Home Front During WW IIHome Front During WW II

EconomyEconomy Massive Military Spending revitalized economy: Massive Military Spending revitalized economy:

creating 18m new jobs / full employment: GNP creating 18m new jobs / full employment: GNP increased from $91b to $212b, between 1941 to 1945increased from $91b to $212b, between 1941 to 1945

No need for most New Deal Projects (CCC, WPA) – No need for most New Deal Projects (CCC, WPA) – Depression endedDepression ended

War Production Board (WPB) set up to co-ordinate War Production Board (WPB) set up to co-ordinate restructuring, allocate Govt. contracts, regulate use of restructuring, allocate Govt. contracts, regulate use of raw materials / resources, and relax anti-trust lawsraw materials / resources, and relax anti-trust laws

Great success, much bigger task than during WWI – US Great success, much bigger task than during WWI – US in war longer, bigger scalein war longer, bigger scale

At Teheran, Stalin toasted “American production, At Teheran, Stalin toasted “American production, without which this war would have been lost.”without which this war would have been lost.”

The “production miracle” included, producing from The “production miracle” included, producing from 1941-19451941-1945 300,000 planes300,000 planes 80,000 landing craft80,000 landing craft 100,000 tanks and armored cars100,000 tanks and armored cars 5,600 merchant ships5,600 merchant ships 6 m rifles and machine guns6 m rifles and machine guns 41b rounds of ammunition41b rounds of ammunition

The cost - The cost - $312b$312b – was raised through War Bonds – was raised through War Bonds (60%) and increased corporate and personal income tax (60%) and increased corporate and personal income tax (40%) (40%)

Farmers were encouraged to produce more food, unlike Farmers were encouraged to produce more food, unlike in the 30s (AAA…subsidies for cutting back): people in the 30s (AAA…subsidies for cutting back): people planted "Victory Gardens," as in WWIplanted "Victory Gardens," as in WWI

Because of the switch over to war production, consumer Because of the switch over to war production, consumer items were scarce, producing inflation: the Govt. set up items were scarce, producing inflation: the Govt. set up the the Office of Price Administration Office of Price Administration to control prices - to control prices - set maximum price ceiling on goods that were in short set maximum price ceiling on goods that were in short supply: also introduced supply: also introduced rationingrationing of essential food of essential food products such as meat, butter, sugar, coffee, gas, tires, products such as meat, butter, sugar, coffee, gas, tires, oil – with coupon books and stamps (new to WWII). oil – with coupon books and stamps (new to WWII).

Imposed a speed limit of 35mph to conserve gasoline Imposed a speed limit of 35mph to conserve gasoline and rubberand rubber

The The Office of Civilian DefenseOffice of Civilian Defense was set up to coordinate was set up to coordinate voluntary efforts. "An hour a day for the USA" was its voluntary efforts. "An hour a day for the USA" was its rallying cry. Volunteers helped out building and rallying cry. Volunteers helped out building and marshaling air raid shelters, collecting newspapers, marshaling air raid shelters, collecting newspapers, rubber, scrap, tin for recycling rubber, scrap, tin for recycling

The The National War Labor Board, National War Labor Board, which consisted of which consisted of representatives from labor, management, and govt., representatives from labor, management, and govt., introduced ceilings on wage increases - usually allowed introduced ceilings on wage increases - usually allowed to increase up to a max of 15% to match inflation – or to increase up to a max of 15% to match inflation – or wage freezes, and helped settle labor disputes – got a no wage freezes, and helped settle labor disputes – got a no strike pledge from many unions (though there were still strike pledge from many unions (though there were still strikes in the coal, steel and railroad industries)strikes in the coal, steel and railroad industries)

To prevent the loss of production due to strikes, the govt. To prevent the loss of production due to strikes, the govt. passed the passed the Smith Connolly Anti Strike Act (or War Smith Connolly Anti Strike Act (or War Labor Disputes Act) – passed over FDR’s veto Labor Disputes Act) – passed over FDR’s veto whichwhich

required unions in all industries to give 30 days notice required unions in all industries to give 30 days notice before strikingbefore striking

authorized the govt. to seize and operate essential authorized the govt. to seize and operate essential industries where production was interrupted by work industries where production was interrupted by work stoppages (some coal mines and railroads in 1943)stoppages (some coal mines and railroads in 1943)

made strikes against govt. operated industries a made strikes against govt. operated industries a criminal offensecriminal offense

The Smith Act of 1940 The Smith Act of 1940

Passed in 1940: First peacetime sedition act since 1789: Passed in 1940: First peacetime sedition act since 1789: it was a criminal offense to aid in the overthrow of the it was a criminal offense to aid in the overthrow of the govt. an all non-citizens were required to register with govt. an all non-citizens were required to register with the govt., within four months the govt., within four months

1949: 11 Communists were brought to trial in NY for 1949: 11 Communists were brought to trial in NY for violating the Act; convicted of advocating the violating the Act; convicted of advocating the overthrow of the govt. by force, imprisoned. The overthrow of the govt. by force, imprisoned. The Supreme Court upheld the convictions in Dennis v the Supreme Court upheld the convictions in Dennis v the US (1951)US (1951)

The The Office of War Administration Office of War Administration was set up to was set up to coordinate news about the war, and to inspire greater to coordinate news about the war, and to inspire greater to greater efforts through propaganda. Encouraged radio greater efforts through propaganda. Encouraged radio and movies to promote govt. policies - news media and movies to promote govt. policies - news media agreed to self censorship, did not publish negative agreed to self censorship, did not publish negative information – promoted war through advertising on information – promoted war through advertising on billboards, magazines….. billboards, magazines…..

The The Office of CensorshipOffice of Censorship was set up to control was set up to control information coming into the US from other countries and information coming into the US from other countries and to censor letters arriving from US soldiers in Europe - to to censor letters arriving from US soldiers in Europe - to prevent the leakage of sensitive information. prevent the leakage of sensitive information.

Society / MinoritiesSociety / Minorities

WWII caused WWII caused demographic changes:demographic changes: movement to big movement to big cities, urban to rural, from East to West/Sunbelt (esp. to cities, urban to rural, from East to West/Sunbelt (esp. to CA, Wash, Oregon - 1.4m to CA), movement South CA, Wash, Oregon - 1.4m to CA), movement South which received a lot of defense contractswhich received a lot of defense contracts

Migration of 2m Migration of 2m African AmericansAfrican Americans North: Racial North: Racial tensions in major cities increased – disturbances / race tensions in major cities increased – disturbances / race riots in Detroit, San Diego, LA, NY. riots in Detroit, San Diego, LA, NY.

AA leaders decided to take advantage of the heightened AA leaders decided to take advantage of the heightened awareness of racism; made comparisons between Nazi awareness of racism; made comparisons between Nazi racism in Europe and White racism in the US racism in Europe and White racism in the US

They called for They called for "Double V"Double V", victory over dictators abroad ", victory over dictators abroad and over racism at homeand over racism at home

A. Philip Randolph, who became known A. Philip Randolph, who became known as the father of the Civil Rights as the father of the Civil Rights movement, the then leader of the movement, the then leader of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, demanded that the govt. require its demanded that the govt. require its defense contractors to integrate their defense contractors to integrate their work force, and demanded integration of work force, and demanded integration of the armed forcesthe armed forces

Randolph planned a massive March On Randolph planned a massive March On Washington Movement (formed Washington Movement (formed MOWM) to protest against segregation MOWM) to protest against segregation and discrimination. and discrimination.

Disagreed with passive tactics of Disagreed with passive tactics of NAACP (court cases) – preferred a more NAACP (court cases) – preferred a more militant approachmilitant approach

He also excluded whites sympathizers from MOWM’s He also excluded whites sympathizers from MOWM’s leadership – felt that “the victims of discrimination must leadership – felt that “the victims of discrimination must assume responsibility for abolishing it”assume responsibility for abolishing it”

Concerned about the embarrassment to the govt., FDR Concerned about the embarrassment to the govt., FDR publicly condemned job discrimination and ordered his publicly condemned job discrimination and ordered his defense chiefs to force contractors to integratedefense chiefs to force contractors to integrate

Appealed to Randolph to call off the march: he refused: Appealed to Randolph to call off the march: he refused: when they met, Randolph demanded that: when they met, Randolph demanded that: Defense contracts be denied to employers who practiced Defense contracts be denied to employers who practiced

discrimination. discrimination. An end to segregation in federal agenciesAn end to segregation in federal agencies Desegregation of the armed forces.Desegregation of the armed forces.

FDR agreed to the first two, but not the last – could FDR agreed to the first two, but not the last – could effect morale among troopseffect morale among troops

Through Executive Order 8802, he ordered an end to Through Executive Order 8802, he ordered an end to segregation in govt. agencies, job training programs, and segregation in govt. agencies, job training programs, and ordered defense contractors to end hiring discrimination. ordered defense contractors to end hiring discrimination.

It also created the It also created the Fair Employment Practices Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPCCommission (FEPC) to investigate violations of the ) to investigate violations of the orderorder

But the FEPC could only investigate complaints and But the FEPC could only investigate complaints and report to Congress – could not take action – was not that report to Congress – could not take action – was not that effective as a result: staffed by some conservative effective as a result: staffed by some conservative businessmen: only one third of recommendations were businessmen: only one third of recommendations were acted on; acted on;

Overall, during WWII, African Americans found more Overall, during WWII, African Americans found more employment, due to the War economy, unlike during the employment, due to the War economy, unlike during the Depression, but often the most menial, low-paying jobsDepression, but often the most menial, low-paying jobs

Randolph canceled the march but MOWM continued in Randolph canceled the march but MOWM continued in existence, organizing protest marches and boycotts existence, organizing protest marches and boycotts against racismagainst racism

From MOWM, a new organization From MOWM, a new organization Congress of Racial Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), Equality (CORE), was formed – continued with was formed – continued with militant policies: sit-ins at movie theatres, restaurants, militant policies: sit-ins at movie theatres, restaurants, hotels: boycotts and demonstrationshotels: boycotts and demonstrations

Complemented the NAACP, which continued as before, Complemented the NAACP, which continued as before, with legal and political challengeswith legal and political challenges

Tuskegee AirmenThe pilots of the 99th Pursuit Squadron, the first African American aerial fighting unit, trained at a field adjacent to Alabama's all-black Tuskegee Institute and became known as the "Tuskegee Airmen." They entered combat over North Africa in June of 1943 and won much praise for their battles against the Luftwaffe. However, most blacks throughout the war were confined to noncombat service.

Tuskegee Tuskegee AirmenAirmen

Indians.Indians. Approx 25,000 Native Am Indians served in the armed Approx 25,000 Native Am Indians served in the armed

forces during the war. forces during the war.

Not segregated, like Africans Americans Not segregated, like Africans Americans

Some served as "Some served as "code talkerscode talkers" (Navajo) working in " (Navajo) working in military communications and speaking their own military communications and speaking their own language over the radio and telephones. Enemy forces language over the radio and telephones. Enemy forces intercepting the messages would not know Indian intercepting the messages would not know Indian dialectsdialects

Many Indians who served in the war, did not return to Many Indians who served in the war, did not return to the reservations – got a taste of life away from the the reservations – got a taste of life away from the reservations reservations

Navajo Code Talkers by Colonel C.H. Waterhouse, USMCR

Navajo "code talkers," who were U.S. Marines, were among the first assault forces to land on Pacific beaches. Dodging enemy fire, they set up radio equipment and transmitted vital information to headquarters, including enemy sightings and targets for American shelling. The Japanese never broke the special Navajo code. The artist is Colonel C.H. Waterhouse, U.S. Marine Corps (retired).

Little work reached the reservations during the war - Little work reached the reservations during the war - they had not developed an industrial capacity. they had not developed an industrial capacity.

Govt. New Deal subsidies to the reservations dwindled. Govt. New Deal subsidies to the reservations dwindled.

And the emphasis on national unity undermined support And the emphasis on national unity undermined support for tribal unity that the Indian Reorganization Act of for tribal unity that the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 had launched.1934 had launched.

Mexican - Americans.Mexican - Americans. During the Depression, many had been deported, to free During the Depression, many had been deported, to free

jobs and opportunities for white workers.jobs and opportunities for white workers.

Reversal of this trend during WW II - large numbers of Reversal of this trend during WW II - large numbers of Mexican workers returned to the US during the war in Mexican workers returned to the US during the war in response to labor shortages on the Pacific Coast and in response to labor shortages on the Pacific Coast and in the Southwest. the Southwest.

The US and Mexican govt.’s agreed in 1942 to a The US and Mexican govt.’s agreed in 1942 to a program by which program by which bracerosbraceros (contract laborers) would (contract laborers) would be admitted to the US for a limited time (Bracero be admitted to the US for a limited time (Bracero program)program)

Because of wartime labor shortage they were hired not Because of wartime labor shortage they were hired not just as farm laborers as mostly in the past, but also as just as farm laborers as mostly in the past, but also as factory workers, and in shipyards. factory workers, and in shipyards.

The Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) The Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) forced some industries to hire significant numbers of forced some industries to hire significant numbers of Mexican-AmericansMexican-Americans

They found jobs, but still faced discrimination in terms They found jobs, but still faced discrimination in terms of salaries, hours, conditions, and segregation on the job of salaries, hours, conditions, and segregation on the job – still worked at the most menial jobs– still worked at the most menial jobs

And faced discrimination and segregation in general in And faced discrimination and segregation in general in the community…movie theaters, restaurants…like AA’sthe community…movie theaters, restaurants…like AA’s

Sudden and big increase in Mexican American Sudden and big increase in Mexican American population in LA created tension and conflictpopulation in LA created tension and conflict

White residents of Los Angeles became alarmed at the White residents of Los Angeles became alarmed at the activities of Mexican teenagers….their gangs, distinctive activities of Mexican teenagers….their gangs, distinctive clothing - long, loose jackets with padded shoulders, clothing - long, loose jackets with padded shoulders, pleated baggy pants tied or tapered at the cuffs or at the pleated baggy pants tied or tapered at the cuffs or at the ankles, long watch chains, broad rimmed hats, and ankles, long watch chains, broad rimmed hats, and greased, ducktail hairstyles – a style called “zoot suit / greased, ducktail hairstyles – a style called “zoot suit / zoot- suiters” (influenced by style in Harlem, NY)zoot- suiters” (influenced by style in Harlem, NY)

Zoot Suit Riots of June 1943: Off duty sailors targeted Zoot Suit Riots of June 1943: Off duty sailors targeted the zoot suiters – led to a four day riot after police the zoot suiters – led to a four day riot after police attacked and arrested the zoot suiters, but not the sailors attacked and arrested the zoot suiters, but not the sailors who instigated much of the troublewho instigated much of the trouble

To end the violence, the city was declared off limits to To end the violence, the city was declared off limits to naval personnel and a new law was passed prohibiting naval personnel and a new law was passed prohibiting the wearing of zoot suits.the wearing of zoot suits.

Zoot Suit RiotsOne hundred people were injured during the 1943 "zoot-suit riot" in Los Angeles, when white mobs attacked Mexican American men and tore off their zoot suits. During the riot, Los Angeles police arrested Mexican Americans for wearing such attire in violation of a city ordinance. These men in chains were headed to jail.

Women. Women. Women made gains in economy / employment because of Women made gains in economy / employment because of

the shortage of labor; thrust into roles long considered the shortage of labor; thrust into roles long considered inappropriate for theminappropriate for them

With so many men serving in the military, women With so many men serving in the military, women became crucial to the successful operation of industrybecame crucial to the successful operation of industry

The number of women in the workforce increased by over The number of women in the workforce increased by over 6m, or by nearly 60% in the course of war. 6m, or by nearly 60% in the course of war.

More women were employed in factory jobs than ever More women were employed in factory jobs than ever before – before – “Rosie the Riveter”“Rosie the Riveter” – welders, fitters, – welders, fitters, mechanicsmechanics

Also joined the Armed Forces / ServiceAlso joined the Armed Forces / Service

Hazel Ah Ying Lee, Women's Air Force Service PilotMore than 350,000 women served in the military during the war, including Lt. Hazel Ying Lee, a Women's Air Force Service Pilot. WASPs flew "noncombat," ferrying planes and supplies across the United States and Canada. Already an experienced pilot in China, Lt. Lee is seated here in the cockpit of a trainer. Lt. Lee died in 1943, when her plane crashed.

Women in the service: black nursesLining the rails of their ship, African American army nurses arrive at the European theater of operations in August 1944. These nurses, like their white counterparts in America's segregated army, served in field and base hospitals, often right behind the fighting front.

Women train operators, New York, 1942Women workers mastered numerous job skills during the war. In 1942 crews of women cared for Long Island commuter trains like this one.

Rosie the RiveterMemorialized in song and story, "Rosie the Riveter" symbolized the women war workers who assumed jobs in heavy industry to take up the slack for the absent 15 million men in the armed services. Here a very real Rosie the Riveter is doing her job in April 1943 at the Baltimore manufacturing plant for Martin PMB mariners. Although sometimes scorned by male workers, the dedication and efficiency of most female workers won them the praise of male plant supervisors. (National Archives)

Rosie the RiveterRosie the Riveter

majority of women were employed not in factories but in majority of women were employed not in factories but in service sector jobs, esp. in govt. in the rapidly expanding service sector jobs, esp. in govt. in the rapidly expanding bureaucratic clerical sector; as clerks, secretaries, and bureaucratic clerical sector; as clerks, secretaries, and typists - known as "govt. girls“typists - known as "govt. girls“

Employed but still experienced discrimination; men still Employed but still experienced discrimination; men still dominated supervisory / managerial positions, received dominated supervisory / managerial positions, received less pay, little job security, lost their jobs when war less pay, little job security, lost their jobs when war endedended

Still, women made important inroads in industry: were Still, women made important inroads in industry: were accepted into unions in substantial numbers, and they accepted into unions in substantial numbers, and they helped erode at least some of the prejudice against helped erode at least some of the prejudice against factory work , including the prejudice against mothers factory work , including the prejudice against mothers working, that had previously kept many of them from working, that had previously kept many of them from paid employment.paid employment.

But the new opportunities for women produced new But the new opportunities for women produced new problems: problems:

1. Many mothers whose husbands were away in the 1. Many mothers whose husbands were away in the military tried to combine jobs with caring for their military tried to combine jobs with caring for their children and found the task difficult - scarcity of child children and found the task difficult - scarcity of child care facilities or other community services meant that care facilities or other community services meant that some women had no choice but to leave young some women had no choice but to leave young children - often known as children - often known as "latch key children""latch key children" or or “eight hour orphans"“eight hour orphans" - at home alone or sometimes - at home alone or sometimes locked in cars in the factory parking lots where they locked in cars in the factory parking lots where they worked. worked.

2. The search for wartime employment also required 2. The search for wartime employment also required many women to move to new communities - too its many women to move to new communities - too its toll on family stability. Family dislocation caused the toll on family stability. Family dislocation caused the juvenile crime rate to rise significantly in the war yrs. juvenile crime rate to rise significantly in the war yrs. The number of arrests of teenagers for crimes such as The number of arrests of teenagers for crimes such as car theft, burglary, vandalism, and vagrancy, increasedcar theft, burglary, vandalism, and vagrancy, increased

3. Due to lack of parental control more than a million 3. Due to lack of parental control more than a million teenagers dropped out of school. teenagers dropped out of school.

Japanese Americans Japanese Americans Targeted with suspicion, as German Americans had Targeted with suspicion, as German Americans had

been during WW I - because of public outrage with been during WW I - because of public outrage with direct Japanese attack on Pearl Harbordirect Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor

German Americans and Italian Americans not German Americans and Italian Americans not victimized, though US was at war with them too – few victimized, though US was at war with them too – few recent immigrants due to restrictive immigration recent immigrants due to restrictive immigration legislation (1921, 1924)legislation (1921, 1924)

The Japanese American Community was a relatively The Japanese American Community was a relatively small one -there were only about 127,000, Japanese small one -there were only about 127,000, Japanese Americans in the US when WW II broke out, most of Americans in the US when WW II broke out, most of them - 110,000 - concentrated in a few areas on the them - 110,000 - concentrated in a few areas on the West Coast and mostly in CA. West Coast and mostly in CA.

One third Issei / not citizens, two thirds Nisei / citizens One third Issei / not citizens, two thirds Nisei / citizens

Japanese community was subjected to discrimination, Japanese community was subjected to discrimination, racism – from Nativists – before WW II (need for racism – from Nativists – before WW II (need for Gentleman’s Agreement)Gentleman’s Agreement)

Just before Pearl Harbor the State Dept gathered Just before Pearl Harbor the State Dept gathered information on Japanese Americans in Hawaii and on information on Japanese Americans in Hawaii and on the West Coast to determine how loyal they were to the the West Coast to determine how loyal they were to the US. US.

The conclusion was that “they were by and large loyal The conclusion was that “they were by and large loyal to the US and would not pose a problem”to the US and would not pose a problem”

However after Pearl Harbor, hysteria … rumors However after Pearl Harbor, hysteria … rumors outrageous fears of sabotage, espionage, of them outrageous fears of sabotage, espionage, of them assisting a Japanese invasion… all entirely without assisting a Japanese invasion… all entirely without foundation…. foundation….

FBI arrested 2,100 “dangerous suspects” among the FBI arrested 2,100 “dangerous suspects” among the Japanese American communityJapanese American community

Faced repression from the public and in their Faced repression from the public and in their community – growing public pressure to remove the community – growing public pressure to remove the "threat" "threat"

FDR began to consider a plan to isolate them for both FDR began to consider a plan to isolate them for both national security reasons and for their own safetynational security reasons and for their own safety

Finally, in Feb 1942, in response to pressure from Finally, in Feb 1942, in response to pressure from military officials, esp. General John De Witte, head of military officials, esp. General John De Witte, head of the Western Defense Command, and some political the Western Defense Command, and some political leaders on the West Coast, FDR introduced leaders on the West Coast, FDR introduced Executive Executive Order 9066Order 9066, authorizing the "relocation" of all , authorizing the "relocation" of all Japanese-Americans on the West Coast (110,000), US Japanese-Americans on the West Coast (110,000), US citizens and legal aliens (Issei and Nisei), on the citizens and legal aliens (Issei and Nisei), on the grounds that they were a "security threat"……grounds that they were a "security threat"……ManzanarManzanar

More than 110,000 people were ordered to dispose of More than 110,000 people were ordered to dispose of their property or lock it up however they could, in a their property or lock it up however they could, in a short period of time and to report to control centers - short period of time and to report to control centers - Santa Anita racetrack was the local one – bringing only Santa Anita racetrack was the local one – bringing only what they could carrywhat they could carry

Were then transported to what the govt. termed Were then transported to what the govt. termed "relocation centers" in the "interior“ – away from the "relocation centers" in the "interior“ – away from the coastcoast

8,000 voluntarily reported and the others were rounded 8,000 voluntarily reported and the others were rounded up by the War Relocation Authority set up to oversee up by the War Relocation Authority set up to oversee the evacuation the evacuation

Japanese American teens, 1942In February of 1942 President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered that all Japanese Americans living on the West Coast be rounded up and placed in prison camps. These families were awaiting a train to take them to an assembly center in Merced, California; from there, they would be sent to relocation camps in remote inland areas.

Politicians and the public supported the decision - esp. Politicians and the public supported the decision - esp. jealous businessmen and farmers who were glad of the jealous businessmen and farmers who were glad of the elimination of competitionelimination of competition

Neighbors / bargain-hunters took advantage of hastily Neighbors / bargain-hunters took advantage of hastily organized auctions / yard sales as they sold off their organized auctions / yard sales as they sold off their possessionpossession

Received an estimated 5c for every dollar's worth of their Received an estimated 5c for every dollar's worth of their possessions. possessions.

Much of what they left behind was either stolen, or Much of what they left behind was either stolen, or vandalized, or occupied / squatters; majority of farms, vandalized, or occupied / squatters; majority of farms, houses, businesses were never recovered. houses, businesses were never recovered.

Estimated total losses to the Community - in income and Estimated total losses to the Community - in income and property - around $350m. property - around $350m.

There were 10 camps, each guarded by armed soldiers, There were 10 camps, each guarded by armed soldiers, located in desolate, barren areaslocated in desolate, barren areas

Conditions in the “internment camps” were harsh and Conditions in the “internment camps” were harsh and uncomfortable. uncomfortable.

Entire families were given one room in a barracks Entire families were given one room in a barracks style dwelling, sparsely furnished with cots, and a few style dwelling, sparsely furnished with cots, and a few other items of furniture. Limited medical care, no other items of furniture. Limited medical care, no provision for schooling. Unable to maintain an provision for schooling. Unable to maintain an income…income…

The camp at Manzanar, CA, The camp at Manzanar, CA, had eight guard towers fitted had eight guard towers fitted with searchlights and machine with searchlights and machine guns. Five strands of barbed guns. Five strands of barbed wire surrounded the camp to wire surrounded the camp to keep internees from escaping. keep internees from escaping.

Topaz, a camp in Utah, was Topaz, a camp in Utah, was 4,600 feet above sea level. 4,600 feet above sea level. Temperatures ranged from Temperatures ranged from 106 in summer to minus 30 in 106 in summer to minus 30 in winter: constant whirlwind of winter: constant whirlwind of dust. dust.

Ironically, 8,000 internees were trusted to become volunteers in Ironically, 8,000 internees were trusted to become volunteers in the armed forces: the armed forces:

A unit of Japanese Americans soldiers was formed, but they A unit of Japanese Americans soldiers was formed, but they were sent to fight in Europe, not in the Pacificwere sent to fight in Europe, not in the Pacific

17,000 internees were released during the war – they were 17,000 internees were released during the war – they were needed in the work force – the remainder were kept locked up needed in the work force – the remainder were kept locked up until the war ended (3 years) until the war ended (3 years)

Despite the stark surroundings, the evacuees proved to be very Despite the stark surroundings, the evacuees proved to be very resourceful and determined. They published newspapers, started resourceful and determined. They published newspapers, started schools, churches, bands, Boy Scout groups, softball leagues, schools, churches, bands, Boy Scout groups, softball leagues, built tennis courts, landscaped flower and vegetable gardens – built tennis courts, landscaped flower and vegetable gardens – gave life meaning and dignitygave life meaning and dignity

After the war, some Japanese American challenged the After the war, some Japanese American challenged the legality of govt. internmentlegality of govt. internment

But the Supreme Court, in Hirabayashi v US, and in But the Supreme Court, in Hirabayashi v US, and in Korematsu v US, upheld the orderKorematsu v US, upheld the order

Based its decision on the grounds that the judiciary Based its decision on the grounds that the judiciary could not second guess military decisions. One of the could not second guess military decisions. One of the dissenting justices, however, termed the decision a dissenting justices, however, termed the decision a "legalization of racism“ – pointed out the contradiction "legalization of racism“ – pointed out the contradiction between fighting to end racism abroad while between fighting to end racism abroad while increasing it at home, for civil rights abroad while increasing it at home, for civil rights abroad while denying them at home. denying them at home.

Others tried to get compensation for the loss of Others tried to get compensation for the loss of property and earningsproperty and earnings

No success until the 1980s, 45 years later, when Pres. No success until the 1980s, 45 years later, when Pres. Reagan signed Public Law 100-383 on Aug 10, 1988, Reagan signed Public Law 100-383 on Aug 10, 1988, known as the Civil Liberties Act. known as the Civil Liberties Act.

Contained an apology and made financial restitution of Contained an apology and made financial restitution of $20,000 in tax free payments per eligible person over a $20,000 in tax free payments per eligible person over a 10 yr period. 10 yr period.

Not very much; 60,000 were already dead, and others Not very much; 60,000 were already dead, and others would not live for 10 more years; not funded until 1990 would not live for 10 more years; not funded until 1990 – and only paid to the over 80s among them– and only paid to the over 80s among them

The US and the HolocaustThe US and the Holocaust

Intensification of persecution of Jews by Nazis – Intensification of persecution of Jews by Nazis – Nuremberg Laws, Kristallnacht, spread to Nazi Nuremberg Laws, Kristallnacht, spread to Nazi occupied areas…….Final Solutionoccupied areas…….Final Solution

News reached the US in 1938; FDR condemned Nazi News reached the US in 1938; FDR condemned Nazi policy, expressed shock and disbeliefpolicy, expressed shock and disbelief

American Jewish leaders campaigned for FDR / Govt. American Jewish leaders campaigned for FDR / Govt. to relax US immigration laws, and the quota system, to to relax US immigration laws, and the quota system, to allow admission of German Jews refugees trying to allow admission of German Jews refugees trying to flee Europeflee Europe

But they faced indifference; Anti-Semitism was strong But they faced indifference; Anti-Semitism was strong in America – KKK, Nativists, labor, politicians, high in America – KKK, Nativists, labor, politicians, high profile leaders (Ford, Coughlin) – racial and economic profile leaders (Ford, Coughlin) – racial and economic reasons reasons

In the 20s and 30s, Jewish cemeteries and synagogues In the 20s and 30s, Jewish cemeteries and synagogues were vandalized and defaced with swastikas and anti- were vandalized and defaced with swastikas and anti- Semitic slogansSemitic slogans

American Jews were not politically strong enough to put American Jews were not politically strong enough to put pressure on FDR / Congress to respondpressure on FDR / Congress to respond

The State Dept. was particularly opposed to accepting The State Dept. was particularly opposed to accepting too many Jewish refugees – claimed that the US was too many Jewish refugees – claimed that the US was not ready to handle a huge influx of penniless refugees not ready to handle a huge influx of penniless refugees during a time when funds were already being depleted during a time when funds were already being depleted because of the Depressionbecause of the Depression

State Dept. also claimed that German spies might State Dept. also claimed that German spies might masquerade as refugees, creating a huge security riskmasquerade as refugees, creating a huge security risk

It downplayed the severity of the Holocaust and kept It downplayed the severity of the Holocaust and kept information from the media and public information from the media and public

The Dept. contained some extreme anti-semetic, racist The Dept. contained some extreme anti-semetic, racist administrators: notably senior admin. Breckinridge administrators: notably senior admin. Breckinridge Long, who ordered that the number of immigration visas Long, who ordered that the number of immigration visas being granted to Jews in Europe be cut in half, and that being granted to Jews in Europe be cut in half, and that delays and obstacles should be put in place to slow delays and obstacles should be put in place to slow down the immigration of those granted visasdown the immigration of those granted visas

Henry Morgantheau, of the Treasury Dept. exposed Henry Morgantheau, of the Treasury Dept. exposed what the State Dept. was doing – accused it of being an what the State Dept. was doing – accused it of being an accomplice to the Nazis because of suppression of accomplice to the Nazis because of suppression of information from the govt. and public. information from the govt. and public.

As he became more aware of the Holocaust, FDR As he became more aware of the Holocaust, FDR passed Executive Order 9417 which set up the War passed Executive Order 9417 which set up the War Refugee Board to provide more assistance to Refugee Board to provide more assistance to refugees…. But had limited funding…only 100,000 refugees…. But had limited funding…only 100,000 Jewish Refugees accepted in total by the time the war Jewish Refugees accepted in total by the time the war endedended

US Military refused to bomb death camps / gas US Military refused to bomb death camps / gas chambers which US planes flew over to bomb nearby chambers which US planes flew over to bomb nearby military and industrial targets – claimed this would be a military and industrial targets – claimed this would be a distraction / diversion from winning the war – and distraction / diversion from winning the war – and estimated 100,000 Jews died in Auschwitz in the weeks estimated 100,000 Jews died in Auschwitz in the weeks after US planes flew over to bomb targets beyond the after US planes flew over to bomb targets beyond the campcamp