hole s human anatomy and physiology - hanover … ii...hole’s human anatomy and physiology...
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Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology
Eleventh Edition
Mrs. Hummer
Chapter 2
Chemical Basis of Life
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Chapter 2 Chemical Basis of Life
Why study chemistry in an Anatomy and Physiology class?
- body functions depend on cellular functions - cellular functions result from chemical changes - biochemistry helps to explain physiological processes, and develop new drugs and methods for treating diseases
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Structure of Matter
Matter – anything that takes up space and has weight; composed of elements
Elements – composed of chemically identical atoms • bulk elements – required by the body in large amounts • trace elements – required by the body in small amounts
Atoms – smallest particle of an element
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Atomic Structure
Atoms - composed of subatomic particles:
• proton – carries a single positive charge • neutron – carries no electrical charge • electron – carries a single negative charge
Nucleus • central part of atom • composed of protons and neutrons • electrons move around the nucleus
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Atomic Number and Atomic Weight
Atomic Number • number of protons in the nucleus of one atom • each element has a unique atomic number • equals the number of electrons in the atom
Atomic Weight • the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in one atom • electrons do not contribute to the weight of the atom
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Isotopes
Isotopes • atoms with the same atomic numbers but with different atomic weights • atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons • oxygen often forms isotopes (O16, O17, O18) • unstable isotopes are radioactive; they emit energy or atomic fragments
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Molecules and Compounds
Molecule – particle formed when two or more atoms chemically combine
Compound – particle formed when two or more atoms of different elements chemically combine
Molecular formulas – depict the elements present and the number of each atom present in the molecule
H2 C6H12O6 H2O
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Notebook #1 Understanding Words pg. 50
1. What subject matter do chemists study?
2. What subject matter is of particular interest to physiologists? Why?
3. Briefly describe a:
a. Bulk element
b. Trace element
c. Ultratrace element
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Bonding of Atoms
• each shell can hold a limited number of electrons • for atoms with atomic numbers of 18 or less, the following rules apply:
• the first shell can hold up to 2 electrons • the second shell can hold up to 8 electrons • the third shell can hold up to 8 electrons
• bonds form when atoms combine with other atoms • electrons of an atom occupy regions of space called electron shells which circle the nucleus
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Bonding of Atoms • lower shells are filled first • if the outermost shell is full, the atom is stable
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Ions
Ion • an atom that gains or loses electrons to become stable • an electrically charged atom
Cation • a positively charged ion • formed when an atom loses electrons Anion • a negatively charged ion • formed when an atom gains electrons
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Ionic Bond
• an attraction between a cation and an anion Ionic Bond
• formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another atom
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Covalent Bond
Formed when atoms share electrons
• Hydrogen atoms form single bonds • Oxygen atoms form two bonds • Nitrogen atoms form three bonds • Carbon atoms form four bonds
H ― H O = O N ≡ N O = C = O
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Structural Formula
Structural formulas show how atoms bond and are arranged in various molecules
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Polar Molecules
Polar Molecule • molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end • results when electrons are not shared equally in covalent bonds • water is an important polar molecule
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Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen Bond • a weak attraction between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule • formed between water molecules • important for protein and nucleic acid structure
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Notebook #2 1. How does the isotope of any element differ from the
element?
2. How does this difference affect the way an isotope interacts with other elements? Explain.
3. What is a radioactive isotope?
4. List the three types of radiation.
5. Describe what is meant by the term half-life of an isotope.
6. Describe at least two clinical uses of radioactive isotopes.
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Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds form or break among atoms, ions, or molecules
Reactants are the starting materials of the reaction- the atoms, ions, or molecules
Products are substances formed at the end of the chemical reaction
NaCl ’ Na+ + Cl-
Reactant Products
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Types of Chemical Reactions Synthesis Reaction – more complex chemical structure is formed
A + B à AB Decomposition Reaction – chemical bonds are broken to form a simpler chemical structure
AB à A + B
Exchange Reaction – chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are formed
AB + CD à AD + CB Reversible Reaction – the products can change back to the reactants
A + B n AB
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Acids, Bases, and Salts Electrolytes – substances that release ions in water
Acids – electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water
HCl à H+ + Cl-
Bases – substances that release ions that can combine with hydrogen ions
NaOH à Na+ + OH-
Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base
NaCl à Na+ + Cl-
HCl + NaOH à H2O + NaCl
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Acid and Base Concentrations
pH scale - indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution
Neutral – pH 7; indicates equal concentrations of H+ and OH-
Acidic – pH less than 7; indicates a greater concentration of H+
Basic or alkaline – pH greater than 7; indicates a greater concentration of OH-
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Organic Versus Inorganic Organic molecules
• contain C and H • usually larger than inorganic molecules • dissolve in water and organic liquids • carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Inorganic molecules • generally do not contain C • usually smaller than organic molecules • usually dissociate in water, forming ions • water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts
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Inorganic Substances
Water • most abundant compound in living material • two-thirds of the weight of an adult human • major component of all body fluids • medium for most metabolic reactions • important role in transporting chemicals in the body • absorbs and transports heat
Oxygen (O2) • used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in order to drive cell’s metabolic activities • necessary for survival
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Inorganic Substances
Carbon dioxide (CO2) • waste product released during metabolic reactions • must be removed from the body
Inorganic salts • abundant in body fluids • sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, etc.) • play important roles in metabolism
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Organic Substances Carbohydrates
• provide energy to cells • supply materials to build cell structures • water-soluble • contain C, H, and O
• ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C6H12O6) • monosaccharides – glucose, fructose
• disaccharides – sucrose, lactose • polysaccharides – glycogen, cellulose
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Organic Substances Carbohydrates
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Organic Substances Lipids
• soluble in organic solvents; insoluble in water • fats (triglycerides)
• used primarily for energy; most common lipid in the body • contain C, H, and O but less O than carbohydrates (C57H110O6) • building blocks are 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids per molecule • saturated and unsaturated
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Organic Substances Lipids
• phospholipids • building blocks are 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and 1 phosphate per molecule
• hydrophilic and hydrophobic
• major component of cell membranes
2-25
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Organic Substances Lipids
• steroids • four connected rings of carbon • widely distributed in the body, various functions • component of cell membrane • used to synthesize hormones • cholesterol
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Organic Substances Proteins
• structural material • energy source • hormones • receptors • enzymes • antibodies • building blocks are amino acids
• amino acids held together with peptide bonds
2-27
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Organic Substances Proteins
Four Levels of Structure
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Organic Substances Nucleic Acids
• carry genes • encode amino acid sequences of proteins • building blocks are nucleotides
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – double polynucleotide • RNA (ribonucleic acid) – single polynucleotide
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Organic Substances Nucleic Acids
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Clinical Applications CT Scanning and PET Imaging
• CT scanning uses X-ray emissions to provide 3-D image of internal body parts
• techniques used to give anatomical and physiological information, respectively
• PET imaging used radioactive isotopes to detect biochemical • activity in a specific body part
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Notebook #3
Critical Thinking:
#1,2,3,5,6
Review Exercises:
#1-16, 18-20, 22, 24, 26-32, 34-35