Giosan and co-workers contend that the ‘mythical’ Saraswati River was not a glacier-fed Himalayan river. Questioning the findings of Indian archaeologists and geologists, they postulate that the Saraswati was a monsoonal river originating in the foothills of the Siwalik Hills and did not water the heartland of the Harappan Civilization. Reduction in its discharges due to weakening of the monsoon rains resulted in it’s drying up, leading to the demise of the Harappa Civilization

Geological record indicates that during the late Pleistocene glaciations, the water of the Himalayas was frozen and that in the place of rivers, there were only glaciers, masses of solid ice. When the climate became warmer, the glaciers began to break up and the frozen water held by them surged forth in great floods, inundating the alluvial plains in front of the mountains. The melting of glaciers has also been referred in Rig Vedic literature, in mythological terms. It was the first interglacial period in Holocene marking the break-up of glaciers and release of the pent-up waters that flowed out in seven mighty river channels referred as the ‘Sapta Sindhu’ in the Rig Veda, traced from east to west. The ‘Sapta Sindhu’ refers to the rivers Saraswati, Satadru (Sutlej), Vipasa (Beas), Asikni (Chenab), Parosni (Ravi), Vitasta (Jhelum) and Sindhu (Indus). Among these, the Saraswati and the Sindhu were major rivers that flowed from the mountains right up to the sea. The hymns in praise of the Saraswati are probably some of the oldest, composed more than 8000 years ago. 

For 2000 years, between 6000 and 4000 B.C., the Saraswati flowed as a great river. R. D. Oldham (1886) was the first geologist who argued logically pointing to the great changes in the drainage pattern of the rivers of Punjab and western Rajasthan converting a once fertile region into a desert. According to geological and glaciological studies, the Saraswati was supposed to have originated in Bandapunch massif (Saraswati-Rupin glacier confluence at Naitwar in western Garhwal)

Hydro geological evidences

 Lunkaransar, Didwana and Sambhar, the Ranns of Jaisalmer, Pachpadra, etc. are a few of the notable lakes, formed as a result of the changes; some of them are highly saline today, the only proof to their freshwater descent being occurrences of gastropod shells in those lake beds. Mr. Oldham accepted that there have been great changes in the hydrography of Punjab and Sind within the recent period of geology. Wilson has mentioned about the Sotar valley where “the soil is all rich alluvial clay such as is now being annually deposited in the depressions which are specimens of those numerous pools which have given the Saraswati its name, ‘The River of Pools’; and there seems little doubt that the same action, as now goes on, has been going on for centuries”.

Archaeological evidences

 Most of the archaeological sites of the-then civilisation are located on the Saraswati river basin. There are four Harappan and pre-Harappan sites in Punjab, in addition to the sites in Rajasthan and U.P. These sites are located at Rupar (present Ropar), Nihang Khan, Bara and Sirsa valley. Harappan culture flourished in the western part of Punjab around 2500 B.C. It is believed that the Harappans entered through the Indus Valley into Kalibangan valley on the left bank of Ghaggar (erstwhile Saraswati) and spread to Punjab along the Saraswati River. Carbon dating of the material at Kalibangan suggests that Harappan culture flourished around 2500 B.C. in India and existed for 1000 years. So the present day geomorphologic set up did not exist till 1500 B.C. and the Indus, the Sutlej and the Beas followed independent courses to the sea.

Evidences from Remote Sensing and GIS 

A remote sensing study of the Indian desert reveals numerous signatures of palaeochannels in the form of curvilinear and meandering courses, which is identified by the tonal variations. The Saraswati River could be traced through these palaeochannels as a migratory river. Its initial course flowed close to the Aravalli ranges and the successive six stages took west and northwesterly shifts till it coincides with the dry bed of the Ghaggar River

India is a land of vivid cultures and traditions. And the vastness of cultures gives rise to different belief systems. Indian people are very religious by nature. Their morning starts by visiting temples, watering the sun and the holy Tulsi plant, feeding cows and many more to add to the list.

Along with the deep routed faith in the Almighty, selfless love is the main reason for carrying out these religious activities. There are many religious activities followed by people in the Hindu culture and taking holy dips on auspicious dates in the sacred holy water tops the list. Hindus firmly believe that taking dips in holy water washes away all their sins and purifies the soul.

These days, with Kumbh mela going on, Allahabad is the centre of attraction for nearly everyone. Maha Kumbh Mela takes place during the Hindu month of Magh, which collectively means “eliminating sin†�. Hence this month is auspicious in terms of washing away all your sins and achieving salvation. One of the important activities performed during Kumbh mela is taking a dip in the holy waters. The bath is considered to be auspicious if done before sunrise. The place is referred as ‘Sangam’ because of meeting of the Ganga, Yamuna and the mythical Saraswati. In Indian tradition there are many auspicious dates on which significant holy dip ritual is being performed.

Since ages, Hindus believe that the fortnightly cycle of the moon creates a great influence on the human psychology, similar to how the cycle affects the water bodies resulting in tides and ebbs. A person’s behaviour can show signs of restlessness, ill-temper, irritation etc. Hence there are specific rituals for full moon and New Moon days. Purina or Full Moon is considered as auspicious in the Hindu calendar as many devotees pray, observe fast and take a holy dip in the river to subdue the emotions which results in controlled temper. It is also believed that taking holy dips on Purina brings fruitful results.

Later, the Lunar month is followed and Amavasya, or the New Moon Night falls at the beginning of the new lunar month. In Hindu tradition making donations and taking holy dip in sacred water on this day is said to be equivalent to donating 100 cows. Taking dip in Kurukshetra’s Brahma Sarovar has special significance on the day of Bhaumvati Amavasya (Amavasya which falls on Tuesday). It is considered very auspicious for better health too.

Other significant days for bathing are Ekadasi, Basant Panchami, Rath Saptami. Ekadasi is the time when the moon is either closest or farthest from the sun. Basant Panchami refers to start of the spring season and Goddess Saraswati’s birthday is celebrated on the same day. Rath Saptami is dedicated to

Surya(Sun-God) . Hindus also believe that taking bath in sacred river like Tapti River during the Solar Eclipse is considered of great importance as Tapti is believed to have arisen from the Sun. Cauvery River is considered very auspicious and helpful in attaining Moksha.

Hygiene

Holy water fonts have been identified as a potential source of bacterial and viral infection. In the late 19th century, bacteriologists founds staphylococci, streptococci, coli bacilli, Loeffler's bacillus, and other bacteria in samples of holy water taken from a church in Sassari, Italy.[10] More recently, in a study performed in 1995, thirteen samples were taken when a burn patient acquired a bacterial infection after exposure to holy water. The samples in that study were shown to have a "wide range of bacterial species," some of which could cause infection in humans. [11] During the swine flu epidemic of 2009, Bishop John Steinbock of Fresno, California recommended that "holy water should not be in the fonts" due to fear of spreading infections.[12] Also in response to the swine flu, an automatic, motion-detecting holy water dispenser was invented and installed in an Italian church in 2009. [13]

INDORE: What probably might have been a holy dip at Kumbh has actually turned out sour for many. With the colossal congregation of devotees from across the country coming to an end, many are returning with skin disorders. Attribute it to dirty water, over exposure to sun or lack of hygiene or medical facilities, hospitals in Indore are reporting patients with skin ailments. Though most patients have not shown signs of excoriation lesion or wound caused due to injury or scratch, there have been cases of uncontrollable itching, dryness, bacterial and fungal infection, scabies, eczema and contact dermatitis.

Pollution in Yamuna River has increased rapidly and the protection of this river includes several governmental steps. Yamuna is unfortunately one of the most polluted rivers in the world, especially in the banks near New Delhi, the capital of India. Almost 57% of the city’s waste is dumped into the river. Numerous attempts have been made to clean it; however the efforts have brought few changes. In addition, the water in this river remains torpid for almost 9 months in a year infuriating the situation. 

Pollution of Yamuna River Yamuna’s water is distinguishable as "clear blue" as compared to silt-ridden yellow of the Ganges. Due to high density population growth, rapid industrialization, today Yamuna is terribly polluted. Delhi alone debouches around 3,296 MLD (million liters per day) of dirt in the river. This makes harms to aquatic life and depletes oxygen level resulting into bad odors and turbidity. The river water is suitable due to pollution, for uses like drinking, outdoor bathing, propagation of aquatic life, irrigation and industrial purposes. 

Industrial pollution affects oxygen, temperature & pH etc. Large and medium industrial units - 22 in Haryana, 42 in Delhi and 17 in Uttar Pradesh have been accused as directly discharging and polluting the river Yamuna under the Action Plan area. 

But now there's scientific data to prove that the level of industrial pollution in the river is nearly 13 times the permissible limit. The river, when it passes through the Capital, has among the highest levels of industrial pollution in the country. Even Ganga fares better in polluted industrial towns such as Kanpur and Allahabad. Data collected over a 10-year period by the Central Water Commission through its 371 monitoring stations across the country shows Yamuna has the highest level of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) concentration when it passes through Delhi.This test is used to measure the level of industrial pollution in rivers. Yamuna’s level of industrial pollution based on the BOD test is 39.83 mg per litre of water as against the permissible limit of 3 mg during non-monsoon days. The water quality improves slightly during the monsoon, when the water level rises, bringing the countdown to 28.24 mg per litre. It’s only when the river leaves Delhi and is joined by other smaller rivers that the pollution level starts dropping. Till Mathura the BOD count remains as high as 28.53.Even the amount of oxygen dissolved in Yamuna water drops to 1.07 mg per litre in Delhi during the non-Monsoon months, against the minimum level of 5 mg. Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic life. The river also has higher levels of fluoride concentration than the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/l while it passes through Delhi, though it is much less compared to Ganga, which has the highest fluoride concentration at 14.71 mg per litre near Patna. But it's not just the big rivers alone. The data shows that even water in smaller rivers is unfit for drinking, bathing or survival of aquatic life. The levels of industrial pollution in Hasdeo and Arpa rivers in Chhattisgarh are an astounding 259.8 mg and 282.4 mg per litre respectively. Subarnarekha in Jharkhand has BOD as high as 88.8 mg per litre Officials said most of the industrial waste is released into the river streams, as companies don't spend money on treating the waste. Even the regulatory agencies look the other way."This data compiled in the form of a report titled 'Water quality hot spots in rivers in India' will be sent to all states for remedial action," water resources minister Pawan Bansal said. The report added that most of the middle and lower river stretches in the country have high coli form levels .The rivers that are low in BOD have high total coli form and fecal coli form levels because of the discharge of untreated sewage into the rivers, open defecation, cattle wallowing, disposal of animal carcasses and charred bodies.

Sources of pollution

Farmers put fertilizers and pesticides on their crops so that they grow better. But these fertilizers and pesticides can be washed through the soil by rain, to end up in rivers. If large amounts of fertilizers or farm waste drain into a river the concentration of nitrate and phosphate in the water increases considerably. Algae use these substances to grow and multiply rapidly turning the water green. This massive growth of algae, called eutrophication, leads to pollution. When the algae die they are broken down by the action of the bacteria which quickly multiply, using up all the oxygen in the water which leads to the death of many animals.

Chemical waste products from industrial processes are sometimes accidentally discharged into rivers. Examples of such pollutants include cyanide, zinc, lead, copper, cadmium and mercury. These substances may enter the water in such high concentrations that fish and other animals are killed immediately. Sometimes the pollutants enter a food chain and accumulate until they reach toxic levels, eventually killing birds, fish

and mammals.

Factories use water from rivers to power machinery or to cool down machinery. Dirty water containing chemicals is put back in the river. Water used for cooling is warmer than the river itself. Raising the temperature of the water lowers the level of dissolved oxygen and upsets the balance of life in the water. People are sometimes careless and throw rubbish directly into rivers.

Poisonous coloursSewage, they conclude, accounts for most but not all of the pollution. High levels of zinc, calcium and strontium “were probably due to the immersed idols painted with multicolours”. Some studies concentrate on isolating the effects of idols from those of other sources. A study on the impact of idol immersion activities on the water quality of Tapi River, Surat tells of sampling the water “at morning hours during pre-immersion, during immersion and post-immersion periods of Ganesh idols”. The conclusion: the “main reason of the deterioration of water quality . . . is various religious activities”, with special blame given to “the plaster of paris, clothes, iron rods, chemical colours, varnish and paints used for making the idols”. Another study on heavy metal contamination in a lake in urban Bhopal, published in 2007, finds that idol immersion has become “a major source of contamination and sedimentation to the lake water”.

Can affect humansIt warns that idol-derived heavy metals, especially nickel, lead and mercury, are likely to find their way into “fishes and birds inhabiting the lake, which finally reach the humans through food”. The authors want to “educate idol makers” to make their idols small, of non-baked, quick-dissolving clay, and with “natural colours used in food products”.— © Guardian Newspapers Limited, 2012

Nirmitee Art Gallery: This art gallery in Dadar (W) has been organising eco-friendly Vakratund Mela since 2006. This year they are displaying 1,001 idols made of products like jute, papier-mâché, clay, dried vegetables, bamboo, etc that are completely bio-degradable. The price ranges from Rs 50 to Rs 80,000 for an idol.E-coexist: This Pune-based social enterprise has been producing and promoting environment-friendly products since some time. Right from cloth bags to Holi colours, they stock everything. For the Ganpati season they have come up with bio-degradable idols made of natural clay that are available in various stores across Pune, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Nagpur. The sizes range from 9 inches (Rs 400) to 18 inches (Rs 3,000).The Bombay Store: This 100-year old swadeshi brand is well-known for its environment-friendly products. Its various outlets across town alsostore eco-friendly Ganesha idols in various sizes. The price ranges from Rs 200 to Rs 3,000. You can also find some E-coexist products here.Maati Crafts: This handicraft store inPowai sells products made from natural materials and methods. They are promoting Ganpati idols made from natural clay and natural colours like gheru and haldi. They also stock E-coexist products.Dhoop: This home décor and accessory store is located in Khar. It deals in handcrafted products with special focus on natural materials. They also store eco-friendly Ganpati idols for nature lovers. Cost for a 10-inch idol is Rs 500.

Insecticides

Insecticides are chemicals that are sprayed onto crops to kill the insects that eat crops. One of the more controversial insecticides is DDT. The use of DDT on crops was used to control the malaria mosquito in South Africa.

Heavy Metals

Heavy metals such as nickel, molybdenum, zinc, cadmium and lead are mined and processed by the mining and ore-smelting industries, many of which occur in Gauteng. These metals are easily washed into streams and groundwater.

Problem Products We all know about the destruction that oil pollution causes along the marine coastline. However, a lot of oil pollution also occurs inland. Petrol and diesel is stored in underground tanks at petrol depots. When these tanks are not properly maintained, they can develop cracks allowing the petrol to leak out.

Chlorine and Detergents Paper and pulp mills and textile factories are amongst the worst water polluters. Paper and pulp mills use up large amounts of water and produce a lot of polluted wastewater. The wastewater contains strong chemicals such as chlorine, which is used to make paper white and soft.  

Fertilisers and Sewage

Some chemicals like fertilisers are made of substances that do occur naturally in the environment, but only in small amounts. When too much fertiliser is washed from farmlands into a river then that water will also become polluted. Human sewage or cattle excrement that is untreated also causes water pollution in the same way as fertilisers do. Most diseases in the world are related to water and sanitation. To break the cycle of disease, there must be improvements in the quality of water that people use. Most rural communities in South Africa do not have access to running water, toilets or latrines and they use watercourses for defecation and urination. In many cases, where they are present, latrines are situated upstream from where the community collects their water supply. Faecal pollution of water increases the risk of infection of various diseases to those using these courses as their life supporting water source. Groundwater, which is another water source, can become contaminated through unclean irrigation water. Water related diseases could be spread in other ways, which also affect urban communities, such as insect bites and poor hygiene.

A holy dip is akin to immersing oneself in the energy of consciousness. A dip in the Triveni Sangam, where Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati merge into one another is like immersing oneself in the depths of Ajna Chakra and experiencing the energies of Ida, Pingala and Sushumna clear our blocks and fill our beings with expanded consciousness which manifests itself in greater patience, acceptance, love and peace.