honors world history summer assignment

Honors World History Summer Assignment

Mr. Keyes, Rm 114A [email protected]

Mr. Von Arter, Rm 108A [email protected]

Read the four textbook chapters

Print and answer the guided questions at the end of the PDF file.

Hand in the questions on the first day of class

Make sure your name is on your answer sheet.

This is for a test grade

This assignment is also posted on Google Classroom, code: y4wwyl

Honors World History Course description: Overview This full year course is a survey of history from the Age of Absolutism through to the Twenty-first Century. The historical development of economic, political, social and religious institutions, as well as the impact of factors such as technology, geography and upheaval upon those institutions, will be thoroughly examined. The curriculum will also include consideration of non-Western cultures: the Middle East, Asia and Latin America. The student will need to demonstrate intellectual maturity and curiosity as well as a willingness to work with others and alone.

The main objective of this class will be to provide you with an opportunity to think critically. Critical thought comes in stages:

Stage One – the accumulation of data and information, Stage Two – the evaluation of the source of the information, Stage Three – the critical application of the data toward a conclusive interpretation. Major Topics of Study Absolutism & The Enlightenment Scientific Advances and the Industrial Revolution Imperialism, Nationalism and Global Age World War I & World War II Economic Theory and World Transition The Cold War and Atomic Age The World Today: Shifting Alliances in the post-Industrial Era Future Paradigms: Exponential change driven by Science and Technology

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

1

SETTING THE STAGE During the late Middle Ages, Europe suffered fromboth war and plague. Those who survived wanted to celebrate life and the humanspirit. They began to question institutions of the Middle Ages, which had beenunable to prevent war or to relieve suffering brought by the plague. Some peoplequestioned the Church, which taught Christians to endure suffering while theyawaited their rewards in heaven. In northern Italy, writers and artists began toexpress this new spirit and to experiment with different styles. These men andwomen would greatly change how Europeans saw themselves and their world.

Italy’s AdvantagesThis movement that started in Italy caused an explosion of creativity in art, writing, and thought that lasted approximately from 1300 to 1600. Historians callthis period the Renaissance (REHN•ih•SAHNS). The term means rebirth, and inthis context, it refers to a revival of art and learning. The educated men and womenof Italy hoped to bring back to life the culture of classical Greece and Rome. Yetin striving to revive the past, the people of the Renaissance created something new.The contributions made during this period led to innovative styles of art and literature. They also led to new values, such as the importance of the individual.

The Renaissance eventually spread from northern Italy to the rest of Europe.Italy had three advantages that made it the birthplace of the Renaissance: thrivingcities, a wealthy merchant class, and the classical heritage of Greece and Rome.

City-States Overseas trade, spurred by the Crusades, had led to the growth oflarge city-states in northern Italy. The region also had many sizable towns. Thus,northern Italy was urban while the rest of Europe was still mostly rural. Sincecities are often places where people exchange ideas, they were an ideal breedingground for an intellectual revolution.

In the 1300s, the bubonic plague struck these cities hard, killing up to 60 percent of the population. This brought economic changes. Because there werefewer laborers, survivors could demand higher wages. With few opportunities toexpand business, merchants began to pursue other interests, such as art.

Merchants and the Medici A wealthy merchant class developed in each Italiancity-state. Because city-states like Milan and Florence were relatively small, ahigh percentage of citizens could be intensely involved in political life.

European Renaissance and Reformation 471

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance

REVOLUTION The ItalianRenaissance was a rebirth oflearning that produced manygreat works of art and literature.

Renaissance art and literaturestill influence modern thoughtand modern art.

• Renaissance• humanism• secular

• patron• perspective• vernacular

Outlining Use an outline to organize main ideas and details.

TAKING NOTES

Italian Renaissance

I. Italy’y s advantages

A.

B.

II. Classical andworldly values

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Merchants dominated politics. Unlike nobles, merchantsdid not inherit social rank. To succeed in business, they usedtheir wits. As a result, many successful merchants believedthey deserved power and wealth because of their individualmerit. This belief in individual achievement became impor-tant during the Renaissance.

Since the late 1200s, the city-state of Florence had arepublican form of government. But during the Renaissance,Florence came under the rule of one powerful banking fam-ily, the Medici (MEHD•ih•chee). The Medici family bankhad branch offices throughout Italy and in the major cities ofEurope. Cosimo de Medici was the wealthiest European ofhis time. In 1434, he won control of Florence’s government.He did not seek political office for himself, but influencedmembers of the ruling council by giving them loans. For 30years, he was dictator of Florence.

Cosimo de Medici died in 1464, but his family continuedto control Florence. His grandson, Lorenzo de Medici, cameto power in 1469. Known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, heruled as a dictator yet kept up the appearance of having anelected government.

Looking to Greece and Rome Renaissance scholars lookeddown on the art and literature of the Middle Ages. Instead,they wanted to return to the learning of the Greeks andRomans. They achieved this in several ways. First, the artistsand scholars of Italy drew inspiration from the ruins of Romethat surrounded them. Second, Western scholars studied

ancient Latin manuscripts that had been preserved in monasteries. Third, Christianscholars in Constantinople fled to Rome with Greek manuscripts when the Turksconquered Constantinople in 1453.

Classical and Worldly ValuesAs scholars studied these manuscripts, they became more influenced by classicalideas. These ideas helped them to develop a new outlook on life and art.

Classics Lead to Humanism The study of classical texts led to humanism, anintellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements. Insteadof trying to make classical texts agree with Christian teaching as medieval schol-ars had, humanists studied them to understand ancient Greek values. Humanistsinfluenced artists and architects to carry on classical traditions. Also, humanistspopularized the study of subjects common to classical education, such as history,literature, and philosophy. These subjects are called the humanities.

Worldly Pleasures In the Middle Ages, some people had demonstrated their pietyby wearing rough clothing and eating plain foods. However, humanists suggestedthat a person might enjoy life without offending God. In Renaissance Italy, thewealthy enjoyed material luxuries, good music, and fine foods.

Most people remained devout Catholics. However, the basic spirit ofRenaissance society was secular—worldly rather than spiritual and concernedwith the here and now. Even church leaders became more worldly. Some lived inbeautiful mansions, threw lavish banquets, and wore expensive clothes.

Patrons of the Arts Church leaders during the Renaissance beautified Rome andother cities by spending huge amounts of money for art. They became patrons of the

VocabularyThe words humanist andhumanities comefrom the Latin wordhumanitas, whichrefers to the literary culture thatevery educated person shouldpossess.

Analyzing CausesWhat three

advantages fosteredthe Renaissancein Italy?

Medici FamilyA rival family grew so jealous of theMedici that they plotted to killLorenzo (above) and his brotherGiuliano. As the Medici attendedMass, assassins murdered Giuliano atthe altar. Drawing his sword, Lorenzoescaped to a small room and held offhis attackers until help arrived. Later,he had the killers brutally, publiclyexecuted.

More positively, Lorenzo was agenerous patron of the arts whocollected many rare manuscripts.Eventually the Medici family madetheir library available to the public.

arts by financially supporting artists. Renaissance merchants and wealthy familiesalso were patrons of the arts. By having their portraits painted or by donating art tothe city to place in public squares, the wealthy demonstrated their own importance.

The Renaissance Man Renaissance writers introduced the idea that all educatedpeople were expected to create art. In fact, the ideal individual strove to masteralmost every area of study. A man who excelled in many fields was praised as a“universal man.” Later ages called such people “Renaissance men.”

Baldassare Castiglione (KAHS•teel•YOH•nay) wrote a book called The Courtier(1528) that taught how to become such a person. A young man should be charm-ing, witty, and well educated in the classics. He should dance, sing, play music, andwrite poetry. In addition, he should be a skilled rider, wrestler, and swordsman.

The Renaissance Woman According to The Courtier, upper-class women alsoshould know the classics and be charming. Yet they were not expected to seekfame. They were expected to inspire art but rarely to create it. Upper-classRenaissance women were better educated than medieval women. However, mostRenaissance women had little influence in politics.

A few women, such as Isabella d’Este, did exercise power. Born into the rulingfamily of the city-state of Ferrara, she married the ruler of another city-state,Mantua. She brought many Renaissance artists to her court and built a famous artcollection. She was also skilled in politics. When her husband was taken captive inwar, she defended Mantua and won his release.


The Renaissance ManIn The Courtier, Baldassare Castiglione described the typeof accomplished person who later came to be called theRenaissance man.

The Renaissance WomanAlthough Renaissance women were not expected to createart, wealthy women often were patrons of artists, as thisletter by Isabella d’Este demonstrates.

DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS1. Drawing Conclusions Do the qualities called for in the ideal Renaissance man and

woman seem to emphasize the individual or the group?2. Making Inferences Isabella d’Este’s portrait was painted by Titian, and Castiglione’s by

Raphael, two famous painters. What does this tell you about the subjects’ social status?

ComparingHow were

expectations forRenaissance menand Renaissancewomen similar?

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

Let the man we are seeking be very bold, stern,and always among the first, where the

enemy are to be seen; and in every otherplace, gentle, modest, reserved, above allthings avoiding ostentation [showiness]and that impudent [bold] self-praise bywhich men ever excite hatred and disgustin all who hear them. . . .

I would have him more than passablyaccomplished in letters, at least in those

studies that are called the humanities, andconversant not only with the Latin language but

with Greek, for the sake of the many different things thathave been admirably written therein. Let him be wellversed in the poets, and not less in the orators andhistorians, and also proficient in writing verse and prose.

BALDASSARE CASTIGLIONE, The Courtier

To Master Leonardo da Vinci, the painter:Hearing that you are settled at Florence, wehave begun to hope that our cherisheddesire to obtain a work by your hand mightbe at length realized. When you were inthis city and drew our portrait in carbon,you promised us that you would some daypaint it in colors. But because this wouldbe almost impossible, since you are unableto come here, we beg you to keep yourpromise by converting our portrait into anotherfigure, which would be still more acceptable to us;that is to say, a youthful Christ of about twelve years . . .executed with all that sweetness and charm ofatmosphere which is the peculiar excellence of your art.Mantua, May 14, 1504

ISABELLA D’ESTE, Letters

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The Renaissance Revolutionizes ArtSupported by patrons like Isabella d’Este, dozens of artists worked in northernItaly. As the Renaissance advanced, artistic styles changed. Medieval artists hadused religious subjects to convey a spiritual ideal. Renaissance artists often por-trayed religious subjects, but they used a realistic style copied from classical mod-els. Greek and Roman subjects also became popular. Renaissance painters used thetechnique of perspective, which shows three dimensions on a flat surface.

Realistic Painting and Sculpture Following the new emphasis on individuals,painters began to paint prominent citizens. These realistic portraits revealed whatwas distinctive about each person. In addition, artists such as the sculptor, poet,architect, and painter Michelangelo (MY•kuhl•AN•juh•LOH) Buonarroti used a realistic style when depicting the human body.

Donatello (DAHN•uh•TEHL•oh) also made sculpture more realistic by carvingnatural postures and expressions that reveal personality. He revived a classicalform in his statue of David, a boy who, according to the Bible, became a great king.Donatello’s statue was created in the late 1460s. It was the first European sculptureof a large, free-standing nude since ancient times. For sculptors of the period,including Michelangelo, David (page 478) was a favorite subject.

PerspectivePerspective creates the appearance of threedimensions. Classical artists had used perspective,but medieval artists abandoned the technique. Inthe 1400s, Italian artists rediscovered it.

Perspective is based on an optical illusion. Asparallel lines stretch away from a viewer, they seemto draw together, until they meet at a spot onthe horizon called the vanishing point. The use ofperspective was a feature of most Western paintingfor the next 450 years.

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual SourcesContrasting What is the major difference between thefigures in the background of the painting and the figuresin the foreground? What is the effect of this difference?

Marriage of the Virgin (1504), Raphael

SynthesizingWhat major

change did a beliefin individual meritbring about in art?

Leonardo, Renaissance Man Leonardo da Vinci(LAY•uh•NAHR•doh duh•VIHN•chee) was a painter,sculptor, inventor, and scientist. A true “Renaissanceman,” he was interested in how things worked. Hestudied how a muscle moves and how veins arearranged in a leaf. He filled his notebooks withobservations and sketches. Then he incorporated hisfindings in his art.

Among his many masterpieces, Leonardo paintedone of the best-known portraits in the world, theMona Lisa (page 478). The woman in the portraitseems so real that many writers have tried to explainthe thoughts behind her smile. Leonardo also pro-duced a famous religious painting, The Last Supper.It shows the personalities of Jesus’ disciples throughfacial expressions.

Raphael Advances Realism Raphael (RAHF•ee•uhl)Sanzio was younger than Michelangelo andLeonardo. He learned from studying their works.One of Raphael’s favorite subjects was the Madonnaand child. Raphael often portrayed their expressionsas gentle and calm. He was famous for his use ofperspective.

In his greatest achievement, Raphael filled thewalls of Pope Julius II’s library with paintings. Oneof these, School of Athens (page 479), conveys theclassical influence on the Renaissance. Raphaelpainted famous Renaissance figures, such asMichelangelo, Leonardo, and himself, as classicalphilosophers and their students.

Anguissola and Gentileschi Renaissance societygenerally restricted women’s roles. However, a fewItalian women became notable painters. SofonisbaAnguissola (ahng•GWEES•soh•lah) was the firstwoman artist to gain an international reputation.She is known for her portraits of her sisters and ofprominent people such as King Philip II of Spain.Artemisia Gentileschi (JAYN•tee•LEHS•kee) wasanother accomplished artist. She trained with her painter father and helped with hiswork. In her own paintings, Gentileschi painted pictures of strong, heroic women.

Renaissance Writers Change LiteratureRenaissance writers produced works that reflected their time, but they also usedtechniques that writers rely on today. Some followed the example of the medievalwriter Dante. He wrote in the vernacular, his native language, instead of Latin.Dante’s native language was Italian. In addition, Renaissance writers wrote eitherfor self-expression or to portray the individuality of their subjects. In these ways,writers of the Renaissance began trends that modern writers still follow.

Petrarch and Boccaccio Francesco Petrarch (PEE•trahrk) was one of the earliestand most influential humanists. Some have called him the father of Renaissancehumanism. He was also a great poet. Petrarch wrote both in Italian and in Latin. In


Leonardo da Vinci1452–1519Leonardo da Vinci’snotebooks—and life—aremysterious. Some 3,500pages closely covered withwritings and drawingssurvive. His writing is clearand easy to read, but only ifyou look at it in a mirror. Noone knows why he wrotebackwards.

Leonardo planned scholarly works and greatfeats of engineering that were never completed.Only 17 of his paintings survive. And yetthe work that Leonardo did produce is soamazing that it confirms his genius.

Michelangelo Buonarroti1475–1564Like Leonardo, Michelangelowas a Renaissance man. He excelled as a painter,sculptor, architect, and poet.

Michelangelo is mostfamous for the way heportrayed the human bodyin painting and sculpture.Influenced by classical art,he created figures that are

forceful and show heroic grandeur.Among his achievements are the dome of St.

Peter’s, the paintings on the ceiling of the SistineChapel, and the statue of David.

INTERNET ACTIVITY Plan a Web site onRenaissance leaders that showcases these twoartists. Go to classzone.com for your research.

http://www.classzone.com/books/wh_survey/

Italian, he wrote sonnets—14-line poems. They were about a mysterious womannamed Laura, who was his ideal. (Little is known of Laura except that she died ofthe plague in 1348.) In classical Latin, he wrote letters to many important friends.

The Italian writer Boccaccio (boh•KAH•chee•oh) is best known for theDecameron, a series of realistic, sometimes off-color stories. The stories are sup-posedly told by a group of worldly young people waiting in a rural villa to avoidthe plague sweeping through Florence:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EIn the year of Our Lord 1348 the deadly plague broke out in the great city of Florence,most beautiful of Italian cities. Whether through the operation of the heavenly bodies orbecause of our own iniquities [sins] which the just wrath of God sought to correct, theplague had arisen in the East some years before, causing the death of countless humanbeings. It spread without stop from one place to another, until, unfortunately, it sweptover the West. Neither knowledge nor human foresight availed against it, though the citywas cleansed of much filth by chosen officers in charge and sick persons wereforbidden to enter it, while advice was broadcast for the preservation of health.

GIOVANNI BOCCACCIO, Preface, Decameron

The Decameron presents both tragic and comic views of life. In its stories, theauthor uses cutting humor to illustrate the human condition. Boccaccio presents hischaracters in all their individuality and all their folly.

Machiavelli Advises Rulers The Prince (1513), by Niccolò Machiavelli (MAK•ee•uh•VEHL•ee), also examines the imperfect conduct of human beings. It does so bytaking the form of a political guidebook. In The Prince, Machiavelli examines howa ruler can gain power and keep it in spite of his enemies. In answering this ques-tion, he began with the idea that most people are selfish, fickle, and corrupt.

To succeed in such a wicked world, Machiavelli said, a prince must be strong as alion and shrewd as a fox. He might have to trick his enemies and even his own peoplefor the good of the state. In The Prince, Machiavelli was not concerned with what wasmorally right, but with what was politically effective.

He pointed out that most people think it is praiseworthy in a prince to keephis word and live with integrity. Nevertheless, Machiavelli argued that in thereal world of power and politics a prince must sometimes mislead the peo-ple and lie to his opponents. As a historian and political thinker, Machiavelli

suggested that in order for a prince to accomplish great things, he must becrafty enough to not only overcome the suspicions but also gain the trust of

others:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E From this arises the question whether it is better to be loved more

than feared, or feared more than loved. The reply is, that oneought to be both feared and loved, but as it is difficult for thetwo to go together, it is much safer to be feared than loved, ifone of the two has to be wanting. For it may be said of menin general that they are ungrateful, voluble [changeable],dissemblers [liars], anxious to avoid danger, and covetous ofgain; as long as you benefit them, they are entirely yours;they offer you their blood, their goods, their life, and theirchildren, as I have before said, when the necessity isremote; but when it approaches, they revolt. And theprince who has relied solely on their words, withoutmaking preparations, is ruined.

NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI, The Prince

AnalyzingPrimary Sources

DoesMachiavelli thinkthat a prince shouldprefer to be lovedor feared? Why?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Renaissance • humanism • secular • patron • perspective • vernacular

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which of Italy’s advantages

was most important? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. What are some of the

characteristics of the“Renaissance man” and“Renaissance woman”?

4. How did Italy’s cities help tomake it the birthplace of theRenaissance?

5. What was the attitude ofChurch leaders and thewealthy toward the arts? Why?

SECTION ASSESSMENT1

WRITING A DESCRIPTION

In a book on modern art, find an artist who worked in more than one medium, such aspainting and sculpture. Write a description of one of the artist’s works in each medium.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS How did study of the classics

influence branches of learning such as history, literature,and philosophy?

7. MAKING INFERENCES How is the humanism of theRenaissance reflected in its art? Explain with examples.

8. COMPARING What were the differences between theMiddle Ages and the Renaissance in the attitude towardworldly pleasures?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY How did the Renaissance revolutionize European art and thought? Support youropinions in a three-paragraph essay.

REVOLUTION

CONNECT TO TODAY


Vittoria Colonna The women writers who gained fameduring the Renaissance usually wrote about personal sub-jects, not politics. Yet, some of them had great influence.Vittoria Colonna (1492–1547) was born of a noble family.In 1509, she married the Marquis of Pescara. He spent mostof his life away from home on military campaigns.

Vittoria Colonna exchanged sonnets with Michelangeloand helped Castiglione publish The Courtier. Her ownpoems express personal emotions. When her husband wasaway at the Battle of Ravenna in 1512, she wrote to him:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EBut now in this perilous assault,in this horrible, pitiless battlethat has so hardened my mind and heart,your great valor has shown you an equalto Hector and Achilles. But what good isthis to me, sorrowful, abandoned? . . .Your uncertain enterprises do not hurt you;but we who wait, mournfully grieving,are wounded by doubt and fear.You men, driven by rage, considering nothingbut your honor, commonly go off, shouting, with great fury, to confront danger.We remain, with fear in our heart andgrief on our brow for you; sister longs forbrother, wife for husband, mother for son.

VITTORIA COLONNA, Poems

Toward the end of the 15th century, Renaissance ideasbegan to spread north from Italy. As you will read in Section2, northern artists and thinkers adapted Renaissance idealsin their own ways.

Italian Renaissance

I. Italy’s advantages

A.

B.

II. Classical and worldly values

Other RenaissancesIn addition to the Italian Renaissance,there have been rebirths and revivalsin other places around the world. Forexample, the Tang (618–907) andSong (960–1279) dynasties in Chinasaw periods of great artistic andtechnological advances.

Like the Italian Renaissance, theachievements of the Tang and theSong had roots in an earlier time, theHan Dynasty (202 B.C. to A.D. 220).After the Han collapsed, Chinaexperienced turmoil.

When order was restored, Chineseculture flourished. The Chineseinvented gunpowder and printing.Chinese poets wrote literarymasterpieces. Breakthroughs weremade in architecture, painting, andpottery. The Song painting above,Waiting for Guests by Lamplight, wasdone with ink and color on silk.

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SETTING THE STAGE The work of such artists as Leonardo da Vinci,Michelangelo, and Raphael showed the Renaissance spirit. All three artistsdemonstrated an interest in classical culture, a curiosity about the world, and abelief in human potential. Humanist writers expanded ideas about individuality.These ideas impressed scholars, students, and merchants who visited Italy. Bythe late 1400s, Renaissance ideas had spread to Northern Europe—especiallyEngland, France, Germany, and Flanders (now part of France and the Netherlands).

The Northern Renaissance BeginsBy 1450 the population of northern Europe, which had declined due to bubonicplague, was beginning to grow again. When the destructive Hundred Years’ Warbetween France and England ended in 1453, many cities grew rapidly. Urban mer-chants became wealthy enough to sponsor artists. This happened first in Flanders,which was rich from long-distance trade and the cloth industry. Then, as wealthincreased in other parts of Northern Europe, patronage of artists increased as well.

As Section 1 explained, Italy was divided into city-states. In contrast, Englandand France were unified under strong monarchs. These rulers often sponsoredthe arts by purchasing paintings and by supporting artists and writers. For exam-ple, Francis I of France invited Leonardo da Vinci to retire in France, and hiredItalian artists and architects to rebuild and decorate his castle at Fontainebleau(FAHN•tihn•BLOH). The castle became a showcase for Renaissance art.

As Renaissance ideas spread out of Italy, they mingled with northern tradi-tions. As a result, the northern Renaissance developed its own character. Forexample, the artists were especially interested in realism. The Renaissance idealof human dignity inspired some northern humanists to develop plans for socialreform based on Judeo-Christian values.

Artistic Ideas SpreadIn 1494, a French king claimed the throne of Naples in southern Italy and launchedan invasion through northern Italy. As the war dragged on, many Italian artists andwriters left for a safer life in Northern Europe. They brought with them the stylesand techniques of the Italian Renaissance. In addition, Northern European artistswho studied in Italy carried Renaissance ideas back to their homelands.


CULTURAL INTERACTION In the1400s, the ideas of the ItalianRenaissance began to spread to Northern Europe.

Renaissance ideas such as theimportance of the individual area strong part of modern thought.

The Northern Renaissance

• utopia• William Shakespeare• Johann Gutenberg

FollowingChronological OrderOn a time line, note important events of the Northern Renaissance.

TAKING NOTES

1400 1600

German Painters Perhaps the most famous person to do this was the Germanartist Albrecht Dürer (DYUR•uhr). He traveled to Italy to study in 1494. Afterreturning to Germany, Dürer produced woodcuts and engravings. Many of hisprints portray religious subjects. Others portray classical myths or realistic land-scapes. The popularity of Dürer’s work helped to spread Renaissance styles.

Dürer’s emphasis upon realism influenced the work of another German artist,Hans Holbein (HOHL•byn) the Younger. Holbein specialized in painting portraitsthat are almost photographic in detail. He emigrated to England where he paintedportraits of King Henry VIII and other members of the English royal family.

Flemish Painters The support of wealthy merchant families in Flanders helped tomake Flanders the artistic center of northern Europe. The first great FlemishRenaissance painter was Jan van Eyck (yahn van YK). Van Eyck used recentlydeveloped oil-based paints to develop techniques that painters still use. By apply-ing layer upon layer of paint, van Eyck was able to create a variety of subtle colorsin clothing and jewels. Oil painting became popular and spread to Italy.

In addition to new techniques, van Eyck’s paintings display unusually realisticdetails and reveal the personality of their subjects. His work influenced later artistsin Northern Europe.

Flemish painting reached its peak after 1550 with the work of Pieter Bruegel(BROY•guhl) the Elder. Bruegel was also interested in realistic details and indi-vidual people. He was very skillful in portraying large numbers of people. He cap-tured scenes from everyday peasant life such as weddings, dances, and harvests.Bruegel’s rich colors, vivid details, and balanced use of space give a sense of lifeand feeling.

Peasant LifeThe Flemish painter PieterBruegel’s paintings provideinformation about peasant lifein the 1500s. Peasant Wedding(1568) portrays a weddingfeast.• The Bride The bride sits

under the paper crownhanging on the green cloth.

• The Servers Men who maybe her brothers are passingout plates.

• The Guests Several childrenhave come to the party.

• The Musicians They arecarrying bagpipes. Oneglances hungrily at the food.

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual SourcesForming GeneralizationsIn what ways does thispainting present a snapshotof peasant life?

SummarizingWhat techniques

does Bruegel useto give life to hispaintings?

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Northern Writers Try to Reform SocietyItalian humanists were very interested in reviving classical languages and classicaltexts. When the Italian humanist ideas reached the north, people used them toexamine the traditional teachings of the Church. The northern humanists were crit-ical of the failure of the Christian Church to inspire people to live a Christian life.This criticism produced a new movement known as Christian humanism. The focusof Christian humanism was the reform of society. Of particular importance tohumanists was education. The humanists promoted the education of women andfounded schools attended by both boys and girls.

Christian Humanists The best known of the Christian humanists were DesideriusErasmus (DEHZ•ih•DEER•ee•uhs ih•RAZ•muhs) of Holland and Thomas More ofEngland. The two were close friends.

In 1509, Erasmus wrote his most famous work, The Praise of Folly. This bookpoked fun at greedy merchants, heartsick lovers, quarrelsome scholars, andpompous priests. Erasmus believed in a Christianity of the heart, not one of cere-monies or rules. He thought that in order to improve society, all people shouldstudy the Bible.

Thomas More tried to show a better model of society. In 1516, he wrote thebook Utopia. In Greek, utopia means “no place.” In English it has come to meanan ideal place as depicted in More’s book. The book is about an imaginary landwhere greed, corruption, and war have been weeded out. In Utopia, because therewas little greed, Utopians had little use for money:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EGold and silver, of which money is made, are so treated . . . that no onevalues them more highly than their true nature deserves. Who does not seethat they are far inferior to iron in usefulness since without iron mortalscannot live any more than without fire and water?

THOMAS MORE, Utopia

More wrote in Latin. As his work became popular, More’s works weretranslated into a variety of languages including French, German, English,Spanish, and Italian.

Women’s Reforms During this period the vast majority of Europeans were unableto read or write. Those families who could afford formal schooling usually sentonly their sons. One woman spoke out against this practice. Christine de Pizan washighly educated for the time and was one of the first women to earn a living as awriter. Writing in French, she produced many books, including short stories,biographies, novels, and manuals on military techniques. She frequently wroteabout the objections men had to educating women. In one book, The Book of TheCity of Ladies, she wrote:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EI am amazed by the opinion of some men who claim that they do not want theirdaughters, wives, or kinswomen to be educated because their mores [morals]would be ruined as a result. . . . Here you can clearly see that not all opinions ofmen are based on reason and that these men are wrong.

CHRISTINE DE PIZAN, The Book of The City of Ladies

Christine de Pizan was one of the first European writers to question different treatment of boys and girls. However, her goal of formal education

for children of both sexes would not be achieved for several centuries.

▼ Christine dePizan is best knownfor her worksdefending women.

▼ ChristianhumanistThomas More

AnalyzingPrimary Sources

What does dePizan argue for inthis passage?

The Elizabethan AgeThe Renaissance spread to England in the mid-1500s. The period was known as theElizabethan Age, after Queen Elizabeth I. Elizabeth reigned from 1558 to 1603.She was well educated and spoke French, Italian, Latin, and Greek. She also wrotepoetry and music. As queen she did much to support the development of Englishart and literature.

William Shakespeare The most famous writer of the Elizabethan Agewas William Shakespeare. Many people regard him as the greatest playwright ofall time. Shakespeare was born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, a small town about90 miles northwest of London. By 1592 he was living in London and writingpoems and plays, and soon he would be performing at the Globe Theater.

Like many Renaissance writers, Shakespeare revered the classics and drew onthem for inspiration and plots. His works display a masterful command of theEnglish language and a deep understanding of human beings. He revealed the soulsof men and women through scenes of dramatic conflict. Many of these plays exam-ine human flaws. However, Shakespeare also had one of his characters deliver aspeech that expresses the Renaissance’s high view of human nature:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EWhat a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite in faculties, in form and moving, how express and admirable; in action how like an angel,in apprehension [understanding] how like a god: the beauty of the world, the paragonof animals.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Hamlet (Act 2, Scene 2)

Shakespeare’s most famous plays include the tragedies Macbeth, Hamlet,Othello, Romeo and Juliet, and King Lear, and the comedies A Midsummer Night’sDream and The Taming of the Shrew.


Shakespeare’s PopularityEven though he has been dead forabout 400 years, Shakespeare isone of the favorite writers offilmmakers. His works are producedboth in period costumes and inmodern attire. The themes ordialogue have been adapted formany films, including some inforeign languages. The postersat the right illustrate Othello (donein period costume); 10 Things IHate About You, an adaptation ofThe Taming of the Shrew; aJapanese film, Ran, an adaptation ofKing Lear; and Romeo and Juliet ina modern setting.

SummarizingWhat are two

ways in whichShakespeare’swork showedRenaissanceinfluences?

Image not available for useon this CD-ROM. Pleaserefer to the image in thetextbook.

484 Chapter 17

Printing Spreads Renaissance IdeasThe Chinese invented block printing, in which a printer carved words or letters ona wooden block, inked the block, and then used it to print on paper. Around 1045,Bi Sheng invented movable type, or a separate piece of type for each character inthe language. The Chinese writing system contains thousands of different charac-ters, so most Chinese printers found movable type impractical. However, themethod would prove practical for Europeans because their languages have a verysmall number of letters in their alphabets.

Gutenberg Improves the Printing Process During the 13th century, block-printed items reached Europe from China. European printers began to use blockprinting to create whole pages to bind into books. However, this process was tooslow to satisfy the Renaissance demand for knowledge, information, and books.

Around 1440 Johann Gutenberg, a craftsman from Mainz, Germany, devel-oped a printing press that incorporated a number of technologies in a new way. Theprocess made it possible to produce books quickly and cheaply. Using thisimproved process, Gutenberg printed a complete Bible, the Gutenberg Bible, inabout 1455. It was the first full-sized book printed with movable type.

The printing press enabled a printer to produce hundreds of copies of a singlework. For the first time, books were cheap enough that many people could buythem. At first printers produced mainly religious works. Soon they began to pro-vide books on other subjects such as travel guides and medical manuals.

Paper Using paper mass-produced by Chinesetechniques, rather than vellum(calf or lambskin), madeprinting books possible.

Ink Oil-basedinks from 10th-century Europeworked betteron type thantempera ink.

The Printing PressMany inventions are creativecombinations of known technologies.In 1452, Johann Gutenberg combinedknown technologies from Europe andAsia with his idea for molding movabletype to create a printing press thatchanged the world.

Screw-type PressAn adaptation ofAsian olive-oilpresses madea workable printing press.

Movable TypeLetters that couldbe put together inany fashion andreused was aChinese idea.

A copyist took five months toproduce a single book.

1 book

5 months

5 months

500 books

One man and a printing press couldproduce 500 books in the sameamount of time.

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Graphics1. Drawing Conclusions About how many

books could a printing press produce in a month?

2. Making Inferences Which areas of theworld contributed technologies toGutenberg’s printing press?

RecognizingEffects

What were themajor effects of theinvention of theprinting press?

The Legacy of the RenaissanceThe European Renaissance was a period of great artistic and social change. Itmarked a break with the medieval-period ideals focused around the Church. TheRenaissance belief in the dignity of the individual played a key role in the gradualrise of democratic ideas. Furthermore, the impact of the movable-type printingpress was tremendous. Some historians have suggested that its effects were evenmore dramatic than the arrival of personal computers in the 20th century. Below isa summary of the changes that resulted from the Renaissance.

Changes in the Arts• Art drew on techniques and styles of classical Greece and Rome.• Paintings and sculptures portrayed individuals and nature in more realistic

and lifelike ways.• Artists created works that were secular as well as those that were religious.• Writers began to use vernacular languages to express their ideas. • The arts praised individual achievement.

Changes in Society• Printing changed society by making more information available and

inexpensive enough for society at large.• A greater availability of books prompted an increased desire for learning and

a rise in literacy throughout Europe.• Published accounts of new discoveries, maps, and charts led to further

discoveries in a variety of fields.• Published legal proceedings made the laws clear so that people were more

likely to understand their rights.• Christian humanists’ attempts to reform society changed views about how

life should be lived.• People began to question political structures and religious practices. Renaissance ideas continued to influence European thought—including

religious thought—as you will see in Section 3.


TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • utopia • William Shakespeare • Johann Gutenberg

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which of the events listed

do you think was mostimportant? Explain.

MAIN IDEAS3. How did Albrecht Dürer’s work

reflect the influence of theItalian Renaissance?

4. What was one way theRenaissance changed society?

5. Why was the invention of theprinting press so important?

SECTION ASSESSMENT2

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. COMPARING How were the works of German

painters different from those of the Flemish painters?Give examples.

7. ANALYZING MOTIVES What reasons did humanists givefor wanting to reform society? Explain.

8. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS How did the availability of cheapbooks spread learning?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Reread theprimary source quotation from Christine de Pizan on page 482. Write a one paragraph opinion piece aboutthe ideas expressed there.

CULTURAL INTERACTION

INTERNET ACTIVITY

Use the Internet to find information on the number of books publishedin print and those published electronically last year. Create a pie graphshowing the results of your research.

1400 1600

INTERNET KEYWORDbook publishing statistics

3

488 Chapter 17

SETTING THE STAGE By the tenth century, the Roman Catholic Church hadcome to dominate religious life in Northern and Western Europe. However, theChurch had not won universal approval. Over the centuries, many people criti-cized its practices. They felt that Church leaders were too interested in worldlypursuits, such as gaining wealth and political power. Even though the Churchmade some reforms during the Middle Ages, people continued to criticize it.Prompted by the actions of one man, that criticism would lead to rebellion.

Causes of the ReformationBy 1500, additional forces weakened the Church. The Renaissance emphasis onthe secular and the individual challenged Church authority. The printing pressspread these secular ideas. In addition, some rulers began to challenge theChurch’s political power. In Germany, which was divided into many competingstates, it was difficult for the pope or the emperor to impose central authority.Finally, northern merchants resented paying church taxes to Rome. Spurred bythese social, political, and economic forces, a new movement for religiousreform began in Germany. It then swept much of Europe.

Criticisms of the Catholic Church Critics of the Church claimed that its lead-ers were corrupt. The popes who ruled during the Renaissance patronized the arts,spent extravagantly on personal pleasure, and fought wars. Pope Alexander VI,


REVOLUTION Martin Luther’sprotest over abuses in theCatholic Church led to thefounding of Protestant churches.

Nearly one-fifth of the Christiansin today’s world are Protestants.

Luther Leads the Reformation

• indulgence• Reformation• Lutheran• Protestant

• Peace ofAugsburg

• annul• Anglican

• Some Churchleaders hadbecome worldlyand corrupt.

• Many peoplefound Churchpractices such asthe sale ofindulgencesunacceptable.

• Powerful monarchschallenged the Churchas the supreme power in Europe.

• Many leaders viewedthe pope as a foreignruler and challengedhis authority.

• Europeanprinces andkings werejealous of theChurch’s wealth.

• Merchants andothers resentedhaving to pay taxes to theChurch.

Recognizing Effects Use a chart to identify the effects of Martin Luther's protests.

TAKING NOTES

cause:Luther

protestsabuses

effect 1

effect 2

effect 3

Social Political Economic Religious

Causes of the Reformation

• The Renaissancevalues ofhumanism andsecularism ledpeople to questionthe Church.

• The printing presshelped to spreadideas critical of the Church.

for example, admitted that he had fathered several children.Many popes were too busy pursuing worldly affairs to havemuch time for spiritual duties.

The lower clergy had problems as well. Many priests andmonks were so poorly educated that they could scarcelyread, let alone teach people. Others broke their priestly vowsby marrying, and some drank to excess or gambled.

Early Calls for Reform Influenced by reformers, peoplehad come to expect higher standards of conduct from priestsand church leaders. In the late 1300s and early 1400s, JohnWycliffe of England and Jan Hus of Bohemia had advocatedChurch reform. They denied that the pope had the right toworldly power. They also taught that the Bible had moreauthority than Church leaders did. In the 1500s, Christianhumanists like Desiderius Erasmus and Thomas More addedtheir voices to the chorus of criticism. In addition, manyEuropeans were reading religious works and forming theirown opinions about the Church. The atmosphere in Europewas ripe for reform by the early 1500s.

Luther Challenges the ChurchMartin Luther’s parents wanted him to be a lawyer. Instead,he became a monk and a teacher. From 1512 until his death,he taught scripture at the University of Wittenberg in theGerman state of Saxony. All he wanted was to be a goodChristian, not to lead a religious revolution.

The 95 Theses In 1517, Luther decided to take a publicstand against the actions of a friar named Johann Tetzel.Tetzel was raising money to rebuild St. Peter’s Cathedral inRome. He did this by selling indulgences. An indulgencewas a pardon. It released a sinner from performing thepenalty that a priest imposed for sins. Indulgences were notsupposed to affect God’s right to judge. Unfortunately,Tetzel gave people the impression that by buying indul-gences, they could buy their way into heaven.

Luther was troubled by Tetzel’s tactics. In response, he wrote 95 Theses, or formalstatements, attacking the “pardon-merchants.” On October 31, 1517, he posted thesestatements on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg and invited other scholarsto debate him. Someone copied Luther’s words and took them to a printer. Quickly,Luther’s name became known all over Germany. His actions began the Reformation,a movement for religious reform. It led to the founding of Christian churches that didnot accept the pope’s authority.

Luther’s Teachings Soon Luther went beyond criticizing indulgences. He wantedfull reform of the Church. His teachings rested on three main ideas:

• People could win salvation only by faith in God’s gift of forgiveness. TheChurch taught that faith and “good works” were needed for salvation.

• All Church teachings should be clearly based on the words of the Bible. Boththe pope and Church traditions were false authorities.

• All people with faith were equal. Therefore, people did not need priests tointerpret the Bible for them.


SummarizingWhat were the

main points ofLuther’s teachings?

Martin Luther1483–1546

In one way, fear led Luther to become a monk. At the age of 21, Luther wascaught in a terrible thunderstorm.Convinced he would die, he cried out, “Saint Anne, help me! I will become a monk.”

Even after entering the monastery,Luther felt fearful, lost, sinful, andrejected by God. He confessed his sinsregularly, fasted, and did penance.However, by studying the Bible, Luthercame to the conclusion that faith alonewas the key to salvation. Only then did he experience peace.

RESEARCH LINKS For more on MartinLuther, go to classzone.com


490 Chapter 17

The Response to LutherLuther was astonished at how rapidly his ideas spread and attracted followers.Many people had been unhappy with the Church for political and economic rea-sons. They saw Luther’s protests as a way to challenge Church control.

The Pope’s Threat Initially, Church officials in Rome viewed Luther simply as arebellious monk who needed to be punished by his superiors. However, as Luther’sideas became more popular, the pope realized that this monk was a serious threat.In one angry reply to Church criticism, Luther actually suggested that Christiansdrive the pope from the Church by force.

In 1520, Pope Leo X issued a decree threatening Luther with excommunicationunless he took back his statements. Luther did not take back a word. Instead, hisstudents at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered as he threw thepope’s decree into the flames. Leo excommunicated Luther.

The Emperor’s Opposition Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic,also opposed Luther’s teaching. Charles controlled a vast empire, including theGerman states. He summoned Luther to the town of Worms (vawrmz) in 1521 tostand trial. Told to recant, or take back his statements, Luther refused:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EI am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Wordof God. I cannot and I will not retract anything, since it is neither safe nor right to goagainst conscience. I cannot do otherwise, here I stand, may God help me. Amen.

MARTIN LUTHER, quoted in The Protestant Reformation by Lewis W. Spitz

A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, theEdict of Worms. It declared Luther an outlaw and a heretic. According to this edict,no one in the empire was to give Luther food or shelter. All his books were to beburned. However, Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony disobeyed the emperor. Foralmost a year after the trial, he sheltered Luther in one of his castles. While there,Luther translated the New Testament into German.

Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522. There he discovered that many of hisideas were already being put into practice. Instead of continuing to seek reforms inthe Catholic Church, Luther and his followers had become a separate religiousgroup, called Lutherans.

The Peasants’ Revolt Some people began to apply Luther’s revolutionary ideas tosociety. In 1524, German peasants, excited by reformers’ talk of Christian freedom,demanded an end to serfdom. Bands of angry peasants went about the countrysideraiding monasteries, pillaging, and burning. The revolt horrified Luther. He wrotea pamphlet urging the German princes to show the peasants no mercy. The princes’armies crushed the revolt, killing as many as 100,000 people. Feeling betrayed,many peasants rejected Luther’s religious leadership.

Germany at War In contrast to the bitter peasants, many northern German princessupported Lutheranism. While some princes genuinely shared Luther’s beliefs, oth-ers liked Luther’s ideas for selfish reasons. They saw his teachings as a goodexcuse to seize Church property and to assert their independence from Charles V.

In 1529, German princes who remained loyal to the pope agreed to join forcesagainst Luther’s ideas. Those princes who supported Luther signed a protestagainst that agreement. These protesting princes came to be known as Protestants.Eventually, the term Protestant was applied to Christians who belonged to non-Catholic churches.

Analyzing CausesWhy did

Luther’s ideasencourage theGerman peasantsto revolt?

VocabularyExcommunication isthe taking away of a person’s right tomembership in theChurch.

VocabularyA heretic is a per-son who holdsbeliefs that differfrom official Churchteachings.

Religious Adherents in the United States:

Sources: Britannica Book of the Year 2003

Roman Catholic

21%Protestant

23%

Independent Christian

28%

Unaffiliated Christian

14%

Non- Christian

14%

491

1. Comparing Which of the brancheson the chart at left are most differentand which are most similar?

See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R7.

2. Developing Historical PerspectiveDo research on Protestantism. Select adenomination not shown on this pageand write a paragraph tracing its rootsto Reformation Protestantism.

PROTESTANTISMTODAYMembership:• Nearly 400 million

Protestants worldwide

• About 65 millionProtestants in the United States

Branches:• More than 465 major

Protestant denominationsworldwide

• Major denominationalfamilies worldwide:Anglican, Assemblies ofGod, Baptist, Methodist,Lutheran, and Presbyterian

• More than 250denominations in the United States

• About 40 denominations with more than 400,000members each in the United States

RESEARCH LINKS For more on Protestantism, go to classzone.com

491

The Division of Christianity

East-West Schism(1054)

The Reformation (16th Century)

ProtestantismProtestantism is a branch of Christianity. It developed out of theReformation, the 16th-century protest in Europe against beliefs and practicesof the Catholic Church. Three distinct branches of Protestantism emerged atfirst. They were Lutheranism, based on the teachings of Martin Lutherin Germany; Calvinism, based on the teachings of John Calvin in Switzerland;and Anglicanism, which was established by King Henry VIII in England.Protestantism spread throughout Europe in the 16th century, and later, theworld. As differences in beliefs developed, new denominations formed.

Religious Beliefs and Practices in the 16th Century

Leadership

Salvation

Bible

WorshipService

Interpretationof Beliefs

RomanCatholicism

Pope is head ofthe Church

Salvation by faithand good works

Church andBible traditionare sources ofrevealed truth

Worship servicebased on ritual

Priests interpretBible andChurchteachings forbelievers

Lutheranism

Ministers leadcongregations

Salvation by faithalone

Bible is solesource ofrevealed truth

Worship servicefocused onpreaching andritual

Believersinterpret theBible forthemselves

Anglicanism

English monarchis head of theChurch

Salvation by faithalone


Worship servicebased on ritualand preaching

Believersinterpret theBible usingtradition andreason

Calvinism

Council of elders governeach church

God haspredeterminedwho will be saved


Worship servicefocused onpreaching

Believersinterpret theBible forthemselves


Henry’s many marriages led to conflict with the Catholic Church and the founding of the Church of England.

1509 Henry VIII becomes king; marries Catherine of Aragon.

1516 Daughter Mary is born.

1527 Henry asks the pope

to end his first marriage; the pope refuses.

1529Henry summons the Reformation

Parliament; dismantling of pope’s power in England begins.

1510 1520 1530

1534Act of

Supremacy names Henry

and his successors

supreme head of the English

Church.

1531 Parliament recognizes Henry

as head of the Church.

1533 Parliament places clergy under Henry’s

control; Henry divorces Catherine, marries Anne Boleyn (at left);

daughter Elizabeth born.

492 Chapter 17

Still determined that his subjects should remain Catholic, Charles V went to waragainst the Protestant princes. Even though he defeated them in 1547, he failed toforce them back into the Catholic Church. In 1555, Charles, weary of fighting,ordered all German princes, both Protestant and Catholic, to assemble in the cityof Augsburg. There the princes agreed that each ruler would decide the religion ofhis state. This famous religious settlement was known as the Peace of Augsburg.

England Becomes ProtestantThe Catholic Church soon faced another great challenge to its authority, this timein England. Unlike Luther, the man who broke England’s ties to the RomanCatholic Church did so for political and personal, not religious, reasons.

Henry VIII Wants a Son When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509, hewas a devout Catholic. Indeed, in 1521, Henry wrote a stinging attack on Luther’sideas. In recognition of Henry’s support, the pope gave him the title “Defender ofthe Faith.” Political needs, however, soon tested his religious loyalty. He needed amale heir. Henry’s father had become king after a long civil war. Henry feared thata similar war would start if he died without a son as his heir. He and his wife,Catherine of Aragon, had one living child—a daughter, Mary—but no woman hadever successfully claimed the English throne.

By 1527, Henry was convinced that the 42-year-old Catherine would have nomore children. He wanted to divorce her and take a younger queen. Church law didnot allow divorce. However, the pope could annul, or set aside, Henry’s marriageif proof could be found that it had never been legal in the first place. In 1527,Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage, but the pope turned him down. Thepope did not want to offend Catherine’s powerful nephew, the Holy RomanEmperor Charles V.

The Reformation Parliament Henry took steps to solve his marriage problemhimself. In 1529, he called Parliament into session and asked it to pass a set of laws

1540 1550 1560

1553Mary I (at left)

begins rule and restores the

Catholic Church.

1558Elizabeth I (at

right) begins rule; she restores the

Protestant Church.

1540-1542Henry divorces

Anne of Cleves, his fourth wife, and executes

Catherine Howard

(above), his fifth wife.

1536 Anne Boleyn is beheaded.

1537 Henry’s third wife, Jane Seymour, has son, Edward. She dies from complications.

1547 Henry dies; Catherine Parr, his sixth wife, outlives him; Edward VI begins six-year rule; Protestants are strong.

that ended the pope’s power in England. This Parliament is known as theReformation Parliament.

In 1533, Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn (BUL•ihn), who was in her twen-ties. Shortly after, Parliament legalized Henry’s divorce from Catherine. In 1534,Henry’s break with the pope was completed when Parliament voted to approve theAct of Supremacy. This called on people to take an oath recognizing the divorceand accepting Henry, not the pope, as the official head of England’s Church.

The Act of Supremacy met some opposition. Thomas More, even though he hadstrongly criticized the Church, remained a devout Catholic. His faith, he said,would not allow him to accept the terms of the act and he refused to take the oath.In response, Henry had him arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London. In1535, More was found guilty of high treason and executed.

Consequences of Henry’s Changes Henry did not immediately get the male heirhe sought. After Anne Boleyn gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, she fell out ofHenry’s favor. Eventually, she was charged with treason. Like Thomas More, shewas imprisoned in the Tower of London. She was found guilty and beheaded in1536. Almost at once, Henry took a third wife, Jane Seymour. In 1537, she gavehim a son named Edward. Henry’s happiness was tempered by his wife’s death justtwo weeks later. Henry married three more times. None of these marriages, how-ever, produced children.

After Henry’s death in 1547, each of his three children ruled England in turn.This created religious turmoil. Henry’s son, Edward, became king when he was justnine years old. Too young to rule alone, Edward VI was guided by adult advisers.These men were devout Protestants, and they introduced Protestant reforms to theEnglish Church. Almost constantly in ill health, Edward reigned for just six years.Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, took the throne in 1553. She was aCatholic who returned the English Church to the rule of the pope. Her efforts metwith considerable resistance, and she had many Protestants executed. When Marydied in 1558, Elizabeth, Anne Boleyn’s daughter, inherited the throne.


494 Chapter 17

Elizabeth Restores Protestantism Elizabeth I was deter-mined to return her kingdom to Protestantism. In 1559,Parliament followed Elizabeth’s wishes and set up theChurch of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth asits head. This was to be the only legal church in England.

Elizabeth decided to establish a state church that moder-ate Catholics and moderate Protestants might both accept.To please Protestants, priests in the Church of England wereallowed to marry. They could deliver sermons in English,not Latin. To please Catholics, the Church of England keptsome of the trappings of the Catholic service such as richrobes. In addition, church services were revised to be some-what more acceptable to Catholics.

Elizabeth Faces Other Challenges By taking this moder-ate approach, Elizabeth brought a level of religious peace toEngland. Religion, however, remained a problem. SomeProtestants pushed for Elizabeth to make more far-reachingchurch reforms. At the same time, some Catholics tried tooverthrow Elizabeth and replace her with her cousin, theCatholic Mary Queen of Scots. Elizabeth also faced threatsfrom Philip II, the Catholic king of Spain.

Elizabeth faced other difficulties. Money was one prob-lem. In the late 1500s, the English began to think about build-ing an American empire as a new source of income. Whilecolonies strengthened England economically, they did notenrich the queen directly. Elizabeth’s constant need formoney would carry over into the next reign and lead to bitterconflict between the monarch and Parliament. You will readmore about Elizabeth’s reign in Chapter 21. In the meantime,the Reformation gained ground in other European countries.

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • indulgence • Reformation • Lutheran • Protestant • Peace of Augsburg • annul • Anglican

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which effect do you think had

the most permanent impact?Explain.

MAIN IDEAS3. What political, economic, and

social factors helped bringabout the Reformation?

4. From where did the termProtestantism originate?

5. What impact did Henry VIII’sactions have on England in thesecond half of the 1500s?

SECTION ASSESSMENT3

CREATING A GRAPHIC

Use library resources to find information on the countries in which Protestantism is a majorreligion. Use your findings to create a graphic that makes a comparison among those countries.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Explain how Elizabeth I was

able to bring a level of religious peace to England.

7. COMPARING Do you think Luther or Henry VIII had abetter reason to break with the Church? Provide details tosupport your answer.

8. ANALYZING MOTIVES How did the Catholic Churchrespond to Luther’s teachings? Why do you think this was so?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Imagine Martin Lutherand a leader of the Catholic Church are squaring off in apublic debate. Write a brief dialogue between the two.

REVOLUTION

RecognizingEffects

How didHenry VIII’s mar-riages and divorcescause religious tur-moil in England?

Elizabeth I1533–1603

Elizabeth I, like her father, had arobust nature and loved physicalactivity. She had a particular passionfor dancing. Her fondness for exercisediminished little with age, and sheshowed amazing energy and strengthwell into her sixties.

Elizabeth also resembled her fatherin character and temperament. Shewas stubborn, strong-willed, andarrogant, and she expected to beobeyed without question. AndElizabeth had a fierce andunpredictable temper. To hersubjects, Elizabeth was an object ofboth fear and love. She was their“most dread sovereign lady.”

cause:Luther

protests abuses

effect 1

effect 2

effect 3

CONNECT TO TODAY

SETTING THE STAGE Under the leadership of Queen Elizabeth I, theAnglican Church, though Protestant, remained similar to the Catholic Church inmany of its doctrines and ceremonies. Meanwhile, other forms of Protestantismwere developing elsewhere in Europe. Martin Luther had launched theReformation in northern Germany, but reformers were at work in other countries.In Switzerland, another major branch of Protestantism emerged. Based mainlyon the teachings of John Calvin, a French follower of Luther, it promoted uniqueideas about the relationship between people and God.

Calvin Continues the ReformationReligious reform in Switzerland was begun by Huldrych Zwingli (HUL•drykhZWIHNG•lee), a Catholic priest in Zurich. He was influenced both by theChristian humanism of Erasmus and by the reforms of Luther. In 1520, Zwingliopenly attacked abuses in the Catholic Church. He called for a return to the morepersonal faith of early Christianity. He also wanted believers to have more con-trol over the Church.

Zwingli’s reforms were adopted in Zurich and other cities. In 1531, a bitterwar between Swiss Protestants and Catholics broke out. During the fighting,Zwingli met his death. Meanwhile, John Calvin, then a young law student inFrance with a growing interest in Church doctrine, was beginning to clarify hisreligious beliefs.

Calvin Formalizes Protestant Ideas When Martin Luther posted his 95 Thesesin 1517, John Calvin had been only eight years old. But Calvin grew up to haveas much influence in the spread of Protestantism as Luther did. He would giveorder to the faith Luther had begun.

In 1536, Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion. This bookexpressed ideas about God, salvation, and human nature. It was a summary ofProtestant theology, or religious beliefs. Calvin wrote that men and women aresinful by nature. Taking Luther’s idea that humans cannot earn salvation, Calvinwent on to say that God chooses a very few people to save. Calvin called thesefew the “elect.” He believed that God has known since the beginning of time whowill be saved. This doctrine is called predestination. The religion based onCalvin’s teachings is called Calvinism.



RELIGIOUS AND ETHICALSYSTEMS As Protestantreformers divided over beliefs, the Catholic Churchmade reforms.

Many Protestant churches beganduring this period, and manyCatholic schools are the resultof reforms in the Church.

• predestination• Calvinism• theocracy• Presbyterian• Anabaptist

• CatholicReformation

• Jesuits• Council of

Trent

4

The Reformation Continues

Comparing Use a chart to compare the ideas of the reformers who came after Luther.

TAKING NOTES

Reformers ZwingliCalvinAnabaptistsCatholic Reformers

Ideas

496 Chapter 17

Calvin Leads the Reformation in Switzerland Calvinbelieved that the ideal government was a theocracy, a gov-ernment controlled by religious leaders. In 1541, Protestantsin Geneva, Switzerland, asked Calvin to lead their city.

When Calvin arrived there in the 1540s, Geneva was aself-governing city of about 20,000 people. He and his fol-lowers ran the city according to strict rules. Everyoneattended religion class. No one wore bright clothing orplayed card games. Authorities would imprison, excommu-nicate, or banish those who broke such rules. Anyone whopreached different doctrines might be burned at the stake.Yet, to many Protestants, Calvin’s Geneva was a model cityof highly moral citizens.

Calvinism Spreads One admiring visitor to Geneva was aScottish preacher named John Knox. When he returned toScotland in 1559, Knox put Calvin’s ideas to work. Eachcommunity church was governed by a group of laymencalled elders or presbyters (PREHZ•buh•tuhrs). Followersof Knox became known as Presbyterians. In the 1560s,Protestant nobles led by Knox made Calvinism Scotland’sofficial religion. They also deposed their Catholic ruler,Mary Queen of Scots, in favor of her infant son, James.

Elsewhere, Swiss, Dutch, and French reformers adoptedthe Calvinist form of church organization. One reason Calvinis considered so influential is that many Protestant churchestoday trace their roots to Calvin. Over the years, however,many of them have softened Calvin’s strict teachings.

In France, Calvin’s followers were called Huguenots.Hatred between Catholics and Huguenots frequently led toviolence. The most violent clash occurred in Paris on

August 24, 1572—the Catholic feast of St. Bartholomew’s Day. At dawn, Catholicmobs began hunting for Protestants and murdering them. The massacres spread toother cities and lasted six months. Scholars believe that as many as 12,000Huguenots were killed.

Other Protestant ReformersProtestants taught that the Bible is the source of all religious truth and that people should read it to discover those truths. As Christians interpreted the Biblefor themselves, new Protestant groups formed over differences in belief.

The Anabaptists One such group baptized only those persons who were oldenough to decide to be Christian. They said that persons who had been baptized aschildren should be rebaptized as adults. These believers were called Anabaptists,from a Greek word meaning “baptize again.” The Anabaptists also taught thatchurch and state should be separate, and they refused to fight in wars. They sharedtheir possessions.

Viewing Anabaptists as radicals who threatened society, both Catholics andProtestants persecuted them. But the Anabaptists survived and became the fore-runners of the Mennonites and the Amish. Their teaching influenced the laterQuakers and Baptists, groups who split from the Anglican Church.

Women’s Role in the Reformation Many women played prominent roles in theReformation, especially during the early years. For example, the sister of King

John Calvin1509–1564

A quiet boy, Calvin grew up to studylaw and philosophy at the University of Paris. In the 1530s, he wasinfluenced by French followers ofLuther. When King Francis I orderedProtestants arrested, Calvin fled.Eventually, he moved to Geneva.

Because Calvin and his followersrigidly regulated morality in Geneva,Calvinism is often described as strictand grim. But Calvin taught thatpeople should enjoy God’s gifts. Hewrote that it should not be“forbidden to laugh, or to enjoy food,or to add new possessions to old.”

Analyzing CausesHow did

Protestant teachinglead to the formingof new groups?

Geneva

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Dominant ReligionRoman CatholicLutheranAnglicanCalvinist

Eastern OrthodoxIslamMixture of Calvinist,Lutheran, and RomanCatholic

Minority ReligionRoman Catholic

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Islam

Religions in Europe, 1560

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Region Which European countries became mostly Protestant

and which remained mostly Roman Catholic?2. Location Judging from the way the religions were

distributed, where would you expect religious conflicts totake place? Explain.


498 Chapter 17

Francis I, Marguerite of Navarre, protected John Calvin frombeing executed for his beliefs while he lived in France. Othernoblewomen also protected reformers. The wives of somereformers, too, had influence. Katherina Zell, married toMatthew Zell of Strasbourg, once scolded a minister for speak-ing harshly of another reformer. The minister responded by say-ing that she had “disturbed the peace.” She answered hiscriticism sharply:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EDo you call this disturbing the peace that instead of spending mytime in frivolous amusements I have visited the plague-infestedand carried out the dead? I have visited those in prison and undersentence of death. Often for three days and three nights I haveneither eaten nor slept. I have never mounted the pulpit, but Ihave done more than any minister in visiting those in misery.

KATHERINA ZELL, quoted in Women of the Reformation

Katherina von Bora played a more typical, behind-the-scenes role as Luther’s wife.Katherina was sent to a convent at about age ten, and had become a nun. Inspired byLuther’s teaching, she fled the convent. After marrying Luther, Katherina had six chil-dren. She also managed the family finances, fed all who visited their house, and sup-ported her husband’s work. She respected Luther’s position but argued with him aboutwoman’s equal role in marriage.

As Protestant religions became more firmly established, their organizationbecame more formal. Male religious leaders narrowly limited women’s activities tothe home and discouraged them from being leaders in the church. In fact, it wasLuther who said, “God’s highest gift on earth is a pious, cheerful, God-fearing,home-keeping wife.”

The Catholic ReformationWhile Protestant churches won many followers, millions remained true toCatholicism. Helping Catholics to remain loyal was a movement within theCatholic Church to reform itself. This movement is now known as the CatholicReformation. Historians once referred to it as the Counter Reformation. Importantleaders in this movement were reformers, such as Ignatius (ihg•NAY•shuhs) ofLoyola, who founded new religious orders, and two popes—Paul III and Paul IV—who took actions to reform and renew the Church from within.

Ignatius of Loyola Ignatius grew up in his father’s castle in Loyola, Spain. Thegreat turning point in his life came in 1521 when he was injured in a war. Whilerecovering, he thought about his past sins and about the life of Jesus. His dailydevotions, he believed, cleansed his soul. In 1522, Ignatius began writing a bookcalled Spiritual Exercises that laid out a day-by-day plan of meditation, prayer, andstudy. In it, he compared spiritual and physical exercise:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EJust as walking, traveling, and running are bodily exercises, preparing the soul to remove ill-ordered affections, and after their removal seeking and finding the will of God with respect to the ordering of one’s own life and the salvation of one’s soul, areSpiritual Exercises.

IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA, Spiritual Exercises

▲ Although Catholic,Marguerite ofNavarre supportedthe call for reformin the Church.

MakingInferences

Why was it easier for womento take part in the earlier stages of theReformation than inthe later stages?

For the next 18 years, Ignatius gathered followers. In 1540, the pope created areligious order for his followers called the Society of Jesus. Members were calledJesuits (JEHZH•u•ihts). The Jesuits focused on three activities. First, they foundedsuperb schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were well-trained in both clas-sical studies and theology. The Jesuits’ second mission was to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. So, they sent out missionaries around the world. Theirthird goal was to stop the spread of Protestantism. The zeal of the Jesuits overcamethe drift toward Protestantism in Poland and southern Germany.

Reforming Popes Two popes took the lead in reforming the Catholic Church.Paul III, pope from 1534 to 1549, took four important steps. First, he directed acouncil of cardinals to investigate indulgence selling and other abuses in theChurch. Second, he approved the Jesuit order. Third, he used the Inquisition to seekout heresy in papal territory. Fourth, and most important, he called a council ofChurch leaders to meet in Trent, in northern Italy.

From 1545 to 1563, at the Council of Trent, Catholic bishops and cardinalsagreed on several doctrines:

• The Church’s interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian whosubstituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic.

• Christians needed faith and good works for salvation. They were not saved byfaith alone, as Luther argued.

• The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guidingChristian life.

• Indulgences were valid expressions of faith. But the false selling of indulgences was banned.

The next pope, Paul IV, vigorously carried out the council’s decrees. In 1559,he had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith.This list was known as the Index of Forbidden Books. Catholic bishops through-out Europe were ordered to gather up the offensive books (including ProtestantBibles) and burn them in bonfires. In Venice alone, followers burned 10,000 booksin one day.


▲ Church leadersconsult on reformsat the Council ofTrent in this 16th-century painting.

VocabularyThe Inquisition wasa papal judicialprocess establishedto try and punishthose thought to beheretics.

500 Chapter 17

The Legacy of the ReformationThe Reformation had an enduring impact. Through itsreligious, social, and political effects, the Reformation setthe stage for the modern world. It also ended the Christianunity of Europe and left it culturally divided.

Religious and Social Effects of the Reformation Despitereligious wars and persecutions, Protestant churches flour-ished and new denominations developed. The RomanCatholic Church itself became more unified as a result of thereforms started at the Council of Trent. Both Catholics andProtestants gave more emphasis to the role of education inpromoting their beliefs. This led to the founding of parishschools and new colleges and universities throughout Europe.

Some women reformers had hoped to see the status ofwomen in the church and society improve as a result of theReformation. But it remained much the same both underProtestantism and Roman Catholicism. Women were stillmainly limited to the concerns of home and family.

Political Effects of the Reformation As the CatholicChurch’s moral and political authority declined, individualmonarchs and states gained power. This led to the develop-ment of modern nation-states. In the 1600s, rulers of nation-states would seek more power for themselves and theircountries through warfare, exploration, and expansion.

The Reformation’s questioning of beliefs and authority alsolaid the groundwork for the Enlightenment. As you will readin Chapter 22, this intellectual movement would sweep Europein the late 18th century. It led some to reject all religions andothers to call for the overthrow of existing governments.

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • predestination • Calvinism • theocracy • Presbyterian • Anabaptist • Catholic Reformation • Jesuits • Council of Trent

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which Catholic reform do you

think had the most impact?

MAIN IDEAS3. What was Calvin’s idea of the

“elect” and their place insociety?

4. What role did noblewomenplay in the Reformation?

5. What were the goals of theJesuits?

SECTION ASSESSMENT4

PRESENTING AN ORAL REPORT

Research the religious origins of a university in the United States. Then present your findingsto the class in an oral report.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS How did the Reformation set

the stage for the modern world? Give examples.

7. MAKING INFERENCES Why do you think the Churchwanted to forbid people to read certain books?

8. COMPARING How did steps taken by Paul III and Paul IVto reform the Catholic Church differ from Protestantreforms? Support your answer with details from the text.

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write atwo-paragraph essay on whether church leaders shouldbe political rulers.

RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS

CONNECT TO TODAY

Jesuit MissionariesThe work of Jesuit missionarieshas had a lasting impact around theglobe. By the time Ignatius died in1556, about a thousand Jesuits hadbrought his ministry to Europe, Africa,Asia, and the Americas. Two of themost famous Jesuit missionaries ofthe 1500s were Francis Xavier, whoworked in India and Japan, andMatteo Ricci, who worked in China.

One reason the Jesuits had such animpact is that they founded schoolsthroughout the world. For example,the Jesuits today run about 45 highschools and 28 colleges anduniversities in the United States. Fourof these are Georgetown University(shown above), Boston College,Marquette University, and LoyolaUniversity of Chicago.

ReformersZwingliCalvinAnabaptistsCatholicReformers

Ideas

Mr. Von Arter & Mr. Keyes Name:_____________________________

Hons World History

Guided Questions

Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance

Ch. 17, Sec 1: p.470 - 479

Define these terms: Use the internet to define all terms, people, and places

Renaissance

Humanism

Secular

Patron

Perspective

Vernacular

City States

Define these people & places:

The Medici, Cosimo & Lorenzo

Leonardo da Vinci

Raphael

Donatello

Michelangelo

Anguissola & Gentileschi

Machiavelli

Questions:

1. Why do you think a revival in art and learning might lead people to begin to value the individual?

2. What three things gave Northern Italy the advantage that made it the birthplace of the Renaissance?

Not just a list, explain them.

3. Why would the Medici family spend it’s wealth on art?

4. How did attitudes about worldly pleasures differ between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance?

5. Compare and contrast:

Renaissance Man Renaissance Woman

6. How did the emphasis on the individual impact renaissance painting and sculpture?

Include the Renaissance artists listed on p.474-5 and their work on p.478-9.

7. I what way was Machiavelli’s The Prince a humanist book?

8. In your opinion, is it better for a Prince/leader, to be loved or feared? Explain.

Mr. Von Arter & Mr. Keyes

Hons World History

Guided Questions

The Northern Renaissance

Ch. 17, Sec 2: p.480 - 485

Define these Terms:

Utopia

Judeo-Christian Values

Realism

Printing Press

Define these People & Places:

William Shakespeare

Johann Gutenberg

Albrecht Durer

Desiderius Erasmus

Thomas Moore

Questions:

1. What was the connection between wealth and the Arts during the Renaissance?

2. In 1494, what drove Italian artists to Northern Europe and what was the effect on the North?

3. Who supported the arts in England and who supported the arts in Flanders?

4. What made Peter Bruegel’s paintings so unique?

5. What was Christian Humanism?

6. How is the philosophy of humanism expressed in Shakespeare’s plays?

7. How would you compare and contrast the impact of the printing press with the impact of the internet?

8. In what ways did renaissance art connect with the past and in what ways did it break with the past?

9. How did publishing and printing effect social reform?

10. Write a one paragraph summing up the legacy of the Renaissance: 5 sentences at


Hons World History

Guided Questions

Luther Leads the Reformation

Ch. 17, Sec 3: p.488 - 494

Define these Terms:

Indulgence

Reformation

Lutheran

Protestant

Peace of Augsburg

Annul

Anglican

95 Theses

Define these People & Places:

Martin Luther

Alexander VI

John Tetzel

Wittenberg

Worms

Charles V

Frederick the Wise

Leo X

Henry VIII

Anne Boleyn

Elizabeth I

Questions:

1. How did the Renaissance threaten the power of the Church?

2. Why did German rulers want to challenge the political power of the Church?

3. What practices of the Church in the 1500’s might have offended ordinary church goers?

4. Explain the causes of the Reformation from the graphic on p.488.

5. What were the main points of Luther’s 95 Theses?

7. What caused Luther’s ideas to spread throughout Europe?

8. How did Leo X, Charles V and Frederick the Wise all react to Luther’s 95 Theses?

9. Instead of reforming the Church what did Luther’s followers eventually do?

10. How did Luther’s ideas inspire the Peasant’s revolt and how did Luther react to the revolt?

11. Other than faith, what reason would German princes have for adopting Protestantism?

12. On p.491, which branches of Christianity on the chart at the bottom are most similar and which are

most different?

13. What was the Peace of Augsburg and why, even though he was victorious, was Charles V not able to

force Protestants back into the Church?

14. Why was a male heir so important to Henry VIII and with a wife who was 42 years old, what would he

have to do to get one?

15. The Pope annulled marriages all the time, why couldn’t he annul Henry’s?

16. What was the Act of Supremacy and what happened to Thomas Moore as a result of it?

17. Henry VIII had three of his children reign after him? Who were they and what was the effect?

18. Elizabeth I came to power at a time of religious turmoil. How did she deal with the question of

religion?


Hons World History

Guided Questions

The Reformation Continues

Ch. 17, Sec 4: p.495 - 501

Terms:

Predestination

Calvinism

Theocracy

Presbyterianism

Anabaptist

Catholic Reformation

Jesuits

Council of Trent

People & Places:

Huldrych Zwingli

John Calvin

John Knox

Huguenots

Ignatius Loyola

Questions:

1. In what ways did Calvin’s leadership of the City of Geneva, Switzerland, demonstrate his religious

beliefs?

2. Who were the “elect”?

3. Why did Calvin and his followers want to regulate morality?

4. What was the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre?

5. Why do you think that a religious reformation would lead to so much bloodshed?

6. How did people reading the Bible for themselves’ lead to the formation of new branches of

Protestantism?

7. Who were the Anabaptists? What did they believe and why were they considered radicals?

8. What role did women play during the Reformation?

9. What was the Catholic Reformation?

10. How did the Jesuit reforms help the Catholic Church keep its members from becoming Protestant?

11. What were Pope Paul III and Paul IV’s Catholic reforms?

12. What doctrines were established at the Council of Trent?

13. What does the text say is most important legacy of the Reformation?

honors world history summer assignment

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