h). These men of

character and knowledge suffered worst oppression at the hands

of some of the Umayyad Caliphs like Hajjaj bin Yusuf. However,

justice and education began to make a comeback under famous

Umayyad Caliph Omar ibn Abd al-Aziz, during the later years of

the dynasty. Imam Abu Hanifah, (699 - 767) was one of the

most prominent scholar of the time and the founder of the

Sunni Hanafi school of thought. He embarked on a prolific

quest for knowledge that would in due course have a profound

impact on the history of Islam. Imam Abu Hanifah first formulated

the teachings of Islam into Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) for the

generations to come. The Imam studied from some great Muslim

scholars of the time including Hazrat Hammad Bin Abi Suleiman

whose educational linage is linked with Hazrat Abdullah Ibn

36

Masood (r.a), a prominent companion of Prophet Mu h ammad

(p.b.u.h). Among other respected teachers, Imam Abu Hanifah

was also tutored by Imam Baqir and Imam Jafar Sadiq, 5th and

6th Imam of Shia Islams, respectively.

d. Abbasid Dynasty (750 – 1258)

(1) The Abbasid rulers descended from Hazrat Abbas ibn Abd al-

Muttalib (566–662), one of the youngest uncles of Prophet Muhammad

(p.b.u.h), because of which they considered themselves as the true

successor of the prophet as opposed to the Umayyads. The Abbasid

revolt was also supported largely by aggrieved Arabs and non-Arab

Muslims, who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs

and were perceived of as a lower class within the Umayyad Empire.

The Hashimiyya movement (a Shia sub-sect), led by the Abbasid

family, overthrew the Umayyad Dynasty. Kufa fell to the

Hashimiyya in 749 followed by defeat of the Umayyads and fall of

Damascus to the Abbasids by 750.

(2) Immediately after their victory, the Abbasides sent their forces to

North Africa and Central Asia, to halt the expansion of neighboring

dynasties. After the successful battle in Central Asia, many captive

Chinese craftsmen introduced the world's first recorded paper mill in

Baghdad, thus beginning a new era of intellectual rebirth in the Abbasid

domain. Within 10 years, the Abbasids built another renowned paper

mill in erstwhile Umayyad capital of Cordoba (Spain).

(3) The first change the Abbasids made was to move the empire's

capital from Damascus (Syria) to Baghdad (Iraq). This was to both

appease as well to be closer to the Persian support base that existed in

this region. A new position of the vizier was also established to

delegate central authority, and even greater authority was

delegated to local Ameers. Eventually, this meant that many Abbasid

rulers were relegated to a more ceremonial role than under the

Umayyads, as the viziers began to exert greater influence, and the role

of the old Arab aristocracy was slowly replaced by a Persian model.

(4) Once in power, the Abbasids embraced Sunni Islam and

disavowed any support for Shia beliefs. This led to numerous

37

conflicts, culminating in an uprising in Makkah in 786, followed by

widespread bloodshed and the flight of many Shia Muslims to the

province of Maghreb (Morocco), where the survivors established

an independent kingdom. The Abbasids also executed some of the

direct descendants of the Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) who were also

the Shia Imams including Imam Jafar Sadiq. Abbasid Caliph Mamun al-

Rashid (born to a Persian mother) tried to reconcile with the Shia

brethren and named Shia Imam Ali Raza, his successor. However,

Imam Ali Raza died in 818, while accompanying Caliph Mamun in

Persia. Shia scholars argue that he was poisoned by Caliph Mamun,

who never wanted the Imam to outlive him to be his successor.

(5) By the start of the 9th century, former supporters of the Abbasids

started to brake away to create a separate kingdom around Khorasan

(Persia). Caliph Harun al-Rashid turned against Barmakids, a Persian

family that had grown significantly in power within the administration of

the state, and killed most of the family. But the Abbasids continued to

lose control of Iraq to various Ameers. Outside Iraq, all the autonomous

provinces slowly took on the characteristic of de facto states with

hereditary rulers, armies and revenues, and operated under only

nominal dynastic control. The dynasty further weakened with the loss of

the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political

domination by the Iranian Buwayhids (945–1055) and Seljuk Turks

(1055–1135). In 1058, The Ismaili Fatimid dynasty of Cairo contested

the Abbasids for even the titular authority of the Islamic Ummah. The

Abbasids only maintained the presence of authority, mostly confined to

religious matters, under the Mamluks; an army, mostly from Turkish

slaves, created by the Abbasids in order to be loyal only to their

dynasty.

(6) By the mid of 12th century, the Abbasid Dynasty made its come

back to regain the full military independence of the dynasty. After nearly

250 years of subjection to foreign dynasties, they successfully

defended Baghdad against the Seljuks, thus securing Iraq for the

Abbasids. Nevertheless, the Abbasids retained a highly ritualized

court in Baghdad and the city remained one of the cultural and

38

commercial hubs of the Islamic world until 1258, when it was

sacked by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan during the sack and

subsequent destruction of Baghdad. The Abbasside dynasty finally

ended its ceremonial role in 1543.

(7) Legacy of Abbasside Dynasty

(a) In the era of Caliph Harun al-Rashid (786–809) and his

brothers and successors Mamun (813–833) and Mutasim (833–

842), Arab Muslims saw their golden age. They studied

astronomy, alchemy, medicine and mathematics with such

success that, during the 9th and 10th centuries, more scientific

discoveries had been achieved in the Abbasid Empire than in

any previous period of history. During this period the Muslim

world became the unrivaled intellectual center for science,

philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids

championed the cause of knowledge and established the House

of Wisdom in Baghdad; where both Muslim and non-Muslim

scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge

into Arabic. During this period the Muslim World was a cauldron

of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly

advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Roman,

Chinese, Indian, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek and

Byzantine civilizations.

(b) These recovered mathematical methods were later

enhanced and developed much further by other Islamic scholars,

notably by Persian scientists Al-Biruni and Abu Nasr Mansur.

Algebra was also pioneered by Persian Scientist, Muhammad

ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi during this time in his landmark text,

Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala. The terms algorism and algorithm

are also derived from the name of al-Khwarizmi. Ibn al-Haytham

(Alhazen) developed an early scientific method in his Book of

Optics. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics,

especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of

light. The most important development of the scientific method

was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing

39

scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation,

which began among Muslim scientists.

(c) Medicine in medieval Islam was an area of science that

advanced particularly during the Abbasids' reign. During the 9th

century, Baghdad housed over 800 doctors, and great

discoveries in the understanding of anatomy and diseases were

made. The clinical distinction between measles and smallpox

was discovered during this time. Famous Persian scientist Ibn

Sina (known to the west as Avicenna) produced treatises and

works that summarized the vast amount of knowledge that

scientists had accumulated, and is often known as the father of

modern medicine for his encyclopedias. The work of him and

many others directly influenced the research of European

scientists during the Renaissance and even later. Muslim

chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the

foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars regard Muslim

chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, Jabir ibn

Hayyan (Geber) is considered the "father of chemistry".

(d) Astronomy in medieval Islam was advanced by Al-Battani,

who improved the precision of the measurement of the

precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the

geocentric model by Al-Battani, Averroes, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi,

Moayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into

the Copernican heliocentric model.

(e) Philosophy and literature also prospered during this time.

Muslim philosophers’ works on Aristotle was a key step in the

transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Muslim

World and the West. They often corrected the philosopher,

encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of Ijtihad. They also

wrote influential original philosophical works, and their thinking

was incorporated into Christian philosophy during the Middle

Ages. Three speculative thinkers, Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, and

Avicenna, combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with

other ideas introduced through Islam, and Avicennism was

40

later established as the outcome. Other influential Muslim

philosophers include Al-Jahiz, a pioneer in evolutionary thought,

and Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and

the philosophy of science.

(f) Metaphysics so developed from Avicennism, gave rise to

Sufism, defined as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. Hazrat

Junaid Baghdadi (830-910) was one of the great early Muslim

Sufis and is a central figure in the chain of many Sufi orders.

Hazrat Rabia Basri (717–801) was a female Muslim Sufi who is

also known in Sufi orders as Half-Qalander. Mansur Al-Hallaj

(858–922), another Muslim Sufi, was executed after a long

drawn-out investigation against his proclamation of Anal-Haqq (I

am The Truth).

(g) Knowledge of Fiqh and Hadees also flourished during this

time. Abbasid Caliph Mansur offered Imam Abu Hanifah the post

of Chief Judge of the State, but he declined to accept the offer.

Imam Abu Hanifah was imprisoned as a result where he died in

767. It was said that so many people attended his funeral that

the funeral service was repeated six times for more than 50,000

people who had amassed before he was actually buried.

Muslims of Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Central

Asia, the Muslim areas of Southern Russia, the Caucasus, most

of the Muslim areas of the Balkans and Turkey and parts of Iraq,

all follow this school of jurisprudence. It is also the dominant

school of Muslims in the United Kingdom and Germany.

(h) Imam Abu Hanifah was followed by another three Sunni

Imams during the Abbasid Dynasty. Imam Malik (711 - 795), who

was also tutored, among other accomplished teachers, by Imam

Abu Hanifah's eldest student, Imam Muhammad, founded the

Maliki school of thought. The Maliki school of thought has been

adopted by most North African and West African countries like

Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria and others except Egypt, Horn

of Africa and Sudan. Also, the Maliki school of thought is the

state Madhhab of Kuwait, Bahrain and the UAE. Imam Malik was

41

one of the teachers of Imam al-Shafi`i (767 - 820), founder of the

Shafi’i school of thought. Muslims in Indonesia, Lower Egypt,

Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Jordan,

Lebanon, Syria, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Palestine, Yemen and

Kurds in the Kurdish regions follow the Shafi'i school of thought.

Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal (780 - 857), the namesake of the

Hanbali school of thought learned extensively from Imam al-

Shafi'i. This school of jurisprudence is followed predominantly in

the Arabian Peninsula.

(i) On literary side, the most well known fiction from the

Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One

Nights. All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian

Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they

appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights.

Various characters from this epic have themselves become

cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad

and Ali Baba. Story of Romeo and Juliet, is said to have been

inspired by a Latin version of Layla and Majnun.

(j) Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until

the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. There was also

a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along

which Muslim countries traded with each other and with

European powers. The famous Silk Route crossing Central Asia

also passed through Muslim states between China and Europe.

Along with trade, came the Muslim knowledge and skilled

manpower to rest of the world, especially to medieval Europe.

First glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11 th century

by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece.

e. Fatimid Dynasty (909 – 1171)

(1) The Fatimid Caliphate was an Arab Shia Muslim Caliphate

centered in Egypt that ruled over varying areas of the Maghreb (Algeria,

Morocco), Sicily, Malta, Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria and the

Arabian Peninsula from 909 to 1171. The Fatimid rulers established

their legitimacy due to their claimed descent from Prophet Muhammad

42

(p.b.u.h) by way of his daughter Hazrat Fatima (r.a). The Fatimids ruled

from their base in the Tunisian city of Mahdia, before establishing the

Egyptian city of Cairo in 969, which thereafter became their capital.

This constitutes a rare period in history in which some form of the

Shia Imamate and the Caliphate were united to any degree,

excepting the final period of the Rashidun Caliphate under Caliph

Ali (r.a) himself. Fatimid Dynasty was, however, viewed with suspicion

by the orthodox Muslim communities, giving rise to power struggle

among Muslims in Fatimid controlled territories.

(2) The Fatimid Caliphate was reputed to exercise a degree of

religious tolerance towards various sects of Islam as well as towards

Jews and Christians. Religious tolerance was set into place in a way

that other branches of Islam including the Sunnis as well as Christians

and Jews occupied high levels in government posts.

(3) Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that

included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the

Red Sea coast of Africa, Hejaz, and Yemen. Egypt flourished, and the

Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the

Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic

ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which

eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the High

Middle Ages. Famous Al Azhar University was the first university in

the East and perhaps the oldest in history. It was also founded by

the Fatimids and was one of the highest educational facilities of

the time.

(4) In the 1040s, the governors of North Africa under the Fatimids

declared their independence from the Fatimids and their recognition of

the Sunni Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. Subsequently, Fatimid territory

shrank until it consisted only of Egypt. After the decay of the Fatimid

political system in the 1160s, a Seljuk ruler Nur ad-Din Zengi seized

Egypt in 1169. He was succeeded by one of his Kurdish general

Shirkuh, who died two months after taking power, and the rule

went to his nephew, Saladin. This began the Ayyubid Sultanate of

Egypt and Syria. North Africa also changed hands with several Muslim

43

dynasties till the time they were finally consolidated by the Ottoman

Empire in the following centuries.

(5) Ibn Khaldoun (1332–1406) was a North African polymath -

an astronomer, economist, historian, Islamic jurist, Islamic lawyer,

Islamic scholar, Islamic theologian, hafiz, mathematician, military

strategist, nutritionist, philosopher, social scientist and statesman. He is

considered a forerunner of several social scientific disciplines e.g.

demography, cultural history, historiography, the philosophy of history,

and sociology. He is also considered one of the forerunners of modern

economics, alongside the earlier Indian scholar Chanakya. Ibn Khaldun

is considered by many to be the father of a number of these disciplines,

and of social sciences in general, for anticipating many elements of

these disciplines centuries before they were founded in the West.

f. Establishment of the Ottoman Empire (1299 – 1922)

(1) By 1300, Anatolia (Turkey) was divided into a patchwork of

independent states, the so-called Ghazi emirates. One of the Ghazi

emirates in western Anatolia was led by Ameer Othman (from which the

name Ottoman is derived). In 1299, Othman extended the frontiers

of Ottoman settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire.

He moved the Ottoman capital to Bursa, and shaped the early

political development of the nation. In this period, a formal Ottoman

government was created whose institutions would change drastically

over the life of the empire. The government used the legal entity known

as the millet, under which religious and ethnic minorities were allowed

to manage their own affairs with substantial independence from central

control.

(2) Following centuries witnessed Ottoman’s rule extending over the

Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. The Turkish victory at the

Battle of Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian

power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into

Europe. The Ottoman invasions into Europe, widely regarded as the

last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance

of the victorious Ottomans. With the extension of Turkish dominion into

the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial

44

objective. The Empire controlled nearly all former Byzantine lands

surrounding the city, but the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when

Tamerlane invaded Anatolia in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. Part of the

Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Macedonia and Kosovo)

were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered between the

1430s and 1450s.

(3) Mohammad the Conqueror (Sultan Mohammad Fateh),

reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his

martial prowess by capturing Constantinople in 1453, at the age of

only 21. He made the city the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, and

assumed the title of Kayser-i Rum. He wanted to gain control over the

Western capital, Rome. Ottoman forces occupied parts of the Italian

peninsula and started with further invasions in 1480 but the campaign

in Italy was cancelled and Ottoman forces retreated after his death in

1481. However, the empire emerged as a preeminent power in

southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Besides, the

Ottoman Empire took control of the Muslim world and became a great

empire of the time till its breakup in the aftermath of the World War-I.

3. Europe

a. Middle Age . The Middle Ages in Europe are commonly dated from the

fall of the Western Roman Empire in 5th century to the beginning of the Early

Modern Period in 16th century, marked by the rise of nation-states, the division

of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian

Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which

allowed for the Columbian Exchange. The Middle Age witnessed the first

sustained urbanization of northern and western Europe. Many modern

European states owe their origins to events unfolding in the Middle Age.

Present European political boundaries are, in many regards, the result of the

military and dynastic achievements during this tumultuous period.

b. Early Middle Age ( 500 - 1000) . The Holy Roman Empire emerged

around 800. The empire based in modern France, the Low Countries and

Germany expanded into modern Hungary, Italy, Bohemia, Lower Saxony and

Spain. To the east, Bulgaria was established in 681 and became the first

Slavic country. In the 10th century, independent kingdoms were established in

45

Central Europe. The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further

growth of feudalism, which weakened the Holy Roman Empire. During this

period, most of Europe was Christianized, and the "Dark Ages" following

the fall of Rome took place. Meanwhile, the Byzantine Empire's borders

were also shrinking in the face of Islamic expansion and powerful

Bulgarian Empire. Europe remained a backwater compared to the rising

Muslim world with its vast network of caravan trade, or India with its Golden

Period under the Gupta Empire, and world's most populous empire under the

Song Dynasty or Pratiharas China. London and Paris were small cities while

the Muslim world had over a dozen major cities stretching from Cordoba to

central Asia, with Spain being the world's largest city. It is estimated that in the

years 541–542, the Plague killed as many as 100 million people across the

world, causing Europe's population to drop by half between 541 and 700.

c. High Middle Age (1000 – 1300) . The slumber of the Dark Ages was

shaken by renewed crisis in the Church, an insoluble split, between the two

remaining Christian seats in Rome and Constantinople. It is remembered in

history as Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and Western

Roman Catholic Church. The 11th, 12th and 13th centuries show a rapidly

increasing population of Europe, which caused great social and political

change from the preceding era. By 1250, the robust population increase

greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some

areas until the 19th century. From about the year 1000 onwards, Western

Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more politically

organized. William the Conqueror, a Duke of Normandy invaded England

in 1066 and created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe and

engendered a sophisticated governmental system. Being based on an

island, moreover, England was to develop a powerful navy and trade

relationships that would come to constitute a vast part of the world including

India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and many key naval strategic points

like Bermuda, Suez, Hong Kong and especially Gibraltar. These strategic

advantages grew and were to prove decisive in the times to come. The High

Middle Age also witnessed the rise of modern nation-states in Europe

with Christianity adopted by newly created kingdoms. The Roman

Catholic Church developed as a major power, leading to conflicts

46

between the Pope and Emperor. The Church also called armies from

across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuk Turks, who had

occupied the Holy Land.

d. Last Middle Age (1300 – 1500) . Centuries of European prosperity and

growth came to a halt in around 1300. A series of famines and plagues

reduced the population by as much as half according to some estimates.

Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. France and

England experienced serious peasant risings. To add to the many problems of

the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Great

Schism. Collectively these events are sometimes called the Crisis of the Late

Middle Age. The growth of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the fall of

Constantinople in 1453, severed trading possibilities with the east. Europeans

were forced to discover new trading routes, as happened with Columbus’s

travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama’s circumnavigation of

India and Africa in 1498. During the 14th century, the Baltic Sea became one of

the most important trade routes giving rise to prosperous Eastern European

states.

e. Crusades

(1) The Holy Land of Jerusalem is significant for the Muslims,

Christians and Jews alike. The Muslim presence in the Holy Land

began with the initial Muslim conquest of Syria in the 7th century under

the Rashidun Caliphs. The Muslim armies' successes put increasing

pressure on the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire which had

originally claimed the region. However, western attitude changed

towards the holy land in the year 1009, when the Fatimid Caliph Al-

Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy

Sepulcher. Though, his successor, permitted the Byzantine Empire to

rebuild the Church in 1039, but damage was already done.

(2) The origins of the Crusades lie in developments in Western

Europe earlier in the Middle Age, as well as the deteriorating situation

of the Byzantine Empire in the east caused by a new wave of Turkish

Muslim attacks. Recovering from the Dark Ages of 700-1000,

throughout the 11th century Western Europe continued to push the

boundaries of its civilization. Moreover, Christianization of the erstwhile

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invaders had produced a large class of armed warriors, whose energies

were misplaced, fighting one another. The Church tried to stem this

violence, which was somewhat successful. But trained warriors

always sought an outlet for their skills.

(3) In 1063, Pope had given his blessing to Iberian Christians in

their wars against the Muslims. Subsequently, Pope honored the calls

for help from the Byzantine Emperors, threatened by the Seljuks. Long

history of losing territories to a religious enemy created a powerful

motive to respond to the Byzantine Emperors’ call for holy war to

defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands starting with

Jerusalem. One of the Byzantine Emperors is reported to have

even sent an envoy to Chinese Song Dynasty, late in the 11th

century, asking for Chinese aid in the fight against the Muslims.

(4) A crusader would, after pronouncing a solemn vow, receive a

cross from the hands of the Pope, and was thenceforth considered a

"soldier of the Church". There was an awakening of intense

Christian piety and public interest in religious affairs, and was

further strengthened by religious propaganda, which advocated

Just War in order to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims. Most

believed that by retaking Jerusalem they would go straight to

heaven after death.

(5) A traditional numbering scheme for the crusades totals nine

during the 11th to 13th centuries. This division is however arbitrary and

excludes many important expeditions from 14th to 17th centuries and

further in the Mediterranean Sea around Malta until their defeat by

Napoleon in 1798.

(a) First Crusade (1095 – 1099) . Call for the crusaders

was made in 1095 and in early 1096, the official crusader armies

set off from France and Italy. The armies besieged and cleared

the Muslim strongholds en-route followed by massacre of the

Muslim inhabitants, destruction of mosques and looting of

the cities. The starving and badly depleted crusader army

marched southward, reaching the walls of Jerusalem in 1099.

The Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem

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against the invading Franks. They remained unsuccessful

and the crusaders entered the city. After gaining control of

Jerusalem the Crusaders created four Crusader States in the

occupied cities. Initially, Muslims did very little about the

Crusader states due to internal conflicts. They could however,

withstand another wave of the Crusaders in 1101. Eventually,

the Muslims began to reunite under the leadership of Imad

al-Din Zangi. He began by re-taking one of the Crusader

States in 1144. This led the Pope to call for a second

Crusade.

(b) Second Crusade (1147 – 1149) . The Crusaders

marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed to win any major

victories. Christian army launched a failed pre-emptive siege of

Damascus, an independent city that would soon fall into the

hands of Nur ad-Din Zangi, the main enemy of the Crusaders.

(c) Rise of Saladin . Saladin laid the foundation of the

Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt and Syria in 1169. Towards the end

of 1169, Saladin defeated a massive Crusader-Byzantine force.

After establishing himself in Egypt, Saladin launched a campaign

against the Crusaders. He captured Gaza, built a fleet to attack

Beirut in 1182 and twice besieged Raynald's fortress after he

threatened to attack the Muslim holy cities and reportedly

insulted Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) before murdering and

torturing a captured Muslim caravan. In 1187 Saladin captured

the Kingdom of Jerusalem after nearly a century under

Christian rule. Upon the capture of Jerusalem, Saladin

summoned the Jews and permitted them to resettle in the

city. Saladin captured Raynald and executed him personally. He

spared the civilians and for the most part left churches and

shrines untouched. Saladin is remembered respectfully in

both European and Islamic sources as a man who always

stuck to his promise and was loyal.

(d) Third Crusade (1187 – 1192) . The reports of Saladin's

victories and fall of Jerusalem shocked Europe, prompting the

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Third Crusade which was financed in England by (Richard the

Lionhearted). Before his arrival in the Holy Land, Richard

captured the island of Cyprus from the Byzantines in 1191.

Cyprus would serve as a Crusader base for centuries to

come, and would remain in Western European hands until the

Ottoman Empire conquered the island in 1571. Richard the

Lionhearted defeated the Muslim armies at number of fronts

but when they reached very close to Jerusalem, Richard thought

he would not be able to hold Jerusalem, if captured, as the

majority of Crusaders would then return to Europe. Richard left

the following year after negotiating a treaty with Saladin.

(e) Fourth Crusade (1202 – 1204) . The Fourth Crusade was

initiated in 1202 with the intention of invading the Holy Land

through Egypt. The Crusader army was however, redirected to

Constantinople, where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile

on the throne. The Crusaders sacked the city in 1204 and

established the so-called Latin Empire. Series of Crusader states

were also established in the territories of the Greek Byzantine

Empire. This is often seen as the final breaking point of the

Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and

(Western) Roman Catholic Church. In 1212, Pope incited

children to replace their unworthy elders. Thousands of children

from France and Germany marched towards the Holy Land but

none of them actually reached there.

(f) Fifth Crusade (1217 – 1221) . By processions, prayers,

and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade

afoot, and formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. In

the first phase, a crusading force from Austria and Hungary

linked up to take back Jerusalem. In the second phase, crusader

progressed towards Egypt and launched a foolhardy attack on

Cairo in 1221. A night-time attack by the ruler of Egypt, the

powerful Ayyubid Sultan Al-Kamil, resulted in a great number of

crusader losses and eventually in the surrender of the Christian

army. During 1219, Saint Francis of Assisi crossed the battle

50

lines, in order to speak to Al-Kamil. Sultan was impressed by

Francis and was given safe passage. Although he was offered

many gifts, all he accepted was a horn for calling the faithful to

prayer. This act eventually led to the establishment of the

Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land. Al-Kamil agreed to an

eight-year peace agreement with Europe.

(g) Sixth Crusade (1228 – 1229) . Emperor Frederick of the

Holy Roman Empire had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed

to live up to his words. He nonetheless achieved unexpected

success through diplomacy. In 1229, after failing to conquer

Egypt, Frederick made a peace treaty with Al-Kamil, the ruler of

Egypt. This treaty allowed Christians to rule over most of

Jerusalem, while the Muslims were given control of the

Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa mosque. Many of the

Muslims though were not happy with Al-Kamil for giving up

control of Jerusalem and in 1244, the Muslims regained

control of the city.

(h) Seventh Crusade (1248 – 1254) . Capture of Jerusalem

provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as against the fall of

Jerusalem in 1187. There was however, a pressing requirement

for securing Western European control of the Red Sea trade

region, which was not possible without neutralizing the power

base of Egypt. Another crusade was organized against Egypt

from 1248 to 1254, which proved to be a complete failure. In

later years, faced with the threat of the Egyptian Mamluks, the

Crusaders' hopes rested with a Franco-Mongol alliance as

Mongols were thought to be sympathetic to Christianity.

Although the Mongols successfully attacked as far south as

Damascus on these campaigns, the ability to effectively

coordinate with Crusaders from the west was repeatedly

frustrated during 1260.

(i) Eighth Crusade (1270) . The eighth Crusade was

organized in 1270. Battle plan of seventh Crusade was repeated

with no change with regards to its end.

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(j) Ninth Crusade (1271 – 1272) . King Edward of England

undertook another expedition against the Muslim army in 1271.

The Ninth Crusade was deemed a failure, too and ended the

Crusades in the Middle East. The Mamluks eventually made

good their pledge to cleanse the entire Middle East of the

Franks. With a string of victories, last traces of Christian rule in

the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean Region) disappeared by

the end of 13th century.

(k) Aftermath of Crusades . Spirit of crusades was

optimized by the Pope to battle Mongols and Ottoman Empire,

but to no gain. Critiques argue that the Crusades were not

effective because, the Holy War was nothing more than a

long act of intolerance in the name of God. However, the

Crusades had an enormous influence on the European Middle

Ages. Initially, much of the continent was united under a

powerful Papacy, but by the 14th century, the development of

centralized bureaucracies (the foundation of the modern nation-

state) was well on its way. Although Europe had been exposed

to Islamic culture for centuries through contacts in Spain and

Sicily, much knowledge in areas such as science, medicine,

and architecture was transferred from the Islamic to the

western world during the crusade era. Arab advances made

their way west and sped the course of advancement in European

universities that led to the Renaissance in later centuries. In

addition, the Crusades are seen as having opened up

European culture to the world, especially Asia. The need to

raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of

trade throughout Europe and later re-establishing traffic between

the East and West. This also aided in the beginning of the

Renaissance in Italy, as various Italian city-states from the very

beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the

crusader states. Later, these routes were once again dominated

by the Muslim empire during 14th and 15th century.

52

4. Indian Subcontinent . This was the period of Muslim rule in India.

Sporadic princely Hindu states existed during this time but no significant part was

played by the Hindus during this time. Most of Hindu dominions declined with the

rising Muslim Sultanate, except for Marathas who were subsequently sorted out by

Ahmed Shah Abdali in third Battle of Panipat.

a. Hindu Kingdoms - The Classical Age . The Classical Age in India

began with the Guptas and the resurgence of the north during Harsha's

conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of the Vijayanagar

Empire (South India) in the 13th century. This period produced some of India's

finest art. It is also considered the epitome of classical development including

the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which

continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. After the collapse of the

Gupta dynasty, King Harsha succeeded in reuniting northern India during his

reign in the 7th century. Harsha kingdom also collapsed after his death. Later,

a series of Rajput kingdoms managed to survive in some form for almost a

millennium until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded

Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century. Prithvi Raj Chauhan

was known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Islamic Sultanates. The

Chola Empire at its peak covered much of the Indian Subcontinent, parts of

the Sri Lanka, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Southeast Asia. The

Kabul Shahi Dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan,

and Kashmir from the mid 7th century to the early 11th century. By 1343, all

these dynasties had ceased to exist, giving rise to the Vijayanagar Empire.

The ports of South India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, with the

Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. The Hindu

Vijayanagar Dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rulers of South India

(Deccan) and was eventually declined due to pressure from the Delhi

Sultanates who had managed to establish themselves in the north by that

time.

b. Advent of Islam in Indian Subcontinent

(1) Rashidun Caliphate . Participation of armies from Sindh

fighting alongside the Persians in battles against the Muslim armies,

pirate raids on Arab shipping and power flux in Punjab and Sindh

exerted a pull on the Muslim armies to gain a foothold in the area.

53

During Rashidun Caliphate, significant conquests were made in

north western and south western subcontinent (now Pakistan), as

an extension of Islamic conquest of Persia in 643. Islamic forces first

entered Sind and Baluchistan during the reign of Caliph Omar (r.a) in

644, when the Muslim army defeated a Hindu king, along the western

banks of Indus River. This was the time Caliph Omar (r.a) went on

consolidating his already overstretched rule before conquering more

land. Muslim conquests across Oxus River in Central Asia and North

Africa were also ceased for the time being. The whole of what is now

Baluchistan province of Pakistan was under the rule of Rashidun

Caliphate except for the well defended mountain town of QaiQan (now

Kalat), which was conquered during Caliph Ali’s (r.a) reign. The region

saw many revolts followed by a recapture by locals. Muslim forces

ultimately re-gained the control of the area during the Umayyads’ reign

and continued to be the part of Abbasid Empire.

(2) Muhammad bin Qasim . In 711, the Umayyad Caliph in

Damascus sent two punitive expeditions in response to raids carried

out by pirates on Arab shipping, operating around Debal. After the

failure of both the expeditions, another expedition was led by a 17

year old Arab chieftain named Muhammad bin Qasim. Bin Qasim's

armies defeated Raja Dahir at what is now Hyderabad in Sind in

712. The expedition went as far North as Multan, then called the "City

of Gold". He then proceeded to subdue the lands from Karachi to

Multan with an initial force of only six thousand Syrian tribesmen. Soon

he was called back leaving a weak control of his newly established rule

in the region. Ismaili missionaries found a receptive audience among

both the Sunni and non-Muslim populations and in 985, a group around

Multan declared themselves an independent Ismaili Fatimid State.

From this period, the conquered area was divided into two parts:

the Northern region comprising the Punjab remained under the

control of Hindu Rajas, while the Southern coastal areas

comprising of Baluchistan, Sind and Multan came under Muslim

control.

54

(3) Muslim Sufis . Along with the Muslim invaders came some

great Muslim Sufis, contributing a great deal in the spread of Islam in

the Indian Subcontinent. There was a mass conversion to Islam,

especially amongst the Buddhist majority. Some of the prominent Sufis

who influenced the local population were Hazrat Ali Hijveri (90-1070),

Hazrat Khawaja Moin-ud-Din Chishti Ajmeri (1141-1230), Hazrat

Khawaja Bakhtyar Kaki (1173-1235) and Hazrat Baba Farid Gunj

Shakar (1188-1280). Teachings of Ghaus-e-Azam, Hazrat Abdul Qadir

Jilani (1077–1166) also inspired the newly converted Muslims of India.

(4) Mahmud Ghaznavi . Mahmud Ghaznavi ascended the

throne of the Muslim Ghaznavid State (Afghanistan) in 998 and found

itself in conflict with Hindu Rajas. In the early 11th century, Mahmud

launched seventeen expeditions into the Indian sub-continent. In

1001, he reached till Peshawar and, in 1005, made it the center for his

forces. The Ghaznavid conquests were initially directed against the

Ismaili Fatimids in on-going struggle of the Abbasid Caliphate

elsewhere. However, once this aim was accomplished, he turned

against Hindu states. Ghaznavi raided every second year after 1005

and by 1027, had defeated most of Northern India and obtained formal

recognition of Ghazni's sovereignty from the Abbasid Caliphate.

Desecrating and damaging of indigenous temples was also a part of the

conquest by Ghaznavi. Ghaznavid rule in North India lasted over 175

years (1010 to 1187). It was during this period that Lahore assumed

considerable importance apart from being the second capital, and later

the only capital of the Ghaznavid Empire. At the end of his reign,

Mahmud's Empire extended from Kurdistan in the west to Samarkand

in the Northeast, and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna. Although

his raids carried his forces across Northern and Western India, only

Punjab came under his permanent rule whereas rest of the dominions

remained under the control of the local Rajput dynasties.

(5) Muhammad Ghori . Muhammad Ghori, a Turkic-Afghan

conqueror from the region of Ghor (Afghanistan) was made governor of

Ghazni after overpowering the Ghaznavid Empire in 1173. In 1186-87

he conquered Lahore in alliance with a local Hindu ruler, and seemed

55

to be the first Muslim ruler seriously interested in expanding his domain

in the sub-continent. Like his predecessor Mahmud, he started off

against the Ismaili Fatimids and then onto booty and power. In 1191, he

invaded the territory of Prithvi Raj of Ajmer, who ruled much of present-

day Rajasthan and Haryana, but was defeated. Finally Muhammad

assembled 120,000 horsemen and once again invaded the Kingdom of

Ajmer. He defeated Prithvi Raj and advanced onto Delhi. Within a year,

Muhammad controlled Northern Rajasthan and Northern Ganges-

Yamuna Doab. Muhammad established his capital in Delhi,

incorporated Multan into his empire and by 1200, his armies reached

up to Bengal. Upon his death his most capable general, Qutb-ud-din

Aybak took control of Muhammad's Indian conquests and

declared himself the first Sultan of Delhi.

(6) The Delhi Sultanate . Mamluks, Muhammad Ghori's

successors established the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206.

Mamluk means "slave" and referred to the army of Turkic slave

soldiers, created by the Abbasids in 9th century in order to be loyal only

to their dynasty. The territory controlled by the Muslim rulers in Delhi

expanded rapidly. By mid of 13th century, Bengal and much of central

India was under the Delhi Sultanate. Several Turko-Afghan dynasties

ruled from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211–1290), the Khilji (1290–1320),

the Tughlaq (1320–1413), the Syed (1414–51), and the Lodhi (1451–

1526). Muslim Kings extended their domains into Southern India, the

kingdom of Vijayanagar resisted until falling to the Deccan Sultanate in

1565. The Sultans of Delhi enjoyed cordial, if superficial, relations with

Muslim rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance. They

based their laws on the Quran and the Islamic Shariah and permitted

non-Muslim subjects to practice their religion only if they paid the jizya.

Perhaps the most significant contribution of the Sultanate was its

temporary success in insulating the subcontinent from the potential

devastation of the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the 13 th

century, which nonetheless led to the capture of Afghanistan and

western Pakistan by the Mongols. The Sultanate suffered significantly

from the sacking of Delhi in 1398 by Timur, but revived briefly under the

56

Lodi Dynasty, the final dynasty of the Sultanate before it was

conquered by Zahiruddin Babur in 1526 to lay the foundation of great

Mughal Empire.

(7) Timurids . Timur, known in the west as Tamerlane, was a 14th

century warlord of Turko-Mongol descent and founder of the Timurid

dynasty (1370–1405) in Central Asia. Informed about civil war in the

Indian subcontinent, Timur began a trek starting in 1398 to invade

Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. His campaign was

politically pretexted that the Muslim Delhi Sultanate was too

tolerant toward its Hindu subjects, but that could not mask the real

reason being to amass the wealth of the Delhi Sultanate. Timur

crossed the Indus River at Attock. Clearing the pockets of resistance,

Timur was able to continue his relentless approach to Delhi, arriving in

1398 to combat the Tughlaq army which was already weakened due to

an internal battle for ascension within the royal family. Timur entered

Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins. Reportedly,

Timur executed more than 100,000 captives before the battle for Delhi.

Timur left Delhi in 1399 and took away with him immense quantities of

spoils to erect a mosque at Samarkand.

(8) Impact of Islam and Muslims in India

(a) Islam's impact was the most notable in the expansion of

trade. A significant aspect of the Muslim period in world history

was the emergence of Islamic Shariah Courts capable of

imposing a common commercial and legal system that

extended from Morocco in the West to Mongolia in the North

East and Indonesia in the South East.

(b) While southern India was already in trade with the Muslim

world, northern India found new opportunities. Sher Shah Suri

took initiatives in improvement of trade by abolishing all

taxes which hindered progress of free trade. He built large

networks of roads and constructed Grand Trunk Road

(1540–1544), which connected Calcutta to Kabul.

(c) Muslim rulers promoted a system in which there was a

revolving door between the clergy, the administrative nobility and

57

the mercantile classes. This led world trade to expand to the

maximum extent possible in the medieval world. Travels of

explorer Muhammad Ibn-Abdullah Ibn-Batuta were eased

because of this system. He served as an Imam in Delhi, as a

judicial official in Maldives, and as an envoy and trader in

Malabar. There was never a contradiction in any of his positions

because each of these roles complemented the other.

(d) Muslim rule ushered in a period of Indian cultural

renaissance and saw a greater urbanization of India and the rise

of many cities and their urban cultures. The languages brought

by Islam were modified by contact with local languages leading

to the creation of several new languages, such as Urdu (literally

meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects),

which uses the modified Arabic script, but with mingling of

Sanskritic Hindi, Persian and Turkish.

c. Rise of Sikhism . With popular acceptance of Islam by the Hindus,

another monotheistic religion emerged in the 15th century on the teachings of

Guru Nanak Dev Ji and ten successive Sikh Gurus (the last one being their

sacred text Guru Granth Sahib Ji). The principal belief of Sikhism is faith in

Waheguru, represented by one God. Sikhism advocates the pursuit of

salvation through disciplined, personal meditation on the name and message

of one God.

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PART - 4

EARLY MODERN HISTORY (16 TH TO 19 TH CENTURY)

1. Europe

a. Early Modern Europe . The Early Modern period spans the

centuries between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution, roughly from

the discovery of the New World (Americas) in 1492 to the French Revolution in

1789. The period is characterized by the rise to importance of science and

increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics and the

nation state. Capitalist economies began their rise, beginning in northern

Italian republics. As such, the early modern period represents the decline and

eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism and

the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the Protestant

Reformation, the disastrous Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) between the

Protestants and the Catholics, European witch-hunt (1480 to 1700) and

colonization of the Americas.

b. Renaissance . The Renaissance was a cultural movement that

profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period.

Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the north and west during a cultural lag of

some two and a half centuries, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art,

politics, science, history, religion, and other aspects of intellectual enquiry. In

the 15th and 16th centuries the continuing enthusiasm for the ancients was

reinforced by the feeling that the inherited culture was dissolving and here was

a storehouse of ideas and attitudes with which to rebuild. The Renaissance

was a new age where learning was very important. The Renaissance was

inspired by the admiration of the Greco-Roman era as a golden age. Many

Roman and Greek texts were already in existence in the European Middle

Ages, while others came from Islamic sources, who had inherited these texts

and knowledge through conquest, even attempting to improve upon some of

them. Important political precedents were also set in this period. Political

thoughts and writings of Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), influenced

later absolutism and real-politick. In all, the Renaissance could be viewed

as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular thought, both

through the revival of ideas from antiquity and through novel approaches.

59

c. Reformation and Enlightenment . During this period

corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the

Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther, a German priest and professor of

theology initiated the Protestant Reformation. His translation of the Bible

into the language of the people (instead of Latin) made it more

accessible, causing a tremendous impact on the church and on German

culture. His hymns influenced the development of singing in churches

and his marriage set a model for the practice of clerical marriage,

allowing Protestant priests to marry. It gained many followers especially

among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of

the Catholic Church. The Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform

movement in the Catholic Church called the Counter-Reformation, so as to

keep Eastern Europe within the Catholic fold. Still, the Catholic Church was

somewhat weakened by the Reformation. France suffered this fate in the 16 th

century in the series of conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion.

England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under Elizabeth to a

moderate Anglicanism. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was fought on

the territory of today's Germany, and involved most of the major

European powers. Beginning as a religious conflict between Protestants and

Catholics, the war lasted for thirty years, but the conflicts that triggered it

continued to be unresolved for a much longer time.

d. Exploration and Conquest . These religious wars did not prevent

European states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world,

from Africa to Asia and the newly discovered Americas. In the 15th century,

Portugal led the way in geographical exploration along the coast of

Africa in search for a maritime route to India, followed by Spain in the

early 16th century, dividing their exploration of world according to a

treaty in 1494. They were the first states to set up colonies in America and

trading posts (factories) along the shores of Africa and Asia, establishing the

first direct European diplomatic contacts with Southeast Asian states in 1511,

China in 1513 and Japan in 1542. Oceanic explorations were soon followed by

France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and

Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in 1606 and

New Zealand in 1642. Colonial expansion continued in the following centuries.

60

Spain had control of part of North America and a great deal of Central and

South America, the Caribbean and the Philippines; Britain took the whole of

Australia and New Zealand, most of India, and large parts of Africa and North

America. France held parts of Canada and India (nearly all of which was lost

to Britain in 1763), Indochina, large parts of Africa and Caribbean islands.

Netherlands gained the East Indies (now Indonesia) and islands in the

Caribbean. Portugal obtained Brazil and several territories in Africa and Asia.

Later, other powers such as Germany, Belgium, Italy and Russia also stepped

in and acquired further colonies. This expansion helped the economy of the

countries owning them. Capitalism (through Mercantilism) replaced feudalism

as the principal form of economic organization, at least in the western half of

Europe and expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a Commercial Revolution.

The European countries fought wars that were largely paid for by the money

coming in from the colonies.

e. Peace of Westphalia . The term Peace of Westphalia denotes the

two peace treaties signed by almost all important stakeholders in Europe

during 1648, that ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman

Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the

Netherlands. Moreover, peace treaty to end the Franco–Spanish War (1635–

59), is considered part of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the European

wars of religion. This allowed the rulers of the Imperial States to

independently decide their religious worship. Protestants and Catholics

were redefined as equal before the law. Also, princes of the Holy Roman

Empire were given equal authority to that of the Emperor, de-centralizing the

government and effectively ending the power of the Holy Roman Empire.

f. European military conflict did not however cease completely, but had

less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced northwest,

the Enlightenment gave a philosophical underpinning to the new

outlook, and the continued spread of literacy created new secular forces

in thought. Eastern Europe was an arena of conflict for domination between

Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. This

period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually

replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies, Russia, Prussia and

Austria. By the turn of the 19th century they became new powers, having

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divided Poland between them, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced

substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively. From 1789 to

1914, Europe witnessed a drastic social, political and economic change

initiated by the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the

Napoleonic Wars, resulting in re-organization of the political map of

Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

g. Industrial Revolution . The period of exploration and conquest

is also noted for the rise of modern science and the application of its

findings to technological improvements, which culminated in the

Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th

and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing,

and transport affected socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain and

subsequently spread throughout Europe and North America and eventually

the world. It started with the mechanization of the textile industries, the

development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal.

Once started it spread with a phenomenal pace. Trade expansion was

enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways.

h. French Political Revolution . French intervention in the American

Revolutionary War had bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at

financial reform, a representative body of the country assembled in the palace

of Versailles in 1789 and declared itself to be a National Assembly and swore

an oath not to dissolve until France had a constitution. At the same time the

people of Paris revolted. Subsequently, the National Convention passed

various laws including the abolition of feudalism and a fundamental change in

the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king agreed to these

changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people, but as anti-

royalism increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king, stripped of

his power, decided to flee along with his family. He was recognized and

brought back to Paris. In 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was

executed. In 1792, the National Convention abolished the monarchy and

declared France a republic. Convention created the Committee of Public

Safety, that initiated the Reign of Terror, during which up to 40,000 people

were executed in Paris, mainly nobles, and those convicted by the

Revolutionary Tribunal, often on the flimsiest of evidence. Elsewhere in the

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country, counter-revolutionary insurrections were brutally suppressed. Finally,

the regime was overthrown in the coup of 1794, setting the precedence

for rest of the Europe.

i. Napoleon Bonaparte . Napoleon Bonaparte was most successful

general in French revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy

and forcing the Austrians to sue for peace. Bonaparte knew that his naval

power was not yet strong enough to confront the Royal Navy in the English

Channel, thus proposed a military expedition to seize Egypt and thereby

undermine Britain's access to its trade interests in India. Bonaparte also

wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East, with the

ultimate dream of linking up with a Muslim enemy of the British in India,

Tipu Sultan. General Bonaparte and his expedition landed at Alexandria in

1798, and successfully fought against the Mamluks, an old power in the

Middle East. However, British fleet captured and destroyed French vessels

and frustrated Bonaparte's goal of a strengthened French position in the

Mediterranean Sea. In early 1799, he moved the army into the Ottoman

province of Damascus and conquered some important coastal towns followed

by massacre of men, women and children. In 1799, Napoleon returned to

France and overthrew the government, replacing it with the Consulate, in

which he was First Consul. In 1804, after a failed assassination plot, he

crowned himself Emperor. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but

a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria (Third Coalition), forced him

to turn his attention towards the continent. Later, Napoleon defeated a

numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austria's

withdrawal from the coalition and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806,

a Fourth Coalition was set up against Napoleon. Napoleon defeated the

Prussians, marched through Germany and defeated the Russians in 1807. In

1812, he occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian

Army. By 1813, the tide had begun to turn against Napoleon. Having been

defeated by a seven nation army at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, he was

forced to abdicate. Napoleon was exiled to the Island of Elba, but he managed

to escape and returned to France in 1815. He raised an army, but was

comprehensively defeated by a British and Prussian force at the Battle of

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Waterloo in 1815. He was again exiled to the Island of Saint Helena till his

death, reportedly by poisoning him by his captives.

j. Rise of Nationalism . After the defeat of revolutionary France, the

other great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. In

1815 at the Congress of Vienna, the major powers of Europe managed to

produce a peaceful balance of power among the empires after the Napoleonic

wars. However, their efforts were unable to stop the spread of

revolutionary movements: the middle classes had been deeply

influenced by the ideals of democracy of the French revolution. Industrial

Revolution brought important economical and social changes, the lower

classes started to be influenced by socialist, communist and anarchistic ideas

and preference of the new capitalists became Liberalism. Further instability

came from the formation of several nationalist movements seeking national

unification and liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between

1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and

independence wars. Even though the revolutionaries were often defeated,

most European states had become constitutional (rather than absolute)

monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy had developed into nation states.

The 19th century also saw the British Empire emerge as the world's first

global power after the Industrial Revolution and victory in the

Napoleonic Wars.

k. Colonial Empires

(1) Colonial empires were the product of the European Age of

Exploration in the 15th century. The initial impulse behind these

dispersed maritime empires and those that followed was trade, driven

by the new ideas and the capitalism that grew out of the European

Renaissance. Agreements were also done to divide the world. Portugal

began establishing the first global trade network and empire from

Brazil, in South America, to several colonies in Africa, in Portuguese

India (Bombay and Goa), in China (Macau), and Oceania (East Timor).

The Spanish Empire had possession of the Netherlands, Luxembourg,

Belgium, most of Italy, parts of Germany, parts of France, and many

colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. With the conquest of inland

Mexico, Peru, and the Philippines in the 16th century, Spain

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established world largest overseas dominion of the time.

Subsequent colonial empires included the French, Dutch, and British

empires. The British Empire consolidated during the 19th century

and became the largest empire in history because of the improved

transportation technologies of the time. At its height, the British Empire

covered a quarter of the Earth's land area and comprised a quarter of

its population. By the 1860s, the Russian Empire, continued as the

Soviet Union, became the largest contiguous state in the world.

The peace would only last until the Ottoman Empire had declined

enough to become a vulnerable target for the others. This led to the

Crimean War (1854), a long-running contest between the major

European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman

Empire. From 1870, Bismarck, Prime Minister, of Prussia,

embarked upon his endeavor for unification of Germany. He

designed the German Empire in 1871, becoming its first

Chancellor. His charismatic diplomatic maneuvers and hegemony on

Europe put France in a critical situation. It slowly rebuilt its

relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain, to control the

growing power of Germany. Two opposing sides thus formed in

Europe, improving their military forces and alliances year-by-year.

(2) In the 19th century, all the major European powers had gone

to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout

Europe, resulting by 1900 in a complex network of political and

military alliances throughout the continent. It began with the Holy

Alliance between Prussia, Russia and Austria in 1815. Then, in October

1873, German Chancellor Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three

Emperors between the monarchs of Austria–Hungary, Russia and

Germany. This agreement failed because Austria–Hungary and Russia

could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria–

Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879. This was seen as a method of

countering Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire

continued to weaken. In 1882, this alliance was expanded to include

Italy in what became the Triple Alliance. By the end of 19th century,

another European conflict was averted largely due to a carefully

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planned network of treaties between the German Empire and the

remainder of Europe orchestrated by Chancellor Bismarck. He

especially worked to hold Russia at Germany's side to avoid a two-front

war with France and Russia. With political changes in Germany,

Bismarck's system of alliances was gradually de-emphasized. Germany

refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1890. It led to

the Franco-Russian Alliance (1892), in order to counteract the force of

the Triple Alliance. Moreover, in 1904, the UK sealed an alliance with

France (Entente Cordiale), and in 1907, the UK and Russia also signed

the Anglo-Russian Convention. This system of interlocking bilateral

agreements formed the Triple Entente among the UK, France and

Russia. Stage was now set for the World War-I.

2. North America

a. Colonial Period . Spanish explorer Christopher Columbus is

credited as the first European to set foot on what would one day become

the US territory when he came to Puerto Rico in 1493. After a period of

exploration by people from various European countries i.e. Spanish, Dutch,

English, French, Swedish, and Portuguese settlements were established in

America. The Spanish sent some settlers, creating the first permanent

European settlement in the continental US at Florida in 1565 and some more

along the California coast. New Netherland was the 17th century Dutch colonial

province on the eastern coast. Its capital, New Amsterdam, was located at the

southern tip of the island of Manhattan and was renamed New York. French

reached America by 1534 and colonized an area called New France,

extending from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Last one to enter the new

land was the British Empire. In 1607, the Virginia Company of London

established the Jamestown Settlement on the James River. America was

named after Americo Vespuccio in 1507, who was the first European to

suggest that the lands newly discovered by Europeans were not India,

but a New World unknown to Europeans.

b. Colonial America was defined by a severe labor shortage that gave

birth to slavery and by a British policy of benign neglect that permitted the

development of an American spirit distinct from that of its European founders.

These colonies languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in

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the late 17th century and established commercial agriculture, based on

tobacco. Reportedly, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 convicts to its

American colonies during this time. Methodism and Baptism became the

prevalent religions among colonial citizens after the First Great Awakening in

early 18th century, a religious revival led by evangelical Protestants of America

that influenced the whites and the blacks alike.

c. Political Integration and Autonomy . Influence of the main rivals of

the British Crown in the American colonies, the French and North American

Indians, was significantly reduced as a result of French and Indian War (1754–

1763). Following Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America, a

Royal Proclamation was issued in 1763, with the goal of organizing the new

North American empire and stabilizing relations with the native Indians. The

British government felt that the colonies were the primary beneficiaries of their

military presence, and should pay at least a portion of the expense. In 1773,

the colonists protested against the taxes levied by the British government

followed by promulgation of the Coercive Acts, which sparked outrage and

resistance in the Thirteen Colonies. Colonists convened the First Continental

Congress to coordinate their resistance to the Coercive Acts. The Congress

called for a boycott of British trade and petitioned the king for redress of those

grievances. Their appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second

Continental Congress was convened in 1775 to organize the defense of the

colonies at the onset of the American Revolutionary War.

d. Formation of the United States of America (1776–1789) . The

Thirteen Colonies began a rebellion against British rule in 1775 and

proclaimed their independence in 1776. They subsequently constituted the

first thirteen states of the United States of America (USA), which became a

nation state in 1781. The 1783 Treaty of Paris represented the Kingdom of

Great Britain's formal acknowledgment of the US as an independent nation.

The US defeated the UK with help from France, the United Provinces and

Spain in the American Revolutionary War. After the war finally ended in 1783,

there was a period of prosperity, with the entire world at peace. The new

government reflected a radical break from the normative governmental

structures of the time, favoring representative, elective government with a

power-sharing executive, rather than the monarchical structures common

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within the western traditions of the time. The system of republicanism

borrowed heavily from the Enlightenment ideas and classical western

philosophy; primacy was placed upon preserving individual liberty and upon

constraining the power of government through a system of separation of

powers.

e. Early National Era (1789–1848). George Washington, a renowned

hero of the American Revolutionary War and commander-in-chief of the

Continental Army, became the first President of the United States. The major

accomplishments of the Washington Administration were creating a strong

national government that was recognized without question by all Americans. In

1794, USA reestablished good relations with Britain. During 1796, relations

with France deteriorated and USA built up a large army for a French invasion.

However, situation stabilized after a successful peace mission to France. In

1803, USA purchased French settlements on its western borders. Relations

once again deteriorated with the UK and the Congress declared war on Britain

in 1812. The War ended in a draw after bitter fighting that lasted until 1815.

The war was a major loss for Native American tribes in the Northwest and

Southeast who had allied themselves with Britain. In 1830, Congress passed

the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to negotiate treaties

that exchanged Native American tribal lands in the eastern states for lands in

the west. The act resulted most notably in the forced migration of several

native tribes to the west, with several thousand people dying en-route. The US

army defeated Mexico in 1848 during the Mexican-American War and ceded

California, New Mexico, and adjacent areas to the USA.

f. American Civil War (1849–1865) . After 1840 the abolitionist

movement redefined itself and mobilized its supporters, especially among

religious people in the Northeast affected by the Second Great Awakening.

They proclaimed slave ownership a sin, not just an unfortunate social evil. The

issue of slavery in the new territories was discussed in the Congress and new

rules made during 1850 and 1854. By 1860, there were nearly four million

slaves residing in the US nearly eight times as many from 1790. There

were some slave rebellions in early 19th century but they all failed and led to

tighter slave oversight in the south. After Abraham Lincoln won the 1860

Election, eleven Southern states seceded from the union between late

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1860 and 1861, establishing a new government. This was the beginning of

the American Civil War. Lincoln called on the states to send troops to

recapture forts, protect the capital, and preserve the Union. The two armies

clashed with surprising Union defeat, but more importantly, proved to both the

Union and Confederacy that the war was going be much longer and bloodier

than they had originally anticipated. A protracted war ensued in the east and

the west till 1864, when Lincoln launched the final offensive against

Confederates. The following two years of the war ended up being bloody

for both sides with Union’s victory in 1856. American Civil War is

considered to be the deadliest war in American history. Its legacy includes

ending slavery in the United States, restoring the Union, and

strengthening the role of the federal government. The social, political,

economic and racial issues of the war decisively shaped the reconstruction

era and brought about changes that would eventually help make the country a

united superpower during following century.

g. Gilded Age . Late 19th century is known as the "Gilded Age", when

there had been a dramatic expansion of American wealth and prosperity.

American industrial production and per capita income exceeded those of all

other world nations and ranked only behind Great Britain. An unprecedented

wave of immigration served both to provide the labor for American industry

and create diverse communities in previously undeveloped areas. More than

22 million people migrated to the United States from 1880 to 1914.

3. South America

a. In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime European powers

of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west,

signed a Treaty and agreed, with the support of the Pope, to divide all the land

outside Europe between the two countries. As accurate measurements were

impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a

Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian.

b. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South

America were repeatedly exploited by the Spanish and later by the

Portuguese. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources

as their own and divided it into colonies. European infectious diseases

decimated the native population under Spanish control and therefore African

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slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly

brought in to replace them.

c. Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western architectural style to

the continent as well as they helped to improve infrastructures like bridges,

roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered, conquered or

found. They also significantly improved economic and trade relations, not just

between the old and new world but between the different South American

regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and

Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became

united through that of Latin American.

d. The South American possessions of the Spanish Crown won their

independence between 1804 and 1826 in the Spanish American wars of

independence. Venezuela and Argentina were the leaders of the

independence struggle. The two armies finally cornered the Royal Army of the

Spanish Crown and forced its surrender. Portuguese colony of Brazil

proclaimed its independence in 1822. Attempts were made to unify politically

the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent but they rapidly became

independent states without political connections between them. However, a

few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century e.g. French

Guiana is still a region of France while the Falkland Islands, South Georgia

and South Sandwich Islands remain to be sovereign territory of the UK.

4. Africa

a. Early modern history was the time of classic colonization of the African

continent. Early European expeditions concentrated on colonizing previously

uninhabited islands, or establishing coastal forts as a base for trade. These

forts often developed areas of influence along coastal strips, but the vast

interior of Africa was not colonized and indeed little-known to Europeans until

the 19th century. Later, established empires, notably Britain, Portugal and

France claimed for themselves vast areas of Africa and Asia, and emerging

imperial powers like Italy and Germany did likewise on a smaller scale. The

1885 Berlin Conference, initiated by German Chancellor Bismarck to

establish international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory,

formalized this "New Imperialism". Between the Franco-Prussian War

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(1870) and the World War-I, Europe added almost one-fifth of the land area of

the globe to its overseas colonial possessions.

b. With regards to administrative styles, the French, the Portuguese, the

Germans and the Belgians exercised a highly centralized type of

administration called 'direct rule. The British, in contrast, sought to rule by

identifying local power holders and encouraging or forcing these to administer

for the British Empire, an indirect rule. All colonial powers exercised significant

attention to the economics of the situation. This included acquisition of land,

enforced labor, introduction of cash crops (even to the neglect of food crops),

halting inter-African trading patterns of pre-colonial times, introduction of

laborers from India and the continuation of Africa as a source of raw materials

for European industry. The continent was not to be developed and

industrialized; it was only to be ruled. Black men were mostly used for slave

trade and to fight for their colonial masters.

5. China

a. The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) succeeded the Ming Dynasty in China

and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing

Dynasty. The Qing emperors adopted the Confucian norms of traditional

Chinese government and created the most complete dictionary of Chinese

characters ever put together at the time. The Qing Dynasty also set up the

"Eight Banners" system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military

organization. The bannermen were prohibited from participating in trade and

manual labor. They were considered a form of nobility and were given

preferential treatment in terms of annual pensions and lands.

b. Direct maritime trade between Europe and China began with the

Portuguese in the 16th century, other European nations soon followed suit.

European traders inserted themselves into the existing Asian maritime intra-

regional trade network, competing with Arab, Chinese, and Japanese traders.

Foreign merchants and traders dealt with low level bureaucrats while the

official contact between China and foreign governments was organized around

the tributary system. Foreign rulers were required to present tribute and

acknowledge the superiority of the imperial court. In return, the emperor

allowed them to trade for short periods of time during their stay within China.

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c. British ships began to appear around the coasts of China from 1635,

without establishing formal relations through the tributary system. Official

British trade was conducted through the auspices of the British East India

Company (BEIC). The BEIC gradually came to dominate Sino-European trade

from its position in India. Following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which

Britain annexed Bengal to its empire, the BEIC pursued a monopoly on

production and export of Indian opium to China. For the next fifty years

opium trade would be the key to the BEIC’s hold on the subcontinent.

d. Low Chinese demand for European goods, and high European demand

for Chinese goods, including tea, silk, and porcelain, forced European

merchants to purchase these goods with silver, the only commodity the

Chinese would accept. In the 18th century, despite ardent protest from the

Qing government, British traders began importing opium from India. Because

of its strong mass appeal and addictive nature, opium was an effective

solution to the trade problem. An instant consumer market for the drug was

secured by the addiction of thousands of Chinese, and the flow of silver was

reversed.

e. The Qing government, seated in Beijing in the north of China, was

unable to halt opium smuggling in the southern provinces. A porous Chinese

border and rampant local demand only encouraged the all-too eager BEIC,

which had its monopoly on opium trade recognized by the British government,

which itself wanted silver. By the 1820s China was importing 900 tons of

Bengali opium annually.

f. The Opium Wars, also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, were

the climax of trade disputes and diplomatic difficulties between China

and the British Empire after China sought to restrict illegal British opium

trafficking. It consisted of the First Opium War (1839 – 1842) and the

Second Opium War (1856 – 1860). China was defeated in both wars leaving

its government having to tolerate the opium trade. Britain forced the Chinese

government to sign some Unequal Treaties, which included provisions for the

opening of additional ports to unrestricted foreign trade and for the cession of

Hong Kong to Britain. Many Chinese found these agreements humiliating and

these sentiments contributed to the rebellion and the downfall of the Qing

Dynasty in 1912, putting an end to dynastic China.

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6. Muslim World . This is the time of decline in the Muslim world. The

Ottoman Empire lost control of their dominion during this time and other Islamic

states persisted weak and dormant. No worthwhile contribution was made by the

Muslims for the world and humanity during this time. This time is sometimes

referred to as period of intellectual holiday in the Muslim world.

a. The Ottoman Empire

(1) Founded in 1299, the Ottoman Empire saw its territorial,

economic, and cultural growth during the15th century followed by an era

of relative military and political stagnation. The Ottoman conquest of

Constantinople in 1453 cemented the status of the empire as the

preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern

Mediterranean. During this time, the Ottoman Empire entered a long

period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into

Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the

discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the

Ottoman navy aided this expansion significantly. The navy also

contested and protected key seagoing trade routes, in competition with

the Italian city states in the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea, and with

the Portuguese in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. The empire thus

flourished economically and prospered under the rule of a line of

committed and effective sultans.

(2) Sultan Selim (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's

eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid

Persia, established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval

presence on the Red Sea. Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent

(1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing

Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman established Ottoman rule in the territory of

present-day Hungary and other Central European territories. In the

east, the Ottomans took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining

control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. Under

Selim and Suleiman, the Empire became a dominant naval force,

controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea. The exploits of the Ottoman

Admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Ottoman

Navy, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies. After

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this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the

Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire to become the

dominant power in the region. France and the Ottoman Empire,

united by mutual opposition to Central Europe, became strong allies

during this period. However, by this time, the Ottoman Empire was a

significant and accepted part of the European political sphere.

(3) As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was

challenged by the growing sea powers of Western Europe, particularly

Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands.

During later half of 16th century, the effective military and

bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under

strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. But in

spite of these difficulties, the empire remained a major expansionist

power until late 17th century. European states initiated efforts to curb

Ottoman control of overland trade routes. Western European states

began to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own

naval routes to Asia.

(4) In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers formed

an alliance to challenge Ottoman naval strength in the

Mediterranean Sea. However, Ottomans were able to expand and

consolidate their position in North Africa with a rapidly recovered

Ottoman naval fleet, after attrition by the Catholic powers. On the

battlefield, the Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in

military technology as the innovation which fed the empire's

forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and

intellectual conservatism. Moreover, changes in European military

tactics and weaponry in the military revolution caused infantry to be

equipped with firearms. It proved deadly against the massed infantry in

close formation used by the Ottomans.

(5) The Sultanate of women (1648–1656) was a period in which the

political influence of the Imperial Harem was dominant, as the mothers

of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. This period

gave way to the highly significant Koprulu (1656–1703), during which

effective control of the empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand

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Viziers from the Koprulu family. Fiercely conservative disciplinarian,

they successfully reasserted the central authority and the empire's

military impetus. The Koprulu Vizierate saw the conquest of Crete

completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine in 1676.

This period of renewed assertiveness came to an end with Ottomans

defeat at Vienna and 15 years of see-saw warfare in the region without

any gain. In 1699, the belligerents signed a peace which ended the

Great Turkish War and for the first time saw the Ottoman Empire

surrender control of significant European territories. The Empire

had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive,

expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced

from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this

theatre.

(6) Stagnation and Reforms . The 17th century was not simply

an era of stagnation and decline, but also a key period in which

the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new

pressures and new realities, internal and external. During this

period much territory in the Balkans was ceded to Austria. Certain

areas of the empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent,

and later came under the influence of Britain and France. Centralized

authority gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed

by local governors. A series of wars were fought between the

Russian and Ottoman empires from the 18th to the 19th century and

the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man" by Europeans. The

long period of Ottoman stagnation is typically characterized by

historians as an era of failed reforms. In the latter part of this period

there were educational and technological reforms, but of no major

significance. The region was peaceful between 1718 and 1730, after

the Ottoman victory against Russia. The Empire began to improve the

fortifications of cities bordering the Balkans to act as a defense against

European expansionism. Other tentative reforms were also enacted

e.g. taxes were lowered, there were attempts to improve the image of

the Ottoman state, and the first instances of private investment and

entrepreneurship occurred. Ottoman military reform efforts also began

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in late 18th century, to modernize the army along European lines. These

efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements from

within. During the Tanzimat (Reorganization) period (1839-1876),

series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army,

banking system reforms, and the replacement of guilds with modern

factories. The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called

the Kanun-ı Esasi (Basic Law), promulgated in 1876, and

established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before

the law. A group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily

educated in western universities and reportedly sponsored by the Jews,

believed that a constitutional monarchy would give an answer to the

empire's growing social unrest. Constitutional monarchy was declared

in 1876 but only to be abolished. In nut shell, introduction of

increased cultural rights, civil liberties and a parliamentary system

during the Tanzimat proved too late to reverse the nationalistic

and secessionist trends that had already been set in motion since

the early 19th century.

(7) Beginning of the End . During this period, the empire faced

challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and began to

forge alliances with European powers. During the Crimean War

(1853), the Ottomans fought against the Russian Empire on the side of

the UK and Ireland, the Second French Empire, and the Kingdom of

Sardinia. With the rise of nationalism in Europe during the 19th century,

it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire, too. It was forced to

deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. While this era

was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to

have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.

Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of

national awakening in the Balkans, which started breaking up from

the Ottoman Empire by 1821 and continued till 1860s and 1870s.

Despite the presence of occupying Ottoman soldiers, Bosnia

gained independence and profiting from the civil strife, Austria-

Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The

empire leased Cyprus to the British in 1878 in exchange for the UK's

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favors at the Congress of Berlin (held in 1878 to recognize Balkan

States). In 1882 British forces occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing

order. However, Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces

until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of

World War-I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces

and Cyprus in response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa

were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with Algeria (occupied by

France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya

(occupied by Italy in 1912). Economically, the empire had difficulty in

repaying the Ottoman public debt to European banks. By the end of the

19th century, the main reason the empire was not overrun by the

western powers was that they never wanted to disturb a balance of

power in the region.

(8) Legacy of the Ottoman Empire

(a) The Ottoman Empire deliberately pursued a policy of

developing major commercial and industrial centers by making

the productive classes prosperous. They even encouraged and

welcomed migration of the Jews who were suffering

persecution at the hands of Christians in different parts of

Europe.

(b) The economic structure of the Empire was defined by

its geopolitical structure; an economic power that extended

over three continents, dominating all prevalent land and sea

routes. The organization of the treasury and chancery were

developed under the Ottoman Empire and until the 17th century,

they were the leading organization among all their

contemporaries.

(c) With regards to the governance, The "Ottoman dynasty"

was unprecedented and unequaled in the Muslim world for its

size and duration. The rapidly expanding empire used loyal,

skilled subjects to manage the empire, whether Albanians,

Greeks, Armenians, Serbs, Bosnians, Hungarians or others.

It revolutionized the administrative system.

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(d) One of the successes of the social structure of the

Ottoman Empire was the unity that it caused among its highly

varied populations through the concept of Millets. It was only rise

of nationalism in 19th century that caused the dissolution of the

empire based on ethnic differentiation (balkanization) and

brought an end to it.

(e) The capital of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople

also had a unique culture, mainly because before Ottoman

rule it had been the seat of both the Roman and Byzantine

Empires.

(f) The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced

fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets

and cannons. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed

and mobility rather than heavy armor, using bows and short

swords on fast Turcoman and Arabian horses. Ottomans built

the largest naval fleet after those of Britain and France. The

Ottoman Air Force was one of the first combat aviation

organizations in the world with the world's first specialized Air

Reconnaissance Division.

b. Safavid Dynasty

(1) Founded by warlords and military chiefs (Qizilbash, extremist

Shia and mostly Turcoman militant groups) in 1501, one of the unique

aspects of the Safavids in the Muslim Iran was their origin in the Islamic

Sufi order called the Safaviyeh. This uniqueness makes the Safavid

dynasty comparable to the pre-Islamic Sassanid Dynasty, which made

Zoroastrianism into an official religion, and whose founders were from a

priestly class. Safaviyeh order was not originally Shia but it was from

the Shafi’i Sunni Islam. Later, the dynasty transformed from a Sunni

Sufi order into a politico-military grouping espousing a heterodox

version of Shiaism. The Safavid Dynasty was Azerbaijani speaking by

the time of their ascent but they were a mixed ancestry of ethnic

Georgian, Azerbaijani, Kurdish, and Greek lines, hailing from Persian

Kurdistan.

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(2) After the decline of the Timurid Empire (1370–1506), there were

many local states before Shah Ismail of Safavid order established the

Iranian state in 1501. Even Ottoman sultans addressed him as: the king

of Persia. Hamadan fell under his power in 1503, Shiraz and Kerman in

1504, Najaf and Karbala in 1507, Van in 1508, Baghdad in 1509, and

Herat, as well as other parts of Khorasan, in 1510.

(3) By 1511, the Uzbeks in the north-east drove across the Oxus

River where they continued to attack the Safavids. Ismail's decisive

victory over the Uzbeks, who had occupied most of Khorasan, ensured

Iran's eastern borders, and the Uzbeks never since expanded beyond

the Hindukush. But more problematic for the Safavids was the powerful

Ottoman Empire. In 1514, a decisive war was fought between the

Safavid and the Ottoman army, with the Ottomans being victorious.

Later, the Safavid made peace with the Ottomans in 1555 and in 1590,

giving away territory in the north-west, and ultimately retook the area

lost to the Ottomans by 1602.

(4) The Safavids ultimately succeeded in establishing a new Persian

national monarchy. They first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing Herat and

Mashhad in 1598. Then turned against the Ottomans recapturing

Baghdad, eastern Iraq and the Caucasian provinces by 1622. They

also dislodge the Portuguese from Bahrain in 1602 and, with British

help, from Hormuz in 1622. At its zenith, the empire's reach comprised

Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Azerbaijan Republic, Georgia, and parts of

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. The Safavids

expanded commercial links with the English East India Company and

the Dutch East India Company. The Ottoman Turks and Safavids

fought over the fertile plains of Iraq for more than 150 years during

which Baghdad changed hands number of times. Henceforth a treaty

delineated the border between Iran and Turkey in 1639, a border which

still stands in northwest Iran and southeast Turkey. The 150 year tug-

of-war accentuated the Sunni and Shia rift in Iraq that continues

even till to date.

(5) Beginning of the 17th century saw the power of the Qizilbash

decline, the original militia that had helped the Safavid to gain power

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and which had gained many administrative powers over the centuries.

Power was shifting to a new class of merchants, many of them ethnic

Armenians, Georgians and Indians. On the other hand the Safavid had

to face new challenges; Russian influence into the Caucasus

Mountains and Central Asia, expansion of the Mughal Empire of India

into Khorasan with losing financial health as the trade routes between

the East and West had shifted away from Iran.

(6) Reportedly, some Safavid rulers tried to forcibly convert their

Afghan subjects in eastern Iran from Sunni to the Shia sect of Islam. In

response, Ghilzai Pashtun began a rebellion and defeated the Safavid

forces in the 1722. Later, Nadir Shah defeated the Ghilzai forces in the

1729 and removed them from power. In 1738 he conquered their last

stronghold in Qandahar and continued to occupy Ghazni, Kabul,

Lahore, and as far as Delhi in India. However, these cities were later

inherited by one of his military commander, Ahmad Shah Durrani.

(7) Even though Safavids were not the first Shia rulers in Iran, they

played a crucial role in making Shia Islam the official religion in the

whole of Iran. As a result of the Mongol conquest and their relative

religious tolerance, Shia dynasties were re-established in Iran. Despite

the Safavid's Sufi origins, most Sufi groups were prohibited and Iran

became a feudal theocracy. The Shah was held to be the divinely

ordained head of state and religion. In the following centuries, this

religious stance cemented both Iran's internal cohesion and national

feelings and provoked attacks by its Sunni neighbors. It was the

Safavids who made Iran the spiritual bastion of Shiaism against

the onslaughts of Sunni Islam.

7. Indian Subcontinent

a. The Mughal Empire . The Mughals dominated Indian politics from

the 16th century through the 19th century, lasting until the British took colonial

control in 1857. India in the 16th century presented a fragmented picture of

rulers, both Muslim and Hindu, who lacked concern for their subjects and

failed to create a common body of laws or institutions. Outside developments

also played a role in shaping events. Power shift in Central Asia and

Afghanistan, pushed Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan,

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southward towards Kabul and then to India. In 1526, Babur, swept across

the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire after his victory in

the First Battle of Panipat. However, his son Humayun was defeated by the

Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year 1540, to cause a temporary

disruption to Mughal rule. Akbar's forces defeated Suri’s and their Hindu

allies in the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 and restored the Mughal

Empire, which ruled most of the Indian subcontinent for about three centuries.

The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever

existed in India. It went into a slow decline during the 18 th century and was

finally defeated during the 1857 War of Independence. This period marked

vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority was ruled over by

the Muslim Mughal emperors; most of them showed religious tolerance,

liberally patronizing Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, the grandson

of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus and even

compromised some of the basic Islamic principles for the accommodation of

his Hindu subjects. The Mughal Emperors married local royalty, allied

themselves with local Maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian

culture with ancient Indian styles. However, later emperors such as

Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance including

imposition of Jizya on non-Muslims and exercising relatively non-pluralistic

policies on the general population that often inflamed the majority Hindu

population. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, which at its peak

occupied an area similar to the ancient Maurya Empire, several smaller

empires rose to fill the power vacuum.

b. Contemporaries of Mughal Empire in India

(1) The Marathas posed the biggest challenge to the Mughals. The

Maratha Kingdom was founded and consolidated by Shivaji and by the

18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire. By 1760,

the empire had stretched across the entire subcontinent. Shah

Waliyullah Dehlvi (1703-1762), an eminent scholar and politically aware

Muslim revivalist, invited Ahmed Shah Abdali from Afghanistan to save

the Muslim rule in India. Maratha Empire was thus brought to an end

after their defeat at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third

Battle of Panipat in 1761.

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(2) Western Punjab was under Sikh rule in the 18th century. Ranjit

Singh was crowned in 1801 only at the age of 18. Gujranwala served

as his capital before it was shifted to Lahore in 1802. Ranjit Singh

quickly expanded his domain and within a very short period, become

the Maharaja of Punjab. He then spent the following years fighting the

Afghans, driving them out of the Punjab. He also captured Pashtun

territory including Peshawar and the Tribal Areas in 1818. This was the

first time that Pashtuns were ruled by Punjabis. He captured the

province of Multan (southern parts of Punjab) followed by Jammu and

Kashmir in 1819. Thus Ranjit Singh put an end to more than a

thousand years of Muslim rule in the region. However, Ranjit Singh's

Empire was secular, none of the subjects were discriminated against on

account of their religions. The Maharaja never forced Sikhism on his

subjects. The Maharaja was succeeded by his son, Khrak Singh in

1939. He however, could not manage the domain and Ranjit Singh's

Empire was defeated in 1845 after the First Anglo-Sikh War. In the

aftermath of the war, the British persuaded Raja Gulab Singh of the

state of Jammu and Kashmir to sell off the state for 75 lakhs rupees.

Later, Hari Singh ascended to power in 1925 and reined the monarch

till the conclusion of British rule in the subcontinent in 1947.

(3) Syed Ahmed (Shaheed), a radical Muslim leader and a disciple

of Shah Waliullah Dehelvi through his son Shah Abdul Aziz, proclaimed

jihad against the Sikhs in the Punjab. Syed Ahmad toured Afghanistan

and the areas occupied by the Sikhs raising the banner of jihad and

rallying the Pashtun tribes to his banner. Syed Ahmed established

Shariah rule in Peshawar and surrounding areas in 1830, but the locals

did not welcome the change. Conspiracy was hatched by the locals and

all the Qazi (judges), appointed by Syed Ahmed throughout his domain,

were assassinated at one time. Syed Ahmad made his way out and

was killed by the Sikhs along with hundreds of his troops and followers

at Balakot in 1831. His defeat ended the dream of establishing an

Islamic state in Peshawar.

(4) Mysore, a kingdom of southern India, was ruled by Hyder Ali and

his son Tipu Sultan. Tipu Sultan fought a series of wars sometimes

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against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but

mostly against the British. He was even promised aid from the

Napoleon to fight against the common enemy but Napoleon’s plan

could never materialize in India. Hyderabad was ruled by a hereditary

Nizam from 1724 until 1948.

(5) Some of the descendents of Abbasids immigrated to Southern

Punjab and established a princely state at Bahawalpur in 1802. Nawab

Bahawal made agreements with Ranjit Singh and restricted him to the

right bank of Sutlej River. The Nawab also supported the British in first

Afghan War (1837). Bahawalpur State comprising most of present day

Southern Punjab retained its independent status till 1955, though the

Nawab opted to join Pakistan in 1947. Graceful palaces of Bahawalpur

stand witness to the glory of Nawab’s rule in the region.

c. Colonial Era . Vasco da Gama's maritime success to discover for

Europeans a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-

European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading-posts in the coastal

areas. The next to arrive were the Dutch, the British and the French during the

17th century. The internal conflicts among Indian Kingdoms gave

opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political

influence and appropriate locals’ lands. British East India Company (BEIC)

took the lead and continued to strengthen its foothold in the Indian

Subcontinent. Mughals allowed BEIC to establish forts, maintain an

independent army and use their own currency. Starting its business in 1617,

BEIC gradually increased their influence and persuaded the Mughal emperors

to grant them permits for duty free trade in Bengal by 1717. The Nawab of

Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the ruler of the Bengal province, opposed

British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey in

1757, in which army of BEIC defeated the Nawab's forces in connivance with

traitors like Mir Jaffar. This was the first political foothold with territorial

implications that the British acquired in India. This was combined with British

successes during the Seven Years War, reduced French influence in India.

After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights of

administration in Bengal from the Mughals that marked the beginning of BEIC

formal rule. The Company monopolized the trade of Bengal and by the 1850s,

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it controlled most of the Indian sub-continent. The first major movement

against BEIC’s high handed rule resulted in the Indian War of Independence

of 1857. After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of the Company's troops

with British soldiers, the Company overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader

of the uprising, the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to

Burma, his children were beheaded and the Mughal line abolished. In the

aftermath all power was transferred from BEIC to the British Crown, which

began to administer most of India as a colony. Their policy was sometimes

summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering

between various princely states and social and religious groups.

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PART - 5

MODERN HISTORY (20 TH CENTURY)

1. The 20th century was the century of change. Great duels were contested both

on battle field as well as on proxy and diplomatic fronts. Two world wars involving

almost all parts of the world, cold war with its proxy campaigns and ultimate rise of

the USA as sole super power of the world has all been witnessed during the century.

The Muslim world remained at the lower ebb in these changing times, first during the

colonization by the European powers and later being used during the Cold War era.

These great events of the 20th century shaped the world, as we see it today.

2. World War-I Era (1900-1938)

a. Background of the Conflict

(1) World War-I was a military conflict centered on Europe that

began in the summer of 1914. The fighting ended in late 1918 in

Western Europe and by 1922 in Eastern Europe. This conflict

involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two

opposing alliances: the Allies (centered around the Triple Entente

i.e. The UK, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (Germany,

Austria-Hungry and Italy). More than 70 million military personnel,

including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest

wars in history. More than 15 million people were killed, making it also

one of the deadliest conflicts of all times.

(2) The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the

heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, is seen as the immediate trigger

of the war, though long-term causes, such as imperialistic foreign

policies of the great powers of Europe such as the German Empire, the

Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Russian Empire,

the British Empire, France, and Italy played a major role.

(3) In June 1914, a Bosnian-Serb student and member of Young

Bosnia, assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne,

Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo (Bosnia). This began

a period of diplomatic maneuvering between Austria-Hungary,

Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Wanting to end Serbian

interference in Bosnia conclusively, Austria-Hungary delivered an

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ultimatum to Serbia through which a series of ten visibly unacceptable

demands were made with the intention of deliberately initiating a war

with Serbia. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in July 1914.

(4) The Russian Empire, unwilling to allow Austria–Hungary to

eliminate its influence in the Balkans, and in support of its long time

Serbian partners, ordered a partial mobilization in response. When the

German Empire also began to mobilize in July 1914, France, sporting

significant animosity over the German conquest of Alsace-Lorraine

during the Franco-Prussian War, ordered French mobilization in August

1914. Germany declared war on Russia immediately followed by the

UK declaring war on Germany. To summarize, several alliances that

had been formed over the past decades were invoked, so within weeks

the major powers were at war; as all had colonies, the conflict soon

spread around the world.

b. Conduct of War

(1) Weapons and Tactics

(a) Military tactics before World War-I had failed to keep pace

with advances in technology. These changes resulted in the

building of impressive defense systems, which out of date tactics

could not break through for most of the war. Barbed wire was a

significant hindrance to massed infantry advances. Artillery,

vastly more lethal than before, coupled with machine guns,

made crossing open ground very difficult. Commanders on both

sides failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions

without heavy casualties.

(b) The belligerents used new technologies like tanks, railway

guns, submarines, aircrafts and aircraft carriers but nothing

could prove to be decisive. Most of the duration of war in various

theaters was stalemate and naval blockades at seas. Chemical

and biological attacks were also mounted from both sides but to

no use again. Its effects were brutal, causing slow and painful

death, and thus became one of the most-feared and worst

remembered horrors of the war.

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(2) Outbreak of Hostilities . The strategy of the Central Powers

suffered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support

Austria-Hungary’s invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this

meant differed. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would

cover its northern flank against Russia. Germany, however, envisioned

Austria-Hungary directing her main effort against Russia, while

Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced the Austro-

Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian

fronts.

(3) German forces in Belgium and France . At the outbreak

of the war, the German army quickly attacked France through neutral

Belgium. Initially, the Germans were very successful but by September

1914, the French with assistance from the British forces halted the

German advance east of Paris. In the east, a weaker German army

defended East Prussia and when Russia attacked in this region, it

diverted German forces intended for the Western Front. Germany

defeated Russia in a series of battles but this diversion of forces

checked the speed of advance not foreseen by the Germans. The

Central Powers were thereby denied a quick victory and forced to fight

a war on two fronts.

(4) War in the Balkans . Faced with Russia, Austria-Hungary

could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. The Austrians

briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade before losing it again by

the end of 1914. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats persuaded

Bulgaria to join in attacking Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of

Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia responded to the call and provided troops

for the attack. Serbia was conquered for its virtual division between

Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria.

(5) Ottoman Empire

(a) The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in the

war, the secret Ottoman-German Alliance having been signed in

August 1914. It threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and

Britain's communications with India via the Suez Canal. The

British and French opened overseas fronts against the

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Ottomans. In Gallipoli (Turkey), the Ottomans successfully

repelled the British and French, but in Iraq, after the

disastrous Siege of Kut (1915–16), British Imperial forces

captured Baghdad in March 1917. In the Sinai and Palestine

Campaign, initial British setbacks were also overcome and

Jerusalem fell in December 1917.

(b) Turkish forces made bold advances to conquer Central

Asia but suffered heavy losses. The Russians drove the Turks

out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories

from 1915 to 1916. Russian commanders endeavored to push

ahead, however, in March 1917, (February in the pre-

revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar was overthrown in the

February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army began to

fall apart.

(c) Along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, the

Senussi tribe, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-

scale guerilla war against Allied troops. The British were forced

to dispatch heavy reinforcement to deal with the Senussi. Their

rebellion was finally crushed in mid 1916.

(d) The Arab Revolt, instigated by the Arab bureau of the

British Foreign and Commonwealth Office and cunningly

executed by the notorious Lawrence of Arabia, was a major

cause of the Ottoman Empire's defeat. The revolts started

with the Battle of Makkah by Sherif Hussein of Makkah with the

help of Britain in June 1916, and ended with the Ottoman

surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha the Ottoman commander

of Medina showed stubborn resistance for over two and half

years during the Siege of Medina.

(6) Italian participation . Italy had been allied with the German

and Austro-Hungarian Empires since decades, but the nation refused to

commit troops, arguing that their alliance was defensive in nature, and

that Austria–Hungary was an aggressor. The Austro-Hungarian

government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the

French colony of Tunisia in return. The Allies made a counter-offer in

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which Italy would receive part of captured territories after the defeat of

Austria-Hungary. Further encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey,

Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary in

May 1915. By mid 1916, Italy also declared war on Germany.

(7) Romanian participation . Romania was in alliance with the

Central Powers but it declared its neutrality, arguing that Austria-

Hungary was an aggressor. When the Entente Powers promised

Romania large territories of eastern Hungary, the Romanian

government renounced its neutrality. In August 1916, the Romanian

army launched an attack against Austria-Hungary. The Romanian

offensive was initially successful, but the Central Powers defeated the

Romanian army by the end of December 1916. An armistice was

signed between the Central Powers and Romania in December 1917.

(8) Fighting in India . The war began with an unprecedented

outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards the Britain from within the

mainstream political leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an

Indian revolt. The Indian Army in fact outnumbered the British Army at

the beginning of the war. India under British rule contributed greatly to

the British war effort by providing men and resources. This was done by

the Indian Congress in hope of achieving self-government. However,

the Indians were disappointed at the end of war.

(9) Asia and the Pacific . New Zealand, Australian and

Japanese forces seized all the German territories in the Pacific

including the German coaling port of Qingdao in the Chinese Shandong

peninsula.

(10) African Campaigns . The British, French and German

colonial forces clashed in Africa. In August 1914, French and British

troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland. German forces in

Southwest Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting

continued for the remainder of the war.

(11) Russian Front

(a) While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war

continued in East Europe. Although Russia's initial advance into

Austrian territories was largely successful, they were driven back

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from East Prussia in September 1914. By the spring of 1915, the

Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough in Poland

capturing Warsaw and forcing the Russians to withdraw from

Poland.

(b) In March 1917, Russia witnessed a revolution followed by

confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The

Bolsheviks started negotiations with Germany. Initially, they

refused the German terms, but when Germany resumed the war

and marched across Ukraine with impunity, the new government

acceded to the Treaty in March 1918.

(12) Germans Attempt to Negotiate Peace . In December 1916,

after months of unsuccessful fighting, the Germans attempted to

negotiate a peace with the Allies, effectively declaring themselves the

victors. Soon after, the USA attempted to intervene as a peacemaker,

asking in a note for both sides to state their demands. While the Allies

debated a response to Wilson's offer the Germans chose to rebuff it in

favor of a direct exchange of views between the rivals. On the other

hand, Austrians pursued a secret peace deal without the knowledge of

Germany. When the negotiations failed and the attempt was revealed

to Germany, it led to a diplomatic catastrophe.

(13) Entry of the USA . The USA originally pursued a policy of

isolationism, avoiding conflict while trying to broker peace. Britain

initially feared that should the US participate in the war, it would be on

the side of the Central Powers, given US anti-colonial stance on the

British Empire. However, the USA finally joined the war against the

Germans in April 1917, after few suspected German sabotage activities

in mainland America and decrypted German messages to Mexico to

declare war against the USA. The USA had a small army, but soon it

could generate a huge force that was not anticipated by the Germans.

(14) German Spring Offensive of 1918

(a) Germans drew up plans for the 1918 offensive on the

Western Front. The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British

and French forces with a series of feints and advances starting

from Amiens (Northern France). The German leadership hoped

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to strike a decisive blow before significant US forces arrived. The

German forces achieved unprecedented advances penetrating

Allies’ defenses using novel infiltration tactics. They swiftly

attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of

serious resistance to be neutralized by heavily armed infantry.

German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.

(b) The front moved to almost 100 kilometers of Paris. Many

Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting,

however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorized

artillery and logistics, the Germans were unable to consolidate

their gains.

(c) Germans launched another operation against the northern

English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive with limited

territorial gains for Germany. Later, the German army again

conducted few operations towards Paris but without any gain.

Following this last phase of the war in the west, the German

army never again regained the initiative.

(15) Allied Victory in Summer and Autumn of 1918 . The Allied

counteroffensive began at Amiens in August 1918. In nearly four weeks

of fighting, the Germans realized the war was lost and made attempts

for a satisfactory end. They thought that they cannot win the war any

more, but they must not lose it either. Austria and Hungary also could

not continue the war. In September 1918, Germany appealed to

Holland for mediation and made a peace offer to Belgium. Austria sent

a note to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for peace

talks on neutral soil. Both peace offers were rejected and armistice

talks seemed inevitable.

(16) Armistices and Capitulations . The collapse of the Central

Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice in

September 1918 and the Ottoman Empire capitulated in October 1918.

In November 1918, Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices

following the breakup of the empire. Imperial Germany also broke up

and an armistice was signed by the new republic in November 1918.

Final armistice was signed in a railroad carriage. Interestingly,

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same railroad carriage was later used by the Germans to get the

surrender documents signed by the French after they occupied

France during the World War-II. A formal state of war between the

two sides persisted for another seven months, until signing of the

Treaty of Versailles with Germany in June 1919. Later, treaties with

Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire were also signed.

However, treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife (the

Turkish Independence War) and a final peace treaty was signed

between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become

the Republic of Turkey in July 1923.

c. Aftermath of the World War-I

(1) After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of

peace treaties on the Central Powers. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles

officially ended the war. The Treaty of Versailles also brought into

being the League of Nations in June 1919. However, League of

Nations could not ensure its desired objective of an enduring peace.

The European nationalism spawned by the war, repercussions of

Germany's defeat and of the Treaty of Versailles would eventually lead

to the beginning of World War-II.

(2) In signing the treaty, Germany acknowledged responsibility for

the war, agreeing to pay enormous war reparations and award territory

to the victors. Germany did so by borrowing from the USA. However,

the reparations were suspended in 1931 due to inflation of 1920s and

resultant economic collapse of the German Republic. The Treaty of

Versailles caused enormous bitterness in Germany, which

nationalist movements, especially the Nazis exploited with a

conspiracy theory they called stab-in-the-back legend. Out of

German discontent, Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity and power.

World War-II was in part a continuation of the power struggle that was

never fully resolved by the World War-I.

(3) By the war's end, four major imperial powers; the German,

Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires had been

militarily and politically defeated with the last two ceased to exist.

The revolutionized Soviet Union emerged from the Russian Empire,

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whereas the map of central Europe was completely redrawn into

numerous smaller states.

(4) Austria–Hungary was also partitioned, largely but not entirely

along ethnic lines, into several successor states including Austria,

Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, as well as adding

Transylvania from Hungary to Romania, Czechoslovakia and

Yugoslavia. Hundreds of thousands Hungarians fled former Hungarian

territories.

(5) The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in the

aftermath of successive revolutions in 1917, lost much of its western

frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia,

Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Communist and socialist

movements around the world gained strength and enjoyed a level of

popularity they had never known before. These feelings were most

pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war.

(6) The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, and much of its non-

Anatolian territory was awarded as protectorates of various Allied

powers, while the remaining Turkish core was reorganized as the

Republic of Turkey. The new countries created from the former

territories of the Ottoman Empire currently number 40 (including

the disputed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus). This treaty was

never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish republican

movement, leading to the Turkish Independence War and, ultimately, to

the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.

(7) In the aftermath of World War-I, Greece fought against Turkish

nationalists led by Mustafa Kamal, a war which resulted in a massive

population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of

Lausanne. The conflict gave rise to the problem of Cyprus Island that

remains to be settled till to date.

(8) Poland re-emerged as an independent country after more than a

century. Kingdom of Serbia became the backbone of the new

multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later

renamed Yugoslavia). Czechoslovakia became a new nation.

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(9) In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of

nationalism. Australia and New Zealand for the first times fought as

Australians. Canadian divisions also fought together for the first time

and emerged with a greater measure of independence from British

Empire. While other dominions were represented by Britain, Canada

was an independent signatory of the Treaty of Versailles.

(10) Middle East Crisis . Establishment of the modern state of Israel

and the roots of the continuing Israeli-Palestinian conflict are partially

found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East which were

born at the end of the World War-I. Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann

(President of Zionist Organization and first President of the State

of Israel) and fear that American Jews would encourage the USA

to support Germany culminated in the Balfour Declaration of 1917

by the British government. This endorsed the creation of a Jewish

homeland in Palestine. Before the end of the war, the Ottomans had

maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle

East. However, with the end of the war and the fall of Ottoman

government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land

and nationhood began to emerge. Political boundaries were drawn and

quickly imposed by the victors of the World War-I after only cursory

consultation with the local population. In many cases these boundaries

are still problematic in the 21st century struggles for national identity.

The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War-I can

therefore be termed as the corner stone in creation of the modern

political situation of the Middle East, especially the Arab-Israeli conflict.

The end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser known disputes over

water and other natural resources in the region.

d. Russian Revolution

(1) Despite initial successes in the war, dissatisfaction grew among

the Russian public with regards to the Russian government's conduct of

the war. The unrest grew in the country, as the Czar remained

committed at the front while the empress was incompetent enough to

handle the situation at home. The protests also resulted in the murder

of her favorite advisor, Rasputin, at the end of 1916.

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(2) In March 1917, demonstrations in Russia culminated in the

abdication of Czar and the appointment of a weak provisional

government. The movement and the consequences are commonly

termed as the February Revolution. This arrangement led to

confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The army became

increasingly ineffective.

(3) The war and the government became increasingly unpopular.

Discontent led to a rise in popularity of the Bolshevik party, led by

Vladimir Lenin. He promised to pull Russia out of the war and was able

to gain power. After the triumph of the Bolsheviks in November 1917

(October Revolution), the new administration settled for an armistice

and negotiations with Germany in December 1917.

(4) Socialist regime of Vladimir Lenin provided the basis for the

formation of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922; A

future super power that had to play a major role in the conflict spectrum

spanning over the complete 20th century.

e. Muslim World

(1) Demise of the Ottoman Empire .Turkey witnessed the Young

Turk Revolution in 1908. The Young Turk government signed a secret

treaty establishing the Ottoman-German Alliance in 1914, aimed

against the common Russian enemy. The empire was thus dragged

into war on the side of the Central Powers, in which it took part in the

Middle Eastern theatre. There were several important Ottoman

victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of

Gallipoli (led by Mustafa Kamal Pasha), but there were setbacks as

well. The Arab Revolt in 1916, conspired and executed by

notorious Lawrence of Arabia, turned the tide against the

Ottomans. When the Armistice was signed in 1918, only parts of the

Arabian Peninsula, Syria and Iraq were still under Ottoman control,

which were eventually handed over to the British forces in 1919. The

Ottomans were also ordered to evacuate the parts of the former

Russian Empire in the Caucasus (in present-day Georgia, Armenia and

Azerbaijan) which they had gained towards the end of the war. With the

defeat of the Central Powers and resultant turmoil in Turkey, Turkish

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National Movement (Young Turks) won the Turkish War of

Independence (1919–1922) under the leadership of Mustafa Kamal

Pasha. Reportedly, the nationalist movement was sponsored by the

Jews. Sultanate was abolished in 1922 and the Sultan and his family

were exiled. The Caliphate was constitutionally abolished in 1923.

(2) Establishment of Saudi Arabia . Despite its spiritual

importance, in political terms Arabia remained a peripheral region of the

Islamic world during various dynasties, most of which were based at

various times in such far away cities as Cairo, Damascus, Delhi,

Esfahan, and Istanbul. From the 10th century to the early 20th century

Makkah and Medina were under the control of the Sharif of Makkah, but

at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major

Islamic empires based elsewhere. The First Saudi State was

established in 1744, when Sheikh Muhammad Ibn Abd al Wahhab

and Prince Muhammad Ibn Saud formed an alliance to establish a

religious and political sovereignty determined to cleanse the

Arabian Peninsula of perceived heretical practices and deviations

from orthodox Islam. The state saw periods of make and break before

the Saud family again took power in 1932 as a consequence of the

World War-I. Subsequently, Kingdome of Saudi Arabia (KSA) became

the spiritual center for the Muslim World. However, pro-west policies

adopted by the kingdom greatly dismayed the Muslim communities

across the world and diminished any possibility of KSA assuming

leadership role for the Muslim Ummah.

(3) Ikhwan-ul-Muslimeen (Muslim Brotherhood) . Breakup of the

Ottoman Empire and handing over of the Muslim territories to colonial

powers brought great depression among the Muslim communities

across the glob. They were militarily defeated and politically orphaned.

With this deplorable state of affairs, many independence and revivalist

movements were launched by the Muslim leaders across the world.

Ikhwan-ul-Muslimeen founded by Egyptian religious scholar, Hassan Al

Bannah, was one such transnational movement that received a big

following, especially in the Arab World. The Brotherhood's stated goal

was to instill the Qur'an and Sunnah as the sole reference point

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for ordering the life of the Muslim individuals, families, communities and

states. Since its inception in 1928 the movement has officially opposed

violent means to achieve its goals. However, one of the influential

members of the group and the author of one of Islamism's most

important books, Syed Qutb (Shaheed) called for the restoration of

Islam by re-establishing the Sharia and by using physical power (Jihad)

for abolishing the organizations and authorities of the prevalent system

governing the entire Muslim world. Ikhwan-ul-Muslimeen inspired many

revolutionary and independence movements in Arab world including

North Africa. Creation of Jama’at-e-Islami in Indian Subcontinent was

also to some extent an extension of the same school of thought.

f. Indian Subcontinent

(1) Gandhi Struggle . Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (commonly

known as Muhatama Gandhi), was a legendry figure in the Indian

independence movement. On his return from South Africa in 1915, he

started raising his voice for the Indians’ rights. As a staunch

proponent of Ahimsa (total non-violence) he could rally a big

Indian community belonging to different castes and religions.

Launching of Khilafat Movement for restoration of the caliphate in

erstwhile Ottoman Empire, together by the Muslims and Hindus, is a

classic example of Gandhi’s undisputed character. Later, his political

struggle earned him the leadership of Indian National Congress in

1921. Famous 400 km Salt March in 1930 and Quit India Civil

Disobedience Movement of 1942 are the marvels of his political

leadership. Mohammad Ali Jinnah (commonly known as Quid-e-Azam),

one of his contemporary, differed with him on the future of the Muslims

of the Indian Subcontinent.

(2) Pakistan Movement. By the start of 20th century, fear grew

among the Muslims that they are likely to lose in a big way if left at the

disposal of Hindu majority. Partition of Bengal in 1905, to the utter

disregard to the interest of the Bengali Muslim population, proved to be

the boiling point. Muslim leaders from Central India took the initiative

and formed All India Muslim League in 1906, on the basis of Two

Nation Theory. Newly founded Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College

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(MAO College) in Aligarh in 1869 by an eminent Muslim leader Sayed

Ahmed Khan provided the leadership to this movement which later

transformed into Pakistan Movement. Allama Muhammad Iqbal gave

the idea of an independent Muslim nation in 1930 and the name

“Pakistan” was proposed by Chaudhry Rehmat Ali in 1933. Despite all

out efforts by pro independence leaders, Muslim League could not gain

the confidence of majority of the Muslims till late 30s. However,

Congress rule of 1937 helped in changing perception among the

Muslim communities. All India Muslim League under the charismatic

leadership of Quid-e-Azam succeeded in convincing the Muslim

majority to create an independent homeland for the Muslims of the

Indian Subcontinent. The popular demand of the Muslims of the Indian

Subcontinent was manifested by the Lahore Resolution (later known as

Pakistan Resolution) in 1940.

(3) Revival of Islamic Identity . After the introduction and

popular acceptance of Islam by inhabitants of the Indian Subcontinent

at the hands of Muslim preachers, mystics and traders, efforts to revive

the authentic and pristine Islam began with Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi

(1564-1624) and gained momentum with Shah Waliyullah Dehlvi (1703-

1762) and Syed Ahmed Shaheed (1786-1831). The stage was thus set,

at the beginning of the 20th century, for Allama Muhammad Iqbal to play

his momentous role in laying down the intellectual foundation of Islamic

Renaissance. Moreover, Islamist sentiment of the society was

seriously threatened by the introduction of new bilingual

education system maliciously designed by the British

parliamentarian Lord Macaulay. They rightly feared that the Islamic

identity of the Muslims will vanish with the passage of time. Moreover,

Hindu revivalist movements were also feared to impact simple and non

practicing Muslims of the Indian Subcontinent. This gave rise to

formation of various Islamic institutions and societies to be able to face

the emerging challenges.

(a) Islamic Schools (Darul Uloom) . Islamic scholars of the

time established number of Darul Uloom as a parallel to the

British education system so as to impart Islamic knowledge to

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the Muslim youth. One such movement began at Darul Uloom

Deoband in May 1866. Darul Uloom Deoband gained significant

traction in the early 1900s mainly due to the activities of its

graduates. Deobandis follow Sunni Islam and in fiqah (Islamic

jurisprudence) they primarily follow the Hanafi school of thought.

However, they accept the validity of the remaining three schools

of Sunni Islam, namely the Shafi’i, Maliki and the Hanbali

schools. In the spiritual science of Tasawwuf (Sufism) they follow

the Chishti, Naqshbandi, Qadiri and Suhrawardi orders. Ahmed

Reza Khan (1856–1921), a graduate of Darul Uloom

Deoband, became a famous Sunni Islamic scholar and Sufi,

whose works influenced the Barelvi movement of South

Asia. Followers of both the movements have serious difference

of opinion on the Barelvis’ exaggeration in loving the Prophet

Mohammad (p.b.u.h) and advocating the practice of asking from

deceased Muslims. Shia Muslims continued to practice their

faith and drew aspiration and religious knowledge from the

Islamic School at Qom (Iran).

(b) Tableeghi Jama’at . It was founded in 1926 by Mulana

Muhammad Ilyas with a primarily aim of Islamic spiritual

reformation by working at the grass roots level, reaching out to

the Muslims across all social and economic spectra and to bring

them closer to the practices of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h).

Originally an off shoot of Deoband Movement, Tableeghi

Jama’at gradually expanded from local to national and to a

transnational movement with a sizable following across the

world. It maintains a non-affiliating stature in matters of politics

and fiqah (Islamic jurisprudence) so as to avoid any

controversies.

(c) Jama’at-e-Islami . When Allama Iqbal wrote to Quid-e-

Azam to provide political leadership to the Muslims of the Indian

Subcontinent, he invited an eminent Muslim Scholar Abul A’ala

Mududi for the religious guidance of the nation. Abul A’ala

Mududi later founded Jama’at-e-Islami in 1941, on the principles

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of creating a purely Muslim state governed by Shariah Laws. In

the following years, Iqamat-e-Deen through mass penetration

and an active political struggle for creation of a truly Muslim state

remained the hallmark of the party. Though Mulana Mududi

differed with Quid-e-Azam on the issue of partition, Jama’at-e-

Islami and its variants played a major role in creating political

awareness among the masses and mobilizing the educated

class to launch an organized struggle for establishing a truly

Islamic state, after the creation of Pakistan. Jama’at-e-Islami’s

leadership was also instrumental in the passage of Objective

Resolution in 1949, so as to ensure definite Islamic character of

the newly established state and later forming it an essential part

of the constitution.

3. World War-II Era (1939-1945)

a. Background of the Conflict

(1) World War-II was a global military conflict lasting from 1939 to

1945 which involved most of the world's nations. All of the great powers

of the time were organized into two opposing military alliances: the

Allies (Britain, France and the USA) and the Axis (Germany, Italy and

Japan). It was the most widespread war in history, with more than 100

million military personnel mobilized. In a state of "total war," the major

participants placed their entire economic, industrial, and scientific

capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction

between civilian and military resources.

(2) World War-I and events following the conflict radically altered the

diplomatic and political situations in Eurasia and Africa with the defeat

of the Central Powers. Meanwhile the success of the Allied Entente

powers resulted in a major shift in the balance of power from Central

and Eastern Europe to the Atlantic littoral.

(3) In the interwar period, domestic civil conflict occurred in

Germany and Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler pursued establishing a

fascist government in Germany. With the onset of the worldwide great

depression and resultant collapse of German economy, Nazi support

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rose and in 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. Soon

after taking over power, Hitler began a massive rearmament campaign.

(4) A similar scenario occurred in Italy. Although Italy as an Entente

ally made some territorial gains, Italian nationalists were angered that

the terms of the Treaty of London upon which Italy had agreed to wage

war on the Central Powers, were not fulfilled with the peace settlement.

Italian fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in 1922,

with an aggressive foreign policy aimed at forcefully forging Italy as a

world power, and promising to create a New Roman Empire.

(5) In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had

long sought influence in China, invaded Manchuria, as the first step of

its right to rule Asia. Too weak to resist Japan, China appealed to the

League of Nations for help. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations

after being condemned for its incursion. The two nations then fought

several minor conflicts till second Sino-Japan War of 1937. Japan

captured the capital city of Nanjing and committed notorious Nanking

Massacre. Memories of the massacre continue to be the biggest irritant

in Sino-Japan relations even today.

(6) On the other hand, France in order to secure its alliance, allowed

Italy a free hand in Ethiopia (Italo–Abyssinian War - 1935-36), which

Italy desired as a colonial possession. In October 1935, Italy invaded

Ethiopia, with Germany the only major European nation supporting the

invasion. Italy, in response, revoked objections to Germany's goal of

absorbing Austria. Hoping to contain Germany, the UK, France and

Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935. The USSR, concerned due

to Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, also

concluded a treaty of mutual assistance with France. However, in June

1935, the UK made an independent naval agreement with Germany,

easing prior restrictions. The USA, concerned with events in Europe

and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August 1935.

(7) When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936, Hitler and

Mussolini supported fascist nationalist forces in this civil war against the

Soviet-supported Spanish Republic. Both sides used the conflict to test

new weapons and methods of warfare. In October 1936, Germany and

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Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan

signed the Anti-Comintern (Anti-Communist) Pact, which Italy would

join in the following year.

(8) With the progress of events, Germany and Italy grew bolder. In

March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, provoking little response from

other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German

claims on the territories of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic

German population. Soon France and Britain conceded this territory to

Germany, against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in

exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands by Hitler.

However, in March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of

Czechoslovakia. Alarmed, and with Hitler making further demands on

Danzig (North Poland), France and Britain guaranteed their support for

Polish independence. When Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the

same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece. Shortly after

the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalized their

own alliance with the Pact of Steel.

(9) In August 1939, Germany and the USSR signed a non-

aggression treaty with a secret protocol. The parties gave each other

rights to “spheres of influence” (western Poland and Lithuania for

Germany, and eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia

for the USSR), in the event of a territorial and political rearrangement.

b. Conduct of War

(1) Weapons and tactics

(a) During the World War-II, land warfare changed drastically

from the static front lines to become much more fluid and mobile.

An important change was the concept of combined arms

warfare, wherein tight coordination was sought between the

various elements of military forces. Germany's use of

combined arms was among the key elements of their highly

successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. By

the late 1930s, tank design was considerably advanced in

speed, armor protection and firepower. Many means of

destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns,

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mines and short-ranged infantry antitank weapons were also

utilized by all sides during the war. Small arms witnessed a

transition to semi-automatic rifle followed by a widespread

incorporation of portable machine guns by various forces. The

assault rifle, a late war development, which incorporated many of

the best features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the

standard postwar infantry weapon for nearly all armed forces.

(b) Aircrafts were assigned two important additional roles;

the airlift capability and of strategic bombing, the targeted use of

bombs against civilian areas in the hopes of hampering enemy

industry and morale. Jet aircrafts also experienced their first

operational use during the World War-II, though their late

introduction and limited numbers meant that they had no real

impact during the war itself. Anti-aircraft weaponry also

continued to advance, including such as radar and greatly

improved anti-aircraft artillery e.g. German 88 mm flak gun.

(c) At sea, the two primary areas of development were

focused around aircraft carriers and submarines. In the Atlantic,

escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys,

increasing the effective protection radius dramatically. In

submarine warfare, the British focused development on anti-

submarine weaponry and tactics, while Germany focused on

improving its offensive capability.

(d) Other important technological and engineering feats

achieved during, or as a result of the war include the world's first

programmable computers, guided missiles and the Manhattan

Project's development of nuclear weapons.

(2) Outbreak of Hostilities . The start of the war is generally held

to be in September 1939 beginning with the German invasion of

Poland; Britain and France immediately declared war on Germany.

There was another conflict in the east that included Japanese invasion

of China in second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 and a futile attack on

the USSR and Mongolia in 1938. The two wars merged in 1941,

becoming a single global conflict that continued until 1945.

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(3) War Breaks Out in Europe

(a) Simultaneous with declaration of war by France and

Britain against Germany, the USSR also invaded Poland after

signing a nonaggression pact with Japan. By early October

1939, Poland was divided among Germany, the USSR, Lithuania

and Slovakia, although Poland never officially surrendered and

continued the fight outside its borders.

(b) Following the invasion of Poland and a German-Soviet

treaty governing Lithuania, the USSR forced the Baltic countries

to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts

of mutual assistance. In June 1940, the Soviet forces invaded

and occupied the neutral Baltic States. Finland rejected similar

territorial demands and was invaded by the USSR in November

1939. France and the UK treating the Soviet attack on Finland as

tantamount to entering the war on the side of the Germans,

responded by supporting the USSR's expulsion from the League

of Nations.

(c) The USSR and Germany entered a trade pact in February

1940, pursuant to which the Soviets received German military

and industrial equipment in exchange for supplying raw materials

to Germany to help circumvent a British blockade. In April 1940,

Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to secure shipments of

iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies would try to disrupt.

Despite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two

months.

(4) Axis Advances

(a) In May 1940, Germany invaded France, Belgium, the

Netherlands and Luxembourg. The Netherlands and Belgium

were overrun in a few days. French fortified Maginot Line was

circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly

wooded Ardennes region, mistakenly perceived by the French

planners, as an impenetrable natural barrier against armored

vehicles. By early June 1940, Italy also invaded France,

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declaring war on both France and the UK. France surrendered

within few weeks time and was soon divided into German and

Italian occupation zones. British troops were forced to evacuate

the continent at Dunkirk by the end of June 1940.

(b) With France neutralized, Germany began an air

superiority campaign over Britain (Battle of Britain) to prepare for

an invasion. The campaign failed, and the invasion plans were

cancelled by September 1940. Using newly captured French

ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-

extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in

the Atlantic. Italy began operations in the Mediterranean,

initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland

in August, and making an incursion into British held Egypt in

September 1940. Japan also increased its blockade of Chinese

bases in the north. At the end of September 1940, the

Tripartite Pact united Japan, Italy, and Germany to formalize

the Axis Powers. The Axis expanded in November 1940

when Hungary, Slovakia, and Romania also joined the Pact.

(c) In October 1940, Italy invaded Greece but within days

was repulsed and pushed back into Albania. In December 1940,

British Commonwealth forces began counter-offensives against

Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa, and by early 1941,

Italian forces were pushed back into Libya. The Italian Navy also

suffered significant defeats, at the hands of the Royal Navy. The

Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German

forces to Libya where by the end of March 1941, they launched a

successful offensive against the Commonwealth forces.

(d) In early April 1941, following Bulgaria's signing of the

Tripartite Pact, the Germans intervened in the Balkans by

invading Greece and Yugoslavia. Here too, they made rapid

progress, eventually forcing the Allies to evacuate. Germany

conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May 1941.

(e) By October 1941, the USA covertly supported the UK by

creating a security zone spanning roughly half of the Atlantic

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Ocean. As a result, Germany and the USA found themselves

engaged in sustained naval warfare in the North and Central

Atlantic, even though the USA remained officially neutral.

(5) Eastern Theatre

(a) In June 1941, Germany, along with other Axis members

and Finland, invaded the USSR (Operation Barbarossa). The

primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region,

Moscow and Ukraine, with an ultimate goal of ending the

campaign on line connecting the Caspian and White Seas.

Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the USSR as a military

power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum

(living space) by dispossessing the native population, and

guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to

defeat Germany's remaining rivals.

(b) During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into

Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both men and

materiel. By the middle of August 1941, however, the German

Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive and to

divert forces to reinforce troops advancing toward Ukraine and

Leningrad. Later offensive was overwhelmingly successful,

resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies,

and made further advance into industrially developed Eastern

Ukraine possible.

(c) By October 1941, when Axis operational objectives in

Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, a major offensive

against Moscow was renewed. After two months of fierce

battles, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs

of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to

suspend their offensive. Large territorial gains were made by

Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main

objectives; two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet

capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained

a considerable part of its military potential. By early December

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1941, freshly mobilized reserves allowed the USSR to begin a

massive counter offensive and push German troops westwards.

(d) In Southern Russia, Axis launched their main summer

offensive in June 1942, in order to seize the oilfields of the

Caucasus. By mid November the Germans had nearly taken

Stalingrad, when the Soviets began their second winter counter

offensive. The Soviets launched an immediate counter-offensive,

thereby dispelling any hopes of the German army for victory or

even stalemate in the east. By early February 1943, the German

troops at Stalingrad were forced to surrender. Subsequent

German operations in July 1943 were also cancelled partially

due to the Allies' invasion of Sicily.

(e) German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to

increase pressure on European possessions in Southeast Asia.

The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan oil supplies from

the Dutch East Indies and France agreed to a Japanese

occupation of French Indochina. The USA, the UK, and other

western governments reacted to the seizure of Indochina with a

freeze on Japanese assets, while the USA responded by placing

a complete oil embargo. The seizure meant that Japan was

essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions

in Asia or to seize by force, the natural resources it needed. The

Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and

considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.

(f) In December 1941, Japan attacked British and American

possessions with near-simultaneous offensives against

Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These included an

attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, landings in

Thailand and Malaya and the battle of Hong Kong.

Meanwhile, by the end of April 1942, Japan had almost fully

conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and

Singapore, inflicting severe losses on Allied forces. Despite a

stubborn resistance, the Philippine was eventually captured in

May 1942. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the

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South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean. These easy

victories over unprepared opponents left Japan overconfident, as

well as overextended.

(g) In early May 1942, Japan initiated few operations in

Southeast Asia, but all her efforts were thwarted by the Allies.

However, Allies were also unable to make any progress either. In

Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations against

the Japanese. The first, an offensive in late 1942, went

disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943. The

second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese

front-lines that achieved dubious results.

(h) In May 1943, the Allies initiated several operations against

Japan and by April 1943, the Allied forces had neutralized

Japanese army in most of its possessions in the Pacific region.

(6) North African Campaign . In North Africa, the Germans

launched an offensive in January 1941, pushing the British back to

positions at Gazala (Libya) by February 1941. By November 1941,

Commonwealth forces launched a counter-offensive, (Operation

Crusader) in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains, Germans and

Italians had made so far. The front witnessed a see-saw battle in

coming months finally dislodging the Axis forces and pushing them

west across Libya by August 1942. This was followed up shortly after

by an Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa (Algeria), which

resulted in the region joining the Allies. The encircled Axis forces in

Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was finally conquered by the Allies

in May 1943. North African campaign is commonly referred to as a

classical mobile warfare led by two great opposing commanders,

General Montgomery (British) and General Rommel (German).

(7) Allies Counter Strike

(a) In early September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the

Italian mainland, following an Italian armistice with the Allies.

Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military

control of Italian areas, and creating a series of defensive lines.

German Special Forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon

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established a new client state in German occupied Italy. The

Allies fought through successive lines of defense until reaching

the main German defensive line in mid November 1943.

(b) German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May

1943, as Allied counter measures became increasingly effective,

the resulting sizable German submarine losses forced a

temporary halt to the German Atlantic naval campaign. In

November 1943, the USA and British leaders met with

Chinese and Russian leaders and determined the post war

return of Japanese territory. They also agreed that the Allies

would invade Europe in 1944 and that the USSR would

declare war on Japan, within three months of Germany's

defeat.

(c) In January 1944, a major Soviet offensive expelled

German forces from the Leningrad region, ending the longest

and most lethal siege in history. In June 1944, the Soviets

launched another strategic offensive that resulted in almost

complete destruction of the German forces in the east.

Subsequently, the Soviet forces were able to expel German

troops from Western Ukraine, Eastern Poland, Eastern Romania

and Yugoslavia, and forced them rapid withdrawal towards

Greece and Albania. In October 1944, the Soviets launched a

massive assault against German occupied Hungary that lasted

until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. In contrast with

impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, the bitter Finnish

resistance to the Soviet offensive denied the Soviets

occupation of Finland and led to the signing of Soviet-

Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions.

(d) The Allies experienced mixed fortunes in mainland Asia.

In March 1944, the Japanese launched an operation against

British and Commonwealth positions in Northeastern Indian

territories of Assam, Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British

forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops

back to Burma and thus helped Chinese forces to besiege

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Japanese troops in late 1943. Another Japanese invasion

attempted to destroy China's fighting forces, secure railways

between Japanese held territories and capture Allied airfields.

(e) On 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), the Western Allies

invaded Normandy (Northwestern France). These landings

were successful, and led to the defeat of the German army units

in France. Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by

the Free French forces (lead by General Charles de Gaulle) in

August 1944, and the Allies continued to push back German

forces in Western Europe during the latter part of the year. The

Allied offensives in Italy also succeeded and in June 1944, Rome

was captured. However, an attempt to advance into northern

Germany spear headed by a major airborne operation in the

Netherlands ended with a failure.

(f) In the Pacific, American forces continued to press back

the Japanese perimeter. By end October 1944, American naval

forces scored a decisive victory against Japanese forces in one

of the largest naval battles in history.

(8) Axis Collapse and Allied Victory

(a) In December 1944, Germany attempted its last desperate

measure for success on the Western Front by marshalling

German reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the

Ardennes (Belgium). The counter offensive was launched with

an aim to split the Allies, encircle large portions of Allied troops

and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp (Belgium) in

order to prompt a political settlement. However, by January

1945, the offensive was repulsed with no strategic objectives

fulfilled. On eastern front, the Soviets attacked German positions

in Poland, pushed German forces till mainland Germany, and

overran East Prussia. In February 1945, the US, the UK, and

Soviet leaders agreed on the occupation of post war

Germany.

(b) In February 1945, the Soviets invaded Germany’s eastern

front while Allied forces entered Western Germany. By early

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April, the Allies swept across Western Germany, while Soviet

forces stormed Berlin in late April; the two forces linked up on

Elbe River by end April 1945.

(c) In the Pacific theatre, the US forces accompanied by the

forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the

Philippines and destroyed Japanese forces there. British,

American and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern

Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by

May 1945. American forces also moved toward Japan, American

bombers destroyed Japanese cities, and American submarines

cut off Japanese imports.

(d) Several changes in leadership occurred during April

1945. US President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by

Harry Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed and Hitler

committed suicide.

(e) In July 1945, the Allied leaders met in Germany. They

confirmed earlier agreements about post-war Germany, and

reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all

Japanese forces, specifically stating that the alternative for

Japan is prompt and utter destruction. When Japan continued

to reject the terms, the USA dropped atomic bombs on the

Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August.

Meanwhile, the Soviets, pursuant to the agreement, invaded

Japanese held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the Japanese

army by mid August 1945.

c. Aftermath of the Conflict

(1) The alliance between the Allies and the USSR had begun to

deteriorate even before the war was over, and both the powers quickly

established their own spheres of influence. Europe was essentially

divided between Western and Soviet spheres by the Iron Curtain

which ran through and partitioned Allied occupied Germany and

Austria.

(2) The USSR created the Eastern Bloc by directly annexing several

countries it occupied as Soviet Socialist Republics such as Eastern

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Poland, the three Baltic countries, part of eastern Finland and

northeastern Romania. Other states that the Soviets occupied at the

end of the war were converted into Soviet satellite states, such as

Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Albania, and later East

Germany from the Soviet zone of German occupation. In Asia, the USA

occupied Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the

Western Pacific. Japanese governed Korea was divided and occupied

between the USA and the USSR.

(3) Mounting tensions between the USA and the USSR soon

evolved into the formation of the American led NATO and the

Soviet-led Warsaw Pact military alliances and the start of the Cold

War between them.

(4) In an effort to maintain international peace, the Allies

formed the United Nations Organization (UNO), which officially

came into existence in October 1945. The organization played its

pivotal role in maintaining a durable peace across the globe but failed

to settle soaring conflicts, especially ones involving direct or indirect

interests of VETO powers. Resultantly, conflicts flared again in many

parts of the world, soon after the end of World War-II.

(5) Following the end of the war, a rapid period of decolonization

also took place within the possessions of the erstwhile colonial powers.

This primarily occurred due to shifts in ideology, the economic

exhaustion from the war and increased demand by indigenous people

for self-determination.

(6) The controversial phenomenon of Holocaust is also

attributed to Nazis’ discredit. Reportedly, Germans killed

approximately six million Jews, as well as two million ethnic Poles and

four million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including the

disabled and mentally ill, Soviet POWs, homosexuals, Freemasons,

Jehovah's Witnesses, and Romani) as part of a program of deliberate

extermination. The controversy persists even today and occasionally

causes bitterness among those who believe in the massacre and the

ones who question its authenticity.

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d. Various parts of the world had some lasting impacts of the war’s

outcome, notably in Asia and Africa.

(1) Africa

(a) The 20th century brought a growing realization among the

Africans on the dichotomy between Christian teaching of

universal brotherhood and the treatment they received from the

missionaries and their Christian masters. Africans also noticed

the unequal evidences of gratitude they received for their efforts

to support imperialist countries during the world wars. The

African soldiers, after returning home, were willing to use their

new skills to assist nationalist movements fighting for freedom

that were beginning to take shape in the colonies.

(b) European imposed borders did not correspond to

traditional territories, and such new territories provided entities to

focus their efforts for increased political independence. Britain

sought to follow a process of gradual transfer of power while the

French policy of assimilation faced some resentment, especially

in North Africa. France granted independence to Morocco and

Tunisia in 1956 to allow concentration on Algeria, where there

was a long and bloody armed struggle (1954–1962) to achieve

independence. Belgium's initial opposition to independence led

to the general unrest that swept the colony and a rapid granting

of independence and the civil strife that ensued.

(c) The main period of decolonization in Africa began after

World War-II. Growing independence movements, indigenous

political parties and trade unions coupled with pressure from

within the imperialist powers and the USA ensured the

decolonization of virtually the whole of the continent by 1980.

(2) Middle East

(a) Establishment of the League of Arab States .The Arab

League was established in March 1945, as a regional

organization of Arab states in North and Northeast Africa, and

Southwest Asia. Decolonization and independence of several

Arab states prior to and after the World War-II compelled the

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Arabs to have a joint forum to discuss issues of common

concern. The main goal of the league was to draw closer the

relations between member states and co-ordinate collaboration

between them. The Arab League facilitated to a great degree the

political, economic, cultural, scientific and social programs to

promote the interests of the Arab world. It also provided a forum

for the member states to coordinate their policy positions and to

settle some Arab disputes, but so far the Arab League has failed

to settle any of the contentious issues of the Arab World.

(b) Creation of Israel . Many Jews living in the diaspora had

long aspired to return to Zion (Jerusalem). Small groups of the

Jews continued to settle in Palestine from the time of Crusades.

However, the first large wave of modern immigration (known as

First Aliyah) began in the 19th century. The Jewish population

continued to increase in the region with its final figure of 33%

after the Fifth Ailyah, as a consequence of the holocaust during

the World War-II.

(c) After 1945, Britain found itself in fierce conflict with the

Jewish community, as the Jews initiated an armed struggle

against British rule. In 1947, the British government withdrew

from the Mandate of Palestine, stating it was unable to arrive at a

solution acceptable to both the Arabs and the Jews. The newly

created UNO approved the Partition Plan for Palestine in

November 1947, which sought to divide the country into an

independent Arab and a Jewish state. Jerusalem was to be

designated an international city, administered by the UNO.

(d) The Jewish community accepted the plan, but the Arab

League rejected it for being unfair. In December 1947, the Arab

Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike. Civil war broke

out between the two communities and on 14th May 1948, the day

before the expiration of the British Mandate, the Jews

proclaimed independence, naming the country Israel. The

Palestinian Arab economy collapsed and thousands of

Palestinian-Arabs fled or were expelled. Small Israeli state was

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created in 1948, but the map of Greater Israel comprising of all

the Arab territories including Medina was hung in the Israeli

parliament.

(e) Arab-Israel War 1948 . The following day, armies of

four Arab countries i.e. Egypt, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq, attacked

Israel, launching the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Saudi Arabia sent a

military contingent to operate under Egyptian command. Yemen

also declared war but did not take military action. After a year of

fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known

as the Green Line, were established. Jordan annexed what

became known as the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and

Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. About 700,000 Palestinian

refugees were expelled or fled the country during the conflict.

(f) Independence of Nation States .All the Arab countries

adopted their independent Nation State status. Syria and

Lebanon got independence from France and rest of the Arabs

divorced the British Empire. All these new nations refined their

inter-state boundaries peacefully through accords and treaties.

In North African Arab states, Egypt and Sudan got independence

from Britain, Libya from Italy, while Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco

won liberty from France.

(3) Indian Subcontinent

(a) Partition of Indian Subcontinent . Independence

movement continued during the World War-II, and Muslim

League could convince the Muslim population to vote for

independence. 1946 Elections was a litmus test and Muslim

League passed it positively. Muslim League candidates

prevailed over Congress candidates in the provinces of Bengal,

Punjab, Sind and NWFP. Baluchistan was annexed following

ratification by the tribal Jirga. Indian Subcontinent was finally

divided on night between 14th and 15th August 1947, the 27th

night of Ramadan-el-Karim.

(b) Distrust Between India and Pakistan . India, dismayed

with the division of Indian Subcontinent, took the opportunity and

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connived with the British authorities for manipulation in drawing

the borders. This unwelcoming attitude by the government of

India sowed the seeds of distrust between the two neighbors

right from the inception. There was a mass migration from both

sides of the newly drawn borders that was followed by waves of

killing and looting. Handling of millions of refugees added to the

problems for the newly formed government of Pakistan.

(c) Kashmir Problem. The conflict took its roots when

according to the formula of division, the Muslim majority State of

Jammu and Kashmir was not formed part of Pakistan. Raja Hari

Singh, the prince of the state, maliciously delayed the decision

resulting in deep suspicion by the government of Pakistan,

though it was in no position to take any action. Tribal groups

(Pushtun) from Northwest Pakistan took the initiative and waged

war against the state. Prince responded by immediately signing

the document of annexation with India. Indian forces, waiting for

the opportune moment, intervened and halted the tribal advance

on the ceasefire line (later declared as Line of Control). India

took the matter to the UNO, where a historical resolution was

passed that the future of the state will be decided by the people

of Jammu and Kashmir. India is unwilling to act according to UN

resolution and thus the conflict remains to be solved even after

half a century and two wars between India and Pakistan on the

issue of Kashmir.

4. Cold War Era (1945-1991)

a. The Cold War was the continuing state of political conflict, military

tension, proxy wars, and economic competition existing after World War-II,

primarily between the USSR and its satellite states, and the western powers,

particularly the USA. Although the primary participants' military forces never

officially clashed directly, they expressed the conflict through military

coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to states

deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, nuclear arms race,

and economic and technological competitions, such as the Space Race.

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b. There is disagreement among historians regarding the starting point of

the Cold War. While most historians trace its origins to the period immediately

following the World War-II, others argue that it began towards the end of the

World War-I. As a result of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (followed

by its withdrawal from the World War-I), Soviet Russia found itself isolated in

international diplomacy. Its leader Vladimir Lenin perceived the USSR to be

surrounded by a hostile capitalist encirclement, and used diplomacy as a

weapon to keep Soviet enemies divided. He began with the establishment

of the Soviet Comintern, which called for revolutionary upheavals

abroad. Subsequent leader Joseph Stalin pursued the USSR’s capitalist

encirclement to be replaced by a socialist encirclement. This initiated a period

of suspicion and distrust between the western powers and the USSR that was

substantiated by repeated interferences in each others internal problems and

occasional severing of diplomatic relations. Soviet–American relations became

a matter of major long-term policy concern for leaders in both countries.

c. Soviet relations with the West further deteriorated when one week prior

to the start of the World War-II, the USSR and Germany signed a pact to split

Poland and Eastern Europe between the two states. For the next year and a

half, both the powers engaged in an extensive economic relationship, trading

vital war materials until Germany invaded the USSR through the territories that

the two countries had previously divided. Resultantly, the USSR joined the

Allies in 1941. However, the suspicion based relations between the USSR and

the west casted its shadow on the conduct of battle with either side reluctantly

supporting the other’s plans.

d. At the end of the World War-II, the Allies disagreed about how the

European map should look like, and how borders would be drawn. The Allies

desired a security system in which democratic governments were established

as widely as possible, permitting countries to peacefully resolve differences

through international organizations. The USSR sought to increase security by

controlling the internal affairs of countries that bordered it. While the Allies

failed to reach a firm consensus on the framework for post-war settlement in

Europe, the Soviets effectively occupied Eastern Europe.

e. The Cold War between the USSR and the Western powers continued

to deepen with every passing day. Both the sides openly manifested their bias

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during the Korean War (1947–53) and the Chinese Civil War (1946-50). In

1947, the US government announced the adoption of containment policy,

the goal of which was to stop the spread of communism. In early 1948,

the USA and the UK merged their western German occupation zones into

"Bizonia" (later "Trizonia" with the addition of France's zone), agreeing on the

merger of western German areas into a federal governmental system. The

USSR immediately proclaimed its zone of occupation in Germany as the

German Democratic Republic. It was followed by instituting of Berlin

Blockade by the USSR and huge airlift supplies to West Berlin by the

western powers, one of the first major crises of the Cold War.

f. The UK, the USA, France, Canada and eight other Western European

countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty of April 1949, establishing the

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) with an aim to keep the

Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down. A major

propaganda effort begun in 1949 along with the broadcasts of the British

Broadcasting Company (BBC) and the Voice of America (VOA),

dedicated to bringing about a peaceful demise of the Communist

system.

g. In the early 1950s (a period sometimes known as the "Pactomania"),

the US formalized a series of alliances with Japan, Australia, New

Zealand, Thailand and the Philippines (notably ANZUS and SEATO),

thereby guaranteeing the USA a number of long-term military bases. Another

such alliance was also formed in the Middle East with the name of the

Central Treaty Organization (CENTO, also known as the Baghdad Pact).

The pro-Western, anti-communist military alliances of the Mid-east and

Southeast Asia were linked by the membership of Pakistan in both.

h. On the other side, the USSR created a network of mutual assistance

treaties in the Eastern Bloc by 1949 and therefore, situation in Europe

remained an uneasy armed truce. The USSR finally established a formal

alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955. All these developments led to an

Anglo-American alliance against the Soviets, establishing an Iron

Curtain between them. This was manifested by the USSR by

construction of the Berlin Wall in June 1961, to stop massive emigration

of East Germans towards the west.

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5. Developments following the initiation of the Cold War impacted significantly in

shaping the history of remaining part of the 20 th century. Both the rival powers

influenced directly or indirectly to achieve desirable outcome of all these events.

a. Chinese Revolution

(1) The Chinese Revolution in 1949 refers to the final stage of

military conflict (1946–1950) in the Chinese Civil War or according to

Communist Party of China, the War of Liberation. Communist elements

led by Mao Zedong were struggling to over throw the Chinese

government for over a decade, but with the breakdown of peace talks

between the Chinese Nationalist Party and the Communist Party of

China, an all-out war between these two forces started. The USSR

provided limited aid to the communists, whereas the USA assisted the

Nationalists with hundreds of millions of dollars worth of military

supplies and equipment (now surplus PLA munitions).

(2) By late 1948, the Nationalist position was bleak because of the

rampant corruption in government and the accompanying political and

economic chaos including massive hyperinflation. The demoralized and

undisciplined Nationalist troops proved no match for the communist

People's Liberation Army. After numerous operational setbacks in

Manchuria, the communists were ultimately able to seize the region and

capture large Nationalist formations. This provided them with the tanks,

heavy artillery, and other combined-arms assets needed to prosecute

offensive operations south of the Great Wall. In January 1949, Beiping

was taken by the communists without a fight, and its name was

changed back to Beijing. Between April and November, major cities

passed from Nationalist to Communist control with minimal resistance.

In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come

under Communist influence long before the cities; part of the strategy of

people's war.

(3) Ultimately, the People's Liberation Army was victorious. In

October 1949, Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's

Republic of China. Nationalist leader, Chiang Kai-Shek along with

600,000 nationalist troops, and about two million nationalist

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sympathizer refugees, predominantly from the former government and

business communities of the mainland, retreated to the island of

Taiwan and proclaimed the Republic of China. In December 1949

Chiang proclaimed Taipei (Taiwan) as temporary capital of the

Republic, and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate

authority of all China. The last fighting between nationalist and

communist forces ended with the communist capture of Hainan Island

in May 1950.

b. Korean War (1950 – 1953)

(1) One of the most significant impacts of Russian containment by

the west was the outbreak of the Korean War. In June 1950, Kim Il

Sung's North Korean People's Army invaded South Korea. The UN

Security Council backed the defense of South Korea and a

multinational UN force joined to stop the invasion. Among other effects,

the Korean War galvanized NATO to develop a military structure.

(2) On the other hand, North Korea was backed by the USSR and

China. Even though the Chinese and North Koreans were exhausted by

the war and were prepared to end it by late 1952, Stalin insisted to

continue fighting. The war resulted in essentially a stalemate and

ceasefire along 38th Parallel in July 1953, after Stalin's death. South

Korea progressed with western influence, while the North Korean

leader, Kim Il Sung created a highly centralized dictatorship that

continues till today at the hands of his third generation.

c. East-West Competition . Nationalist movements in some countries

and regions, notably Guatemala, Indonesia and Indochina (Southeast Asia)

were often allied with communist groups. In this context, the US and the

USSR increasingly competed for influence by proxy in the Third World as

decolonization gained momentum in the 1950s and early 1960s. The US

utilized the CIA in order to remove a string of unfriendly Third World

governments and to support allied ones. The CIA helped the local military

overthrow civilian governments hostile to the US. Restoration of the Shah

of Iran in 1953 and the military takeover in Guatemala in 1954 are few

examples of these operations. Between 1954 and 1961, the US also sent

economic aid and military advisers to strengthen South Vietnam's pro-western

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regime against communist efforts to destabilize it. The drive continued and the

USA landed its troops in the Dominican Republic in 1966, and the USSR

invaded Czechoslovakia in 1968, to offset any possibility of gaining a foothold

by the rival ideology in their respective domains.

d. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) . Many emerging nations of Asia,

Africa, and Latin America rejected the pressure to choose sides in the East-

West competition. In 1955, at a conference in Indonesia, dozens of Third

World governments resolved to stay out of the Cold War. It led to the

creation of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. However, Moscow

broadened its policy to establish ties with India and other key neutral states.

Independence movements in the Third World transformed the post-war order

into a more pluralistic world of decolonized African and Asian nations.

e. Nuclear and Space Race . On the nuclear weapons front, the US and

the USSR pursued nuclear rearmament and developed long-range weapons

with which they could strike the territory of the other. In August 1957, the

Soviets successfully launched the world's first intercontinental ballistic

missile (ICBM) and in October, launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik.

The launch of Sputnik initiated the Space Race which culminated in the

Apollo Moon landings by the USA in 1969.

f. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) . The Soviet Union formed an alliance

with the Cuban leader Fidel Castro after the Cuban Revolution in 1959. In

1962, the USA responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a

naval blockade. The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world closer to nuclear

war than ever before. It further demonstrated the concept of Mutually

Assured Destruction (MAD) that neither nuclear power was prepared to

use nuclear weapons fearing total destruction via nuclear retaliation. The

aftermath of the crisis led to the first sincere efforts in the nuclear arms race at

nuclear disarmament and improving relations.

g. Vietnam War (1965-73) . The US continued to spend heavily on

supporting friendly Third World regimes in Asia. The USA deployed heavy

troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the National Front for the Liberation of

South Vietnam and their North Vietnamese allies in the Vietnam War, but his

costly policy weakened the US economy and, by 1975, ultimately

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culminated in what most of the world saw as a humiliating defeat of the

world's most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the world's

poorest nations.

h. Establishment of Sino-American Relations . As a result of the Sino-

Soviet split, tensions along the Chinese-Soviet border reached their peak in

1969, and US President Richard Nixon decided to use the conflict to shift the

balance of power towards the west in the Cold War. The Chinese had also

sought improved relations with the US in order to gain advantage over the

Soviets. In February 1972, US President Nixon announced a stunning

rapprochement with the Peoples Republic of China, by traveling to Beijing and

meeting with President Mao Zedong and Prime Minister Zhou Enlai. Pakistan

mediated the meeting and thus played a vital role in the shaping

international power dynamics at the peak of the Cold War.

i. Normalization of East-West Relations and Detente . Following his

China visit, President Nixon met with Soviet leaders in Moscow. These

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks resulted in two landmark arms control treaties

i.e. SALT-I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two

superpowers, and the Anti Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, which banned the

development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. These

aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic and nuclear missiles. US

President Nixon and Soviet President Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of

"peaceful coexistence" and established the groundbreaking new policy

of Detente (cooperation) between the two superpowers. Between 1972

and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic ties,

including agreements for increased trade.

j. Late 1970s Deterioration of Relations . Indirect conflicts between the

superpowers continued, even through this period of detente, particularly

during political crises in the Middle East, Chile, Ethiopia and Angola. Although,

the USA and the USSR negotiated further limitation on strategic arms through

SALT-II agreement in 1979, but these efforts were undermined by the other

events that year. Significant events during 1979 included the Iranian

Revolution and the Nicaraguan Revolution, which both ousted pro-US

regimes, and the US retaliation against Soviet intervention in Afghanistan.

k. Afghanistan War

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(1) During December 1979, heavy Soviet troops invaded

Afghanistan in order to support the Marxist government formed by ex-

Prime-minister Nur Muhammad Taraki, assassinated that September

by one of his party rivals. As a result, the USA withdrew the SALT-II

treaty from the Senate, imposed embargoes on grain and technology

shipments to the USSR, demanded a significant increase in military

spending, and further announced that the USA would boycott the 1980

Moscow Summer Olympics. The USA described the Soviet intervention

in Afghanistan as the most serious threat to the peace since the World

War-II.

(2) The Soviets were convinced that the war in Afghanistan would

be brief, but Muslim guerrillas waged a fierce resistance against the

invasion. The successful resistance movement was later exploited by

the USA and other countries. The Soviets sent troops to support its

puppet regime in Afghanistan, but Moscow's quagmire in Afghanistan

proved to be more disastrous for the Soviets than Vietnam had been for

the Americans. Not only it brought a military defeat for the USSR, but

the conflict coincided with a period of internal decay and domestic crisis

in the Soviet system, eventually leading to the breakup of the USSR.

The USSR withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989.

l. Soviet and US Military and Economic Issues

(1) Moscow had built up a military that consumed as much as

25 percent of the USSR’s gross national product at the expense of

consumer goods and investment in civilian sectors. Soviet spending on

the arms race and other Cold War commitments both caused and

exacerbated deep-seated structural problems in the Soviet system.

(2) The Soviet military became the largest in the world in terms of

the numbers and types of weapons they possessed, in the number of

troops in their ranks, and in the sheer size of their military–industrial

base. By the early 1980s, the USSR had built up a military arsenal and

army surpassing that of the USA. Tensions continued to intensify in

the early 1980s when the USA installed cruise missiles in Europe,

and announced an experimental Strategic Defense Initiative,

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dubbed "Star Wars" by the media, a defense program to shoot

down missiles in mid flight.

(3) With the military buildup by the USA, the USSR did not respond

by further building her military because the enormous military expenses

were already a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. At the same time,

the USA administration persuaded Saudi Arabia to increase oil

production to create the oil glut of 1980s. The move badly affected

the USSR, as oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues.

Falling oil prices and large military expenditures gradually brought the

Soviet economy to stagnation.

m. End of the Cold War

(1) By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev

became General Secretary in 1985, the stagnant Soviet economy

prompted him to investigate measures to revive the ailing state. An

ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes

were necessary and in June 1987, Soviet President Gorbachev

announced an agenda of economic reform called perestroika

(restructuring). Perestroika relaxed the production quota system,

allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign

investment.

(2) Despite initial skepticism in the west, the new Soviet leader

proved to be committed to reversing the USSR’s deteriorating

economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the

western rivals. Partly, as a way to fight off internal opposition from party

cliques to his reforms, President Gorbachev simultaneously

introduced glasnost (openness), which increased freedom of the

press and the transparency of state institutions. Glasnost also enabled

increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world,

particularly with the USA, reinvigorating the era of detente between the

two nations.

(3) In response to the USSR's military and political concessions, the

USA administration agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the

scaling-back of the arms race. There was a series of talks from 1985 to

1987 that led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate-

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Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). East–West tensions rapidly

subsided through 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in

1989, when President Gorbachev and President George Bush (senior)

signed the START-I arms control treaty.

(4) In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan and by 1990

Gorbachev consented to German reunification. In December 1989,

President Gorbachev and President George Bush declared the end

of Cold War at the Malta Summit. A year later, the two nations were

partners in the Gulf War against long time Soviet ally Iraq.

n. Soviet Dissolution

(1) By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse,

and deprived of Soviet military support, the Communist leaders of the

Warsaw Pact states were losing power. In the USSR itself, glasnost

weakened the bonds that held the USSR together and by February

1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the Communist Party

was forced to surrender its 73-year-old monopoly on state power.

(2) At the same time freedom of press and dissent allowed by

glasnost increasingly led the Union's component republics to declare

their autonomy from Moscow. The Baltic States withdrew from the

Union entirely while the revolutionary wave that swept across Central

and Eastern Europe during 1989, overthrew the Soviet style communist

states, such as Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria.

Romania was the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist

regime violently and execute its head of state.

(3) The USSR was fatally weakened by a failed coup and a growing

number of Soviet republics, particularly Russia, who threatened to

secede from the USSR. The Commonwealth of Independent States,

created in December 1991, is viewed as a successor entity to the

USSR but, according to Russia's leaders, its purpose was to allow a

civilized divorce between the Soviet Republics. The USSR was

declared officially dissolved in December 1991. A similar effort by

Chinese students in famous Tiananmen Square was crushed by

the Chinese government in April 1989.

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(4) Central Asian Republics . With the breakup of former USSR,

seven independent states with a predominant Muslim population

emerged in Central Asia, namely Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,

Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. However,

draconian Russian occupation for about three quarters of a century left

deep imprints on the Muslim societies of these states. Moreover,

abundance of natural resources in the region put them highly

vulnerable to external influences. These states are still in the process of

gaining stability along with reverting to their rich Islamic heritage. In

sharp contrast to their understandable secular outlook, Islamist

elements of adjacent mainland Russian territory of Chechnya

revolted against the Federation, and continue to be a hard pill to

swallow for the Russians till to date.

(5) Bosnian Crisis

(a) Yugoslavia was one of the East European states that

witnessed the demise of the communism but failed to retain its

own integrity. Bosnia was a central region of former Yugoslavia

and therefore was peaceful and prosperous, besides being a

strategic base for military concentration and development of the

military defense industry. With the breakup of Yugoslavia, some

of its regions declared independence, putting Bosnia and

Herzegovina, and its three constituent peoples (Bosnian

Muslims, Croatian Catholics and Serbian Orthodox) in an

awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue

of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly

favored among Serbs) or seek independence (mostly favored

among Bosnians and Croats).

(b) Subsequently, Serbs and Croats both tried to lay hands

on the Bosnian territory to be annexed with their independent

states, but Bosnia and Herzegovina declared their sovereignty in

October 1991. It was followed by a referendum for independence

from Yugoslavia in early 1992 which was boycotted by the great

majority of the Serbs. Bosnia and Herzegovina declared

independence on the basis of public approval in the referendum.

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Following a tense period of escalating tensions and sporadic

military incidents, open warfare began in Sarajevo in April 1992.

The state administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina effectively

ceased to function having lost control over the entire territory.

Bosnian Muslims, the only ethnic group loyal to the Bosnian

government, were an easy target for both the Serbs and the

Croats, because the Bosnian government forces were poorly

equipped and unprepared for the war.

(c) International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina

increased diplomatic pressure for the Yugoslavian forces to

withdraw from the republic's territory which they officially did.

However, in fact, the Bosnian Serb members of the Yugoslavian

forces simply changed insignia and continued fighting as an

irregular militia. Armed and equipped from military stockpiles

already available in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and

paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive

humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbian militia’s offensives in 1992

managed to place much of the Bosnian territory under its control.

(d) Bosnians’ houses and apartments were systematically

ransacked or burnt, Bosnian civilians were rounded up or

captured, and sometimes beaten or killed. Men and women were

separated, with many of the men detained in the camps and

women dishonored. Serbians conducted genocide and a

deliberate ethnic cleansing in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in which

almost 200,000 Bosnians were killed. Croats also unleashed

similar atrocities with the Bosnian Muslims. Over two million

refugees were displaced by the end of the war.

(e) A NATO bombing campaign against Serbian militia began

in August 1995. Meanwhile, a ground offensive by the allied

forces of Croatia and Bosnia, (based on a treaty concluded in

1994), pushed the Serbs away from territories held in Western

Bosnia which paved the way to negotiations. In December 1995,

the signing of the Dayton Agreement by the presidents of Bosnia

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and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia brought a halt to the

fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present

day state. Pakistan played a positive role politically as well

as militarily to assist the Bosnian brethren.

6. Though, impressions of the Cold War can be traced in all the happenings of

the later half of the 20th century. However, decolonization and independence

movements across Asia, Africa and South America continued to take its own course.

a. Muslim World / Middle East

(1) Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC)

(a) Since centuries, the Muslims had aspired to have one

singular Ummah to address their common political, economic,

and social interests. Despite presence of many secularist,

nationalist and socialist ideologies, in modern Muslim states, all

of them cooperated together to form OIC in 1969. The formation

of OIC was also triggered by the loss of Muslim holy sites in

Jerusalem during Arab-Israel War of 1967. OIC has 57 member

and few observer states. Few countries like India and Philippine

also aspire to have an access to the organization but is opposed

by the member states.

(b) According to its charter, the OIC aims to preserve Islamic

social and economic values; promote solidarity amongst member

states; increase cooperation in social, economic, cultural,

scientific, and political areas; uphold international peace and

security; and advance education, particularly in the fields of

science and technology.

(c) The Organization has held periodical summits throughout

its history and leaders from across the Muslim World have been

giving some novel ideas to reinvigorate a true Islamic identity

and a due status in the modern world, but the organization has

so far proved to be a dragon without teeth. OIC summit of 1974,

hosted by Pakistan, and the decisions reached at during the

conference, is considered to be one of its biggest

achievements.

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(2) Arab-Israel Conflict

(a) Arab-Israel conflict continued and during the 1950s and

Israel was frequently attacked by Palestinian fedayeen, mainly

from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip. Arab nationalists led by

Egyptian President Jamal Abdel Nasser refused to recognize

Israel, calling for its destruction. By 1966, Israeli-Arab relations

had deteriorated to the point of actual battles taking place

between official Israeli and Arab forces. In 1967, Egypt

expelled UN peacekeepers, stationed in the Sinai Peninsula

since 1957, and announced a partial blockade of Israel's access

to the Red Sea. Israel launched the Six-Day War in which

Israel achieved a decisive victory and captured the West

Bank, Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights.

Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged and the 1949 Green Line

became the administrative boundary between Israel and the

occupied territories.

(b) The failure of the Arab states in the 1967 war led Arab

non-state actors to take the central role in the conflict. Most

important among them is the Palestinian Liberation

Organization (PLO), established in 1964, which initially

committed itself to armed struggle as the only way to

liberate the homeland. In the late 1960s and early 1970s,

Palestinian groups launched a wave of attacks against Israeli

targets around the world, including massacre of Israeli athletes

at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich.

(c) On 6th October 1973, as Jews were observing Yom

Kippur, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise

attack against Israel. Egyptian Army made a stunning advance

across Suez Canal but failed to sustain its operations later. The

war ended with Israel successfully repelling Egyptian and Syrian

forces but suffering great losses.

(d) In 1977, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat made a trip

to Israel and spoke to the Jews’ leaders. It was the first ever

recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state. In the two

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years that followed, both the sides signed the Camp David

Accord and the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Israel withdrew from

the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over

autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.

President Anwar El Sadat was later assassinated during a

military parade in October 1981.

(e) In 1982, Israel intervened in the Lebanese Civil War to

destroy the bases from which the PLO launched attacks and

missiles at northern Israel. It initiated the First Lebanon War.

Notorious Sabra and Shatila massacre took place in the

Sabra and Shatila Palestinian refugee camps in Beirut.

Thousands of refugees were massacred in the camps by some

Lebanese Christian groups while the camp was surrounded by

Israeli forces. The Israeli forces occupied Beirut, dominated the

refugee camps of Palestinians and controlled the entrance to the

city. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but

maintained a borderland buffer zone until 2000.

(f) Hamas (Islamic Resistance Movement) emerged as a

Palestinian Islamist socio-political organization, with a

strong military wing. Based largely upon the principles of

Islamic fundamentalism, that were gaining momentum

throughout the Arab world in the 1980s, Hamas was founded

as an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood in 1987, during

the First Intifada. Sheik Ahmed Yassin declared in 1987 that

Hamas was founded for the purpose of Jihad, to liberate

Palestine from Israeli oppression and to establish an Islamic

state there. The Hamas affiliated military wing used the tactics

that included rocket attacks and from 1993, until they ceased in

2005, suicide bombings. The group maintains its strong following

in Gaza Strip while the West Bank territory is the stronghold of

PLO-inspired Al-Fatah group.

(g) In 1992, the government of Israel adapted a policy to

promote compromise with Israel's neighbors. The following year,

the state of Israel and the PLO, signed the Oslo Accord,

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which gave the Palestinian National Authority the right to

self govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The

PLO also recognized Israel's right to exist and pledged an end to

terrorism. In 1994, the Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace was

signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize

relations with Israel. However, Arab public support for the

Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israeli settlements

and checkpoints. Israeli public support for the Accords also

waned as Israel was struck by Palestinian suicide attacks.

Finally, while leaving a peace rally in November 1995, Israeli

Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by a far-right-

wing Jew who opposed the Accords.

(h) At the end of the 1990s, Israel withdrew from Hebron and

signed the Wye River Memorandum, giving greater control to the

Palestinian National Authority. During 1999, the state of Israel

withdrew forces from Southern Lebanon, to mark the beginning

of the new millennium.

(3) Iranian Revolution (1979)

(a) Religious elements of Iranian society mobilized the

masses and staged a successful revolt against pro-west Iran's

monarchy (Pahlavi Dynasty) under Shah Mohammad Reza

Pahlavi and replaced it with an Islamic republic under Ayatollah

Ruhollah Khomeini. Common Iranians were angered with Shah’s

rule due to continuing economic strife, rampant corruption by the

Shah and his family and deliberate westernization of Iranian

society by the regime.

(b) Shia Muslim leadership led anti government protests,

which started in 1977 and continued to gain pace with every

passing day. No outside support or open use of military could put

a hold on the demonstrations. In September 1978, Shah

imposed Martial Law, but to no avail. On 8 September (Black

Friday), millions of protestors walked across the streets of

Tehran and accepted several deaths at the hand of military. By

the end of 1978, Shah’s rule was so weak that he was only

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looking for stay in Iran, which was never agreed to by the violent

protestors. Shah and his family left Iran in January 1979 and

Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran, after 14 years of exile, in

February 1979. He was given a warm welcome and made

“Supreme Leader” of Theocratic Iran in December 1979.

(c) By the end of 1979, demand for the return of Shah for trial

and execution grew in Iran. In November 1979 youthful Islamists,

invaded the US embassy compound and seized its 52 staff

members. The Hostage Crisis continued for several months

even after Shah’s death, with all the hostages released after

444 days in January 1980.

(4) Iran-Iraq War (1980 - 1988) . In September 1980, the Arab

Nationalist and Sunni Muslim dominated regime of Saddam Hussein in

Iraq invaded Iran in an attempt to take advantage of revolutionary

chaos and destroy the revolution in its infancy. However, the cause of

the invasion can also be attributed to the history of border conflicts

between the two countries, Iraq’s urge to replace Iran as a major

Persian Gulf Power, and to prevent dormant Shia majority of Iraq to be

sensitized by the Iranian revolution. Iranians rallied behind their new

government helping to stop and then reversing the Iraqi advance. By

early 1982 Iran regained almost all the territory lost to Iraq. The USA

and other western powers openly came to support Iraq putting aside all

the differences arising from Arab-Israel conflict. War continued till 1988

with no worthwhile gain for any side. It however, ignited Shia-Sunni

strife across the Muslim World, Pakistan being worse hit.

(5) Afghan War and Rise of Jihadist Culture . Afghan resistance

struggle against Russian onslaught was mainly comprised of the local

religious elements. Soon after, the movement drew support from

various religious groups of Pakistan from across the border. These

dedicated volunteers stunned the world by frustrating the Russian

military might. Counting on the favorable prospects of the opportunity,

the USA and her allies extended an all out support to the Muslim World

to wage Jihad against Russian Forces in Afghanistan. Call for Jihad

attracted many from across the Muslim World, who gathered in

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Afghanistan, and stayed there for good. Jihadists were able to push

back Russian Forces by 1989, contributing to its eventual

disintegration, but Jihadist culture left deep imprints on the Muslim

societies across the World. It offered a new weapon to independence

and resistance movements. Jihadists on one hand started to pinch

various occupation forces, while on the other hand it threatened many

non representative governments across the Muslim World, especially in

the Arab World. Aligning themselves with the west, these Muslim rulers

went on to condemn and crush the Jihadists, thus initiating an internal

strife within various segments of the Muslim societies. However, it

goes without saying that some sectarian and frustrated outfits,

possibly supported by some secret agencies, adopted the new

trend to further their vested interests. It brought a bad name for

the sacred phenomena of Jihad, besides creating a near civil war

situation in the effected societies like Pakistan.

b. Africa. Decolonized Africa continued to suffer from the after

effects of the colonial period. Worse hit were resources rich ex-French

colonies in West African, ex-Belgian colony in Congo and ex-Portuguese

colony of Angola. Civil wars broke out in these countries and UNO was

compelled to deploy peace keeping forces to handle the situation. German

and Italian colonies (less Libya) also suffered from instability and economic

strife. British colonies in Africa remained relatively stable except for Sierra

Leone civil war in East Africa, Darfur crisis in Sudan and an anti-apartheid

movement in South Africa, led by Nelson Mandela.

c. South America . The continent became a battlefield of the Cold War

in the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of

Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced

by the USA aligned military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. Many of

these dictators, genocides and torturers were trained in violation of

human rights by the USA in the infamous School of the Americas. To

curtail opposition, these governments detained tens of thousands of political

prisoners, many of whom were tortured or killed on inter-state collaboration.

Economically, South America began a transition to neoliberal economic

policies. They placed their own actions within the US Cold War doctrine of

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"National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and

1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict, Argentina and Britain fought the

Falklands war in 1982 and Colombia still faces an internal conflict at the hands

of private armies of powerful drug lords.

d. Indian Subcontinent

(1) Indo-Pak Wars . History of relations between the two

countries remained distorted. After the initial controversy over Kashmir

and teething problems for the newly formed government of Pakistan,

first to come was the border dispute over Rann of Kach in 1956. Later,

both the countries fought three major wars till to date.

(a) Indo-Pakistan War of 1965 . After having failed to

persuade India to settle the Kashmir issue in accordance with

UN resolution, Pakistan decided to sensitize the Kashmiries and

support them to precipitate an insurgency (Operation Gibraltar)

against an unlawful Indian occupation there. India retaliated by

launching an all out war, not at all anticipated by Pakistan. The

five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and

was witness to the largest tank battle in military history since the

World War-II. It ended in a UNO mandated ceasefire and the

subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.

(b) Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 . This war was precipitated by

the crisis brewing in erstwhile East Pakistan after 1970 Election

controversy in Pakistan. An ill perceived military operation in

East Pakistan (Operation Searchlight) to quell Indian sponsored

rebellion resulted in mass killings and resultant mistrust between

the two wings. Looking for an opportune moment, India

intervened in the garb of her apprehensions on impending

humanitarian crisis. After a failed pre-emptive strike by Pakistan,

full-scale hostilities between the two countries commenced.

Within two weeks of intense fighting, Pakistani forces

surrendered to India following which the People's Republic of

Bangladesh was created. This war saw the highest number of

casualties in any of the Indo-Pakistan conflicts, as well as the

largest number of prisoners of war since the World War-II.

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(c) Kargil War of 1999 . The conflict between the two

countries was mostly limited to border skirmishes along northern

part of Line of Control. Pakistani troops along with Kashmiri

insurgents infiltrated across the Line of Control (Operation Koh-

e-Paima) and occupied Indian Territory mostly in the Kargil

district. Pakistan believed that its newly developed nuclear

weapons would deter a full-scale escalation, but India launched

a major military campaign to flush out the infiltrators. Due to

internal strife between the civil and military leadership and a

successful exterior maneuver by India, Pakistan was forced to

withdraw its forces back to pre-hostility period.

(d) No Peace-No War . Peace between the two nations

remained questionable even when there was no war. The region

always remained in No Peace-No War situation. There have

been quite a few peace initiatives between the two countries at

various occasions, but all these efforts terminated on some

impasse involving directly or indirectly the issue of Kashmir.

Besides, there have been some bitter periods in between,

especially during Sikh liberation movement of mid 1980s,

Kashmir independence movement of 1990s and military

gesturing by India in 1986, 2001 and 2008.

(2) South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation . Towards

the end of the Col War era, in 1984, Pakistan suggested to integrate

seven South Asian nations, namely India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri

Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives to form a regional block. The block

so farmed was named as South Asian Association for Regional

Cooperation (SAARC). SAARC played a major role in bringing closer its

member states and foster regional cooperation. Though the association

is not mandated to resolve soaring problems of the region, but it

provides a forum to maintain contact even during periods of high

tension between the member states. Given the member countries

manage to resolve their mutual differences, the association has an

immense potential to benefit the member states through regional trade.

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(3) Economic Cooperation Organization . Pakistan is also

connected with western and northwestern neighbors through Economic

Cooperation Organization (ECO). It is an intergovernmental regional

organization established in 1985 by Iran, Pakistan and Turkey for the

purpose of promoting economic, technical and cultural cooperation

among the member states. It was the successor organization of what

was the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD), founded in

1962, but ceased its activities in 1979. In 1992, the ECO expanded to

include seven new members, namely Afghanistan, Azerbaijan,

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. The

status and power of the ECO is growing. However, the organization

faces many challenges. Most importantly, the member states are

lacking appropriate infrastructure and institutions which the

Organization is primarily seeking to develop in order to make full use of

the available resources in the region. Pakistan also enjoys observer

status in China led Shanghai Cooperation Organization.

7. New World Order (1991 Onwards) . The term "new world order" is

generally used to refer to any new period of history evidencing a dramatic change in

world political thought and the balance of power. The notion has been used with call

for a League of Nations following the devastation of World War-I, and again at the

end of World War-II when describing the plans for the UNO. The most widely

discussed application of the phrase of recent times came at the end of the Cold War,

when Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and President George Bush used the term to try

to define the nature of the post Cold War era, and the spirit of great power

cooperation that they hoped might materialize. Following significant developments

took place as a consequence of the new world order.

a. The USA Emerging as Sole Super Power . It took almost a year

before the notion of the new world order could be progressively redefined.

Throughout this period, the public seemed to expect much more from the

phrase than any politicians did, and predictions about the new order quickly

faded away. Expectations from the new world order included issues like

nuclear disarmament, UN strengthening, implications for NATO and the

Warsaw Pact, European integration including inclusion of the Soviets in

international system and the polarity of the international system.

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However, all this contemplation proved not more than just the rhetoric about

superpower cooperation. In fact, the deeper reality of the new world order was

that the USA emerged as the single greatest power in a multipolar world.

Practically, it was going to be a unipolar world.

b. Clash of Civilizations Theory . The theory was proposed by a

political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, in 1992, that people's cultural and

religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post Cold War

world. He hypnotized that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world

will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions

among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural.

Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the

principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of

different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global

politics and the fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of

the future. He also argued that the Islamic civilization has experienced a

massive population explosion which is fueling instability both on the borders of

Islam and in its interior, where fundamentalist movements are becoming

increasingly popular. Huntington predicted Islamic civilization as a

potential ally to China and likelihood of a Western-Islamic clash that

would represent the bloodiest conflicts of the early 21st century.

c. Gulf War-I (1990-91) . One of the biggest surprises during rapidly

reshaping new world order was Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in August 1990.

Saddam Hussein with Iraq’s military might became a security threat, calling for

international support to punish the aggression. It became a litmus test for the

world powers to cooperate for global peace. US President Bush linked the fate

of the new world order on the ability of the US and Russia to respond to

Saddam Hussein’s aggression. Rallying the international support and UN

mandate, President Bush went on to lead the world community to an

unprecedented degree. The USA deployed bulk of the coalition’s troops

(approximately one million soldiers) in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to a great

dismay to the Muslims in general. Moreover, 40 billion USD of the 60 billion

USD cost was paid by Saudi Arabia. The USA emerged as the prime

beneficiary of the crisis, convincingly establishing its unchallenged primacy.

The idea that the Gulf War would usher in the new world order began to take

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shape. President Bush outlined his post Iraq War plan for maintaining a

permanent US Naval presence in the Gulf, for providing funds for Middle

East development, and for instituting safeguards against the spread of

unconventional weapons. The centerpiece of his program, however, was

stated to be the achievement of an Arab-Israeli treaty based on the

territory for peace principle.

d. Overt Nuclearization of South Asia (1998) . India and Pakistan

surprised the world in 1998 by conducting nuclear explosions one after the

other. International community became deeply concerned and highly sensitive

to the possibility of nuclear proliferation beyond South Asia. Issues like

safeguarding nuclear assets from falling into the hands of extremists made

media headlines. Dr A.Q.Khan’s so called underground network also came

into lime light during this time. UN nuclear watchdog agency (IAEA) became

proactive giving rise to controversies over nuclear inspections by aspiring

states like Iran, Iraq and North Korea. Iraq’s power potential was decisively

destroyed during Iraq War of 2003, whereas Iran and North Korea continue to

suffer intense international pressure and tight scrutiny. Brazil is yet another

aspirant of the nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and therefore supports

similar stance by Iran. There is a deep suspicion in the west over the security

issues of Pakistan’s nuclear program as well.

e. Al-Qaeda Factor . Unscrupulous world leadership in general and the

Muslim leaders in particular, did not appreciate the need to bring erstwhile

Jihadists’ cadre into main stream, which then turned to concentrate in

Afghanistan and Africa. Later, this element shifted to Afghanistan after US

embassy bombings of 1998 in Nairobi (Kenya) and Dar-es-Salam (Tanzania).

The US launched a bombing campaign against suspected Al Qaeda hideouts

inside Afghanistan and Sudan, but to no gain. Later, USS Cole bombing in

Gulf of Aden in October 2000 and millennium attack plots including an

attempted bombing of Los Angeles International Airport compelled the

international community to take a serious note of the issue of terrorism.

Western media made Osama Bin Laden, the most wanted person of the

world and his network being the biggest security threat for world peace.

Non state actors started to gain prevalence and terrorism became the order of

the day, especially in the Muslim societies. Taliban government in Afghanistan

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came under heavy criticism from the west, despite its marvelous

achievements in restoring peace and eliminating poppy production. In the

absence of a prudent and bold leadership in the Muslim World, the practicing

Muslims were labeled as fundamentalists as against the westernized segment

of the Muslim societies, who were termed as moderates. It left a big majority of

the Muslims in a state of complete chaos between the two extremes. In

political realm, distinction between the freedom struggles and terrorist groups

diminished and occupation forces consolidated their control over disputed

territories, Kashmir and Palestine being worse effected.

f. Domination of Multinational Enterprise . Globalization of economy

through formal mechanisms like World Trade Organization (WTO) and

invisible forces like multinational corporations took roots towards the end of

the 20th century. Control of comparatively weaker Third World economies was

thus taken over by the strong economic bases in the west and the USA,

mostly dominated by the Jews. Gradually, most of the third world economies

lost their capacity and will to optimize their own resources rather than living on

the resuscitation of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and bailouts provided by

the World Bank (WB) and International Monitory Fund (IMF), against

disastrous conditions. Muslim World with its immense material and vibrant

human resource once again found themselves as the biggest losers in this

globalization drive.

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PART - 6

WORLD IN THE 21 ST CENTURY

1. Global War on Terror . The Global War on Terror (also known as the World

War-III) is the ongoing international military campaign led by the USA and Britain with

the support of other NATO and some non-NATO countries like Pakistan. The

campaign was launched in 2001 with the invasion of Afghanistan in response to the

9/11 terrorist strikes on World Trade Centre, New York. Later, another operation was

launched against Iraq, beginning with a 2003 invasion. Both these operations were

originally waged against al-Qaeda and other terrorist organizations with the purpose

of eliminating them. The USA defined the objectives in the War on Terror as to

Defeat terrorists and destroy their organizations, deny sponsorship, support

and sanctuary to terrorists, and to enable weak states, persuade reluctant

states and compel unwilling states to win the war at any cost. The notion of War

on Terror is however, criticized for lacking a defined and identifiable enemy, thus

making it a potential framework for perpetual military action pursuing other goals like

American control of Middle East oil and subsequent domination of the world. US

Strategy of Unilateralism and Pre-emption came into full swing during the campaign.

a. Military Operations – Afghanistan

(1) Operation Enduring Freedom was the official name used by the

Bush administration for the War in Afghanistan. US President Bush

delivered an ultimatum to the Taliban government of Afghanistan

to turn over Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda leaders operating in

the country or face attack. The Taliban government demanded

evidence of bin Laden's link to the 9/11 attacks. The US refused to

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provide any evidence and in October 2001, US forces (with UK and

coalition allies) invaded Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime.

December 2001 saw the creation of the NATO-led International

Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to assist the Afghan Transitional

Administration and the first post-Taliban elected government led by

President Hamid Karzai.

(2) The invasion began with British and US forces conducting

deadly airstrike campaigns. Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan, fell by

mid November 2001. The remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban remnants

fell back to the rugged mountains of Eastern Afghanistan (Tora Bora). It

is believed that Osama bin-Laden escaped into the tribal areas of

Pakistan during the battle.

(3) In March 2002, the USA and other NATO and non-NATO forces

launched another operation with the hope that they will destroy the

remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban forces in the mountains. The Taliban

suffered heavy casualties and partly retreated to the tribal areas of

Pakistan, through the porous border between the two countries, in

order to regroup and unleash an insurgent style offensive against

the US led forces in Afghanistan. Throughout Southern and Eastern

Afghanistan, firefights broke out between the surging Taliban and

Coalition forces. The USA and her allies responded with a series of

military offensives and an increase in the amount of troops in

Afghanistan, but to no avail. Moreover, international support for the US

cooled when America made clear its determination to invade Iraq in late

2002. Lately, coalition forces launched Operation Moshtarak in

February 2010, in Southern Afghanistan with the hope that they

will destroy the Taliban insurgency once and for all. This operation

also met the same fate as was the case before. Presently, peace talks

are underway between Taliban affiliated fighters and the coalition

forces. Force withdrawal plans have also been announced by the USA.

b. Military Operations – Philippines . In January 2002, the US forces

were deployed to the Philippines to advise and assist the Armed Forces of the

Philippines in combating Filipino Islamist groups. The operations were mainly

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focused on removing the Abu Sayyaf Group and Jemaah Islamiyah from their

strongholds.

c. Military Operations - Horn of Africa (Somalia) . In October 2002,

the Combined Joint Task Force was established in Djibouti. The primary goal

of the task force was to monitor, inspect, board and stop suspected shipments

from entering the Horn of Africa region and affecting the US' Operation Iraqi

Freedom. The task force also monitors the activities of the Islamic Courts

Union, an Islamist faction campaigning on restoration of law and order in

Somalia through Shariah Law, and has rapidly taken control of much of

southern Somalia. Operations of the task force also included the training of

selected armed forces of the regional countries in counter-terrorism and

counter-insurgency tactics. Lately, the program expanded as part of the Trans-

Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative, to assist in training the armed forces of

Chad, Niger, Mauritania and Mali. Surprisingly, the Trans-Saharan

Counterterrorism Initiative does not take into account Sudan, where

hundred of thousands have died in an ongoing civil war.

d. Military Operations – Iraq

(1) Iraq was listed as a state sponsor of international terrorism

by the USA since 1990, when Saddam Hussein fell out of US favor.

After the Gulf War-I, the US, French and British militaries instituted and

began patrolling Iraqi no-fly zones in the garb of protecting Iraq's

Kurdish minority and Shia Arab population, both of which suffered

attacks from the Hussein regime before and after the Gulf War.

Meanwhile, the US forces continued its deployments and launched

another operation against Iraq in 1998 after it failed to meet US

demands of "unconditional cooperation" in weapons inspections. Iraq

responded by resuming its attempts to shoot down US aircrafts.

(2) In 1998, President Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act, which

called for regime change in Iraq on the basis of its alleged possession

of weapons of mass destruction, oppression of Iraqi citizens, and

attacks on other Middle Eastern countries. UN also offered Iraq a final

opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations, or to face

serious consequences. However, UN resolution did not authorize

the use of force by member states.

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(3) In October 2002, after failing to overcome opposition from

France, Russia and China, the USA assembled a Coalition of the

Willing, composed of nations who pledged support for its policy of

regime change in Iraq. Iraq was once again attacked in March 2003.

(4) US President Bush announced that major combat operations in

Iraq had ended. However, an insurgency arose against the US-led

coalition and the newly developing Iraqi military and post-Saddam

government. This insurgency led to far more coalition casualties than

the invasion. Elements of the insurgency were led by fugitive members

of President Saddam’s regime, Iraqi nationalists and Islamists who

claimed to be fighting a religious war to reestablish the Islamic

Caliphate of centuries past.

(5) In April 2004, images from Abu Ghuraib torture cell exposed the

true face of the US policy in Iraq. Third degree interrogation techniques

were used against the Iraqi youth in addition to their humiliation at the

hand of their captives. This episode was a big blow for the US led

Global War on Terror. Inhuman and humiliating treatment at Abu

Ghuraib surpassed that of Guantanamo Bay (Cuba) and Bagram

(Afghanistan) detention centers.

(6) In January 2007, President Bush presented a new strategy

for Operation Iraqi Freedom based upon counter-insurgency

theories and tactics developed by General David Petraeus (later

placed as the commander of US forces in Afghanistan). The Iraq

war troop surge of 2007 and US backing of Sunni groups, it had

previously sought to defeat, was part of this new way forward that has

been credited with a widely recognized dramatic decrease in violence in

Iraq. The war entered a new phase in September 2010, with the

official end of US combat operations. However, 50,000 US troops

remain in an advice and assist role to provide support for Iraqi security

forces.

e. Pakistan’s Involvement

(1) Following the 9/11 attacks, former President of Pakistan,

General Pervez Musharraf sided with the USA against the Taliban

government in Afghanistan, after an ultimatum by the US President

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George Bush. Musharraf succumbed to the pressure and agreed to

allow the use of three airbases for Operation Enduring Freedom.

President Musharraf addressed the people of Pakistan and stated

that, while he opposed military tactics against the Taliban,

Pakistan risked being endangered by an alliance of India and the

US if it did not cooperate. The decision was widely opposed by

various segments of Pakistani society; the political circles blamed

government for its inability to bargain a better deal, while the religious

elements termed it a betrayal to Muslim brethren of Afghanistan.

(2) In 2002, the Musharraf led government took a firm stand

against the jihadi organizations and groups promoting extremism,

and arrested Maulana Masood Azhar (Jaish-e-Mohammed) and Hafiz

Muhammad Saeed (Lashkar-i-Taiba), and took dozens of other activists

into custody. Some of them are still missing. An official ban was also

imposed on these groups. Later that year, the Saudi born Zayn al-Abidn

Muhammad Husain Abu Zubaydah, a high-ranking al-Qaeda official

was arrested by Pakistani officials during a series of joint US-Pakistan

raids. Other prominent al-Qaeda members were arrested in the

following two years, namely Ramzi Binalshibh, a financial backer of al-

Qaeda operations, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the third highest

ranking official in al-Qaeda and allegedly been directly in charge of the

planning for the September 11 attacks. Disappearance of Dr. Afia

Siddiqui also occurred during the same period.

(3) President Musharraf coined a new concept of Enlightened

Moderation. Initially, the concept drew attention of many as it promised

progressivism and multidimensional growth. However, its interpretation

and subsequent manifestation by the Musharraf administration further

deepened the internal strife. It was generally perceived to be a pro-west

strategy to suppress Islamic sentiment and to promote secular element

of the society. Electronic media played instrumental in the propagation

of the concept, but failed to win public approval.

(4) In 2004 the Pakistani Army launched a campaign (Operation

Al Meezan) in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), to

flush out militants on Pakistani side of the Durand Line. The operation

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confronted the religious groups with the military and thus attraction

widespread criticism from across the country. President Musharraf also

survived couple of suicide attempts launched by some of the militant

groups in 2004. The USA initiated a campaign of Drone attacks to

support the operations against so called common enemy, causing

thousands of deaths till today.

(5) Pakistan Army operations in FATA region triggered a near civil

war situation in various parts of the country. Taking advantage of the

situation, a military operation (Operation Destiny) was also

launched in Baluchistan to establish writ of government in the

tribal society. The operation could only worsen the problem, especially

after the tragic assassination of Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti in August

2006. Subsequently, self created judicial crisis and mishandling of Lal

Masjid operation by Musharraf administration triggered a new wave of

terror in the settled areas of Pakistan. Soon, Pakistan Army also found

itself confronted with yet another challenge in Swat Valley. Armed

struggle by Islamist radicals for enforcement of Sharia Law was

somehow hijacked by some foreign spy agencies inviting a military

response by the government. Operation Rah-i-Rast was launched in

2008, followed by Operation Rah-i-Nejat to regain control of the

valley.

f. Israel Taking Advantage of The Global War on Terror

(1) Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak initiated negotiations with the

Chairman of the Palestinian Authority, Yasser Arafat, at the 2000 Camp

David Summit. During the summit, Barak offered a plan for the

establishment of a Palestinian state, but Yasser Arafat rejected it. After

the collapse of the talks and a controversial visit by Prime Minister

Ariel Sharon to the Temple Mount, the Second Intifada began,

during late 2000. Israel employed military might for target killing of

Hamas leadership and to reduce its strongholds.

(2) In July 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's

northern border communities and a cross border abduction of two

Israeli soldiers sparked the month long Second Lebanon War. At

the end of the year, Israel entered another conflict as a ceasefire

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between Hamas and Israel collapsed. The Gaza War lasted three

weeks ending with Israel’s announcement of ceasefire under

immense international pressure. Hamas also announced ceasefire,

with its own conditions of complete withdrawal and opening of border

crossings with Egypt.

2. Nations, Regions and Organizations in the 21 st Century

a. Inefficacy of UNO . Emergence of the new world order and US strategy

of unilateralism exposed the inefficacy of the UNO to address the global

challenges and security concerns of the 21st century. Reformation of the UNO

by enhancing its relevance and effectiveness for the world’s people in the 21st

century thus became a priority concern of the member states. However, only a

lip service has been extended by the major powers to address this sensitive

issue. No concrete steps have been initiated so far and UNO is proceeding

with its conventional role. Besides its failure in handling the security issues

world over, much boasted Millennium Development Goals, scheduled to be

completion by 2015, are falling far behind in timeline. Some emerging

nations are also aspiring to join the powerful club of UN Security

Council, namely Germany, Japan, Brazil and India.

b. EU Providing Counter Weight

(1) The European Union (EU) was established in 1993 as an

economic and political union of 27 member states which are located

primarily in Europe. Committed to regional integration, it continued to

expand till 2007. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date

when ten Eastern European nations joined the Union. There are four

official candidate countries, Croatia, Iceland, Macedonia, and Turkey.

EU has also recognized Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,

Montenegro, and Serbia are as potential candidates.

(2) The EU has devised the common foreign and security policy,

thus developing a limited role in European defense and foreign policy.

Permanent diplomatic missions of the EU are established around the

world and representation at the UNO, WTO, G-8 and G-20 is

maintained. The union has emerged as a potent political entity and a

counter weight in the unipolar world led by the USA.

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(3) The EU has developed a single market through a standardized

system of laws which apply in all member states, and ensures the free

movement of people, goods, services, and capital, including the

abolition of passport controls by the Schengen Agreement

between 22 EU states. 16 member states have adopted a common

currency, the EURO, constituting the eurozone.

c. North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) In New World Order .

North Atlantic Treaty Organization has also witnessed unprecedented

expansion during recent years. After the end of the Cold War, there was a

debate in NATO about continued expansion eastward. In 1999, Poland,

Hungary, and the Czech Republic were added to the organization, amid much

debate within the organization and Russian opposition. Another expansion

came in March 2004, with the accession of seven Eastern European

countries. Most recently, Albania and Croatia joined in April 2009. Future

expansion is currently a topic of debate in many countries. With the expansion

of NATO in the aftermath of the Cold War, member nations also debated on

the new role of the organization. After the demise of the Communism,

Islamic Fundamentalism was taken as the common enemy of the free

world.

d. USA on Decline . The USA has lost much more than what she has

gained, as world sole super power, during the first decade of the 21st century.

The USA has lost moral authority by initiating the global war on terror on

falsehood and invading Iraq without a UN mandate. A protracted and

unsuccessful battle in Afghanistan is also responsible for this decline. The

USA is losing support, both at home and abroad, for her ongoing war on

terror. Moreover, malicious US foreign policy has also been exposed to the

international community, especially the Muslim World, by terming the war on

terror as Crusades by US President Bush, deliberately targeting the Muslim

strongholds in the name of war against terrorism and exhibiting double

standards on extremely sensitive international issues. With this downward

trend, the USA is likely to lose her singular world power status to some other

nation / organization in future.

e. China Gaining Power

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(1) One of the defining features of the early 21st century is the rise of

China. What is extraordinary about this development is the Chinese

assertion that its rise will be peaceful and the apparent willingness of

the international community to accept this claim. Historically, a strong

and dominant China has been a force for stability in the region with no

record of her aspiration to project herself as the dominant power in the

region or at the world stage.

(2) China has seen an extraordinary growth in her GDP at an

average pace of up to 10% during recent years. They now have the 2nd

largest economy in the world. Sometime between 2030 and 2050,

China is likely to overtake the USA, as the largest economy in the

world. With the exception of Taiwan and to a much lesser extent Japan

and India, the Asian states view their economic inter-dependence with

China as a positive factor that will enable the rise of China to be

mutually beneficial.

(3) China has made a steady progress on the political front as well.

China has integrated herself with the international community through

various economic, political and military alliances. Establishment of

Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is a case in point. It is

an intergovernmental mutual-security organization which was founded

in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,

Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Several regional countries have

observer status in the organization. NATO also views China as a rising

nations and is looking forward for a better understanding with China to

pursue common security interests.

(4) The western powers view the development with skepticism. It is

hard for them to visualize the world, if China gains the status for setting

the global standards for everything from climate change and the

exploration of outer space to human rights and censorship. But the fact

of the matter is that China continues to capture ground as an important

world power.

f. South America . During the first decade of the 21st century, South

American governments have drifted to the political left, with socialist leaders

gaining power in Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay

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and Venezuela. Despite the move to the left, South America for the most part

still embraces free market policies, and it is taking an active path toward

greater continental integration. Recently, an intergovernmental entity has

been formed, making it the third-largest trade bloc in the world. This new

political organization known as Union of South American Nations seeks to

establish free movement of people, economic development, a common

defense policy and the elimination of tariffs. South American countries have

also experienced significant economic growth during recent years. Brazil is

the most important nation of the region that has emerged as the seventh

largest economy in the world. However, the economic gap between the rich

and poor in most South American nations is considered to be larger than in

most other continents.

g. Africa . African nations were among the last ones to unite and be

the master of their own destiny. Libyan President Qaddafi took the initiative

in July 2002, and convinced the leaders of 53 African nations to form the

African Union (AU). Among the objectives set forth by the AU are to

accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent; to

promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the

continent and its peoples; to achieve peace and security in Africa; and to

promote democratic institutions, good governance and human rights. AU has

also deployed its peace keeping missions, both independently and with UNO,

in some of African countries. Lately, President Qaddafi has advanced the

idea of a United States of Africa (USA). Having since described the AU as

a failure, President Qaddafi has asserted that only a true pan-African

state can provide stability and wealth to Africa.

h. India . India has made considerable progress in strengthening her

economy during the first decade of 21st century. Economic reforms process

initiated in 1990s, has yielded good results making India an economic power

house in the region. India has also made stunning growth in IT sector and has

acquired a world leader status in the field. However, India’s dream of playing a

global role is far from being achieved. Her ever stronger economy is always

haunted by a big portion of her population living below poverty line and much

boasted political stability is continually challenged by separatist struggles by

the Kashmiries, Maoists and many other peripheral communities. Recently,

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Indian credibility has suffered a big blow during the preparation and

organization of Common Wealth games - 2010. Worst to come is the failure of

her back door entry into Afghanistan along with the failing US led war on

terror. However, India has emerged as an important US partner in the region.

i. Muslim World

(1) OIC . OIC with all its potentials remains to be dormant at world

stage. The forum has so far failed to provide leadership to the Ummah,

despite all the destruction and humiliation by the USA and its allies. Iraq

stands destroyed, Afghanistan being punished and Iran and Pakistan

on the list. OIC will have to take its role in the obtaining environments

otherwise it will lose the justification for its existence.

(2) Saudi Arabia . Saudi Arabia remains to be the undisputed

spiritual centre of the Muslim World with the exception of some

reservations by the Shia Muslims. Saudi Arabia has extended extra

ordinary facilities for the Pilgrims and wholeheartedly hosts millions of

the Pilgrims every year. In the absence of any central political

leadership, Saudi Arabia is likely to continue with its current spiritual

status. Pakistan maintains exemplary relations with KSA.

(3) Iran. Iran has emerged as a strong nation in recent years.

Valiant and prudent leadership of Iran has forced the USA to change

her tone. Iran has been instrumental in the formation of post-Saddam

Iraqi government, and continues to exert her influence in Lebanon and

Afghanistan crises. Besides, Iran’s nuclear program goes unabated

despite all odds. President Ahmadinejad is an outspoken critic of the

USA, Israel, and Britain, and their so called war against terror. Raising

a candid voice for the concerns of the Muslim World, by President

Ahmadinejad, has also been well appreciated by all.

(4) Turkey . Turkey has reverted out of her secular outlook, it

had adopted after the World War-I. With Prime Minister Tayyab

Erdogan’s conservative Islamic party gaining power in 2002 elections,

Turkey has come up as a moderate Muslim state with a strong

leadership. The new leadership has rejected all the criticism from the

west, introduced amendments through referendum to change the

secular complexion of the constitution and has very vividly pursued

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Palestinian issue at the world forum. Turkish support to the Palestinian

brethren came to lime light with Israeli raid on a Turkish flag bearer

flotilla in May 2010, resulting in severing of relations between the two

countries.

(5) Malaysia. Malaysia has made exponential economic

growth during last two decades. Once known as the Asian Tiger,

Malaysia owes a lot to her visionary leader Dr. Mahatir Muhammad.

Malaysia offers a living model of a home grown progressive society for

the entire Muslim World. Lately, Dr. Mahatir Muhammad’s endeavor to

rally the Muslim World at OIC’s platform could not generate a positive

response due to self serving interests of the member states.

(6) Pakistan . Pakistan has entered the 21st century at a decisive

juncture of her history. Pakistan has made a good progress since

independence, but the nation is still in search of its true identity. Time

has finally placed, face to face, various divergent and conflicting

schools of thought with regards to the destiny of Pakistani Nation.

Picking up threads from the history of distrust between the eastern and

western wings, rise of mean and short sighted leadership to mishandle

the 1971 crisis, musical chair between military dictatorships and feeble

political outfits, political arm twisting during short lived democratic

periods, promotion of Jihadist culture and resultant polarization of

society along religious and ethnic lines, frontline status in the

controversial war on terror and so called concept of enlightened

moderation, and last but not the least, a corrupt and inefficient political

government formed after Elections 2008, has compelled a decisive

moment onto the nation. The nation of energetic youth and immense

power potential is itching for a positive change. Recently, the nation has

realized its resolve and commitment during the crises caused by the

natural calamities of 2005 and 2010, as well as the movement for

restoration of Judiciary. The course has already been set and it is only

a matter of time that the nation will steer out of the prevalent chaos and

rise to the heights of glory. An Islamic and democratic Pakistan is

destined to become a powerful nation of the world and provide much

awaited leadership to the Ummah for a common good.