hoskins's england class 2: darkening hills

W.G. Hoskins and the Making of the English Landscape

Class 2. Darkening Hills. Landscape before the first English Settlement

Tutor: Keith Challishoskins-england.blogspot.co.uk

Recap

Last Week (Unravished England)

• What is landscape?

• Hoskins, his life, work and influence

• Introducing The Making of the English Landscape

Hoskins’s England hoskins-england.blogspot.co.uk

Class Summary

• Unravelling Hoskins’s Thinking (the Romanics, aversion to theory, influences)

• Darkening Hills – Hoskins on prehistory (Discussion)

• 60 years on: Critique of Hoskins and a counterpoint

Coffee Break

• Hoskins, Crawford and Field Archaeology• Introducing Laxton• Laxton Group project: Working with photographs,

and published mapping


Class Summary

Learning Outcomes

• Understand a little more of Hoskins’s context within landscape studies and the idiosyncrasies of his approach

• Appreciate Hoskins’s approach to early British landscapes and how our understanding of these landscapes has matured in the 60 years since Landscapes was published

• Have a broad grasp of field archaeology as defined by OGS Crawford

• Appreciate some of the uses of and evidence to be gleaned from aerial photography in landscape studies


Section 1: Unravelling Hoskins’s Thinking

Hoskins and the Romantics• Romanticism, an artistic,

literary and critical movement of the first half of the 19th century

• Emphasis on emotion as the source of experience

• Awe at nature, especially the untamed wild

• Folk art and customs revered, revival f medievalism

• A reaction against the industrial revolution

• Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats Shelly, Blake, Scott, Friedrich, Turner

• Development of the historical novel and long historical narratives


Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, 1818

Hoskins and the Romantics

• How often one has tried to form these images in various parts of England, seated beside a wide, flooding estuary as the light thickens on a winter evening, dissolving all the irrelevant human details of the scene, leaving nothing but the shining water, the sky and the immemorial sound of curlews whistling over the mud and fading river beaches. This, we feel, is exactly as the first men saw it when they reached the shingled margin of the river a hundred generations ago. We are seeing the natural world through the eyes of men who died three or four thousand years ago, and for a moment or two we succeed in entering into the minds of the dead. (Hoskins 1955, 17)


Hoskins and the RomanticsHoskins’s Romantic Project

• A solitary experience, conditioned by physical activity physical encounter with and individual response to landscape)

• Rooted in the gaze from above (maps, photographs, plans) – “floats on high o’er vales and hills”. Tendency to illustrate with aerial views

• An act of aesthetic appreciation – “one may liken the English landscape to a symphony…” (Johnson 2007, 43 quoting Hoskins)

• Translation from landscape to text, decoding the signs of landscape, creating a coherent narrative


An Aversion to Theory

• Hoskins had a stated aversion to theoretical approaches to landscape studies

• I wrote a book with the simple title The Making of the English Landscape but I should have called it The Morphogenesis of the Cultural Environment t make the fullest impact…A new title for one’s subject, a glossy jargon, and a computer, and one has the most lethal combination for academic advancement conceivable. On would then qualify to work in some shiny academic palace…(Hoskins 1966)



• Hoskins developed and adopted man of the methods of landscape study, but rejected analysis of landscape form, functional classification, ethnography, etc.

• His work identifies the past in the present but rarely makes general statements about the past derived from systematic analysis of observation



• In fact Hoskins does have a theoretical model behind his work – it is that of the romantic poet/storyteller

• “I have a theme now: the old pattern of life slowly built up – describe at length – then the disintegration of the pattern, shattered beyond recognition. The old peasant tradition, when men and women were at home in the world…gradually we can see the attachment being loosened, the cement crumbling, and the walls of the old society falling into ruin… “(Hoskins’s notebook, late 1940s)



“Exeter…To me it is indestructible. The Germans tried to finish it off in May 1942…They did not succeed, though they did terrible damage: but since then the city council, to my mind, has nearly finished the job off. Not quite – there are some things that cannot be destroyed…it is a place that will be living on for another two thousand years” Hoskins 1978, 132”

• Creation of landscape focused narratives and reaction against change are two persistent themes in Hoskins’s writings

• His theory was the story he ha already decided the landscape wished to tell “I felt in my bones that the landscape was speaking to me…” (Hoskins 1978)


Hoskins’s Influences

• OGS Crawford (1886 – 1957)• Pioneer aerial archaeologist• Founder of Antiquity• First archaeological officer for

Ordnance Survey• Coined the term Field

Archaeology to describe the practical map, photograph and field observation technique he developed (Archaeology in the Field, 1953)


Hoskins’s Influences

• Hoskins adopted much of Crawford’s practical map and fieldwork based approach

• He made great us of aerial photography and recognised its impact on our understanding of past landscape

• He omitted (rejected?) Crawford’s methodical archaeological classification as a basis for explanation


Section 2: Darkening Hills – Hoskins on prehistory

Hoskins and Prehistory

• “It is difficult for anyone but prehistorians to feel a passionate interest in the visible remains of…hut-circles” (Hoskins 1954)

• Hoskins’s interest in prehistoric an Roman Britain was minimal – it didn’t fit his historical narrative for England

• As an historian the lack of documentary evidence and his absence of a theoretical stance in archaeology prevented his making insightful judgements

• But Hoskins did understand and appreciate archaeology, his later works make repeated reference to the work of and significance of archaeology, particularly aerial archaeology, in changing our perception of early Britain


Hoskins and PrehistoryPrehistory

• Focus on primeval landscapes

• Emphasis on minimal human impact

• Spurious population estimates

• Use of migration models to explain change and innovation

• Geographical focus on south west

• Little appreciation of social significance of funerary and ceremonial landscapes



Roman Britain• Focus on roads, villas

and small towns• Underestimation of

population and social organisation

• Attempted quantifications (750k acres cleared from waste)

• Ending in invasion



• Discussion…


Critique and counterpoint

• Post 1950 Significant Developments• Systematic aerial reconnaissance and

mapping (recognition of the extent and complexity of PH and Roman activity)

• Rescue archaeology – startling frequency of discovery of new sites (M5, etc)

• Palaeoecological approaches, identification and documentation of human impact on the environment



• Prehistoric population was larger, society more complex and impact on the landscape greater and more persistent than recognised in the 1950s

• Invasion models are now rejected

• Whole landscape have been rediscovered (cropmarks, Doggerland), etc.)



• Roman population was larger and the impact on the landscape far greater than appreciated.

• Hoskins recognised the persistence of Roman boundaries in the landscape

• Complex agricultural organisation

• Large, towns, significant urban/rural population

• Decline not invasion


Book Recommendations


• Frances Pryor. 2010. The Making of the British Landscape: How We Have Transformed the Land, from Prehistory to Today

Pryor quickly shows, the neolithic, iron and bronze ages are really not like that at all. Under his gaze, the landscape starts to fill with tribes and clans wandering this way and that, leaving traces that can still be seen today. Pryor shows us bumpy ridges, the kind of thing you might ignore on an afternoon's walk, which turn out to be the surface traces of bronze age fields, together with some untidy stumps that are actually the remains of a buried forest.

Kathryn Hughes, The Guardian

• Coffee Break


Section 3: Group Project

Hoskins, Crawford and Field Archaeology

• Crawford codified the method of Field Archaeology in his book Archaeology in the Field (1953)

• Combination of map and documentary research, aerial photography and field work

• Archaeology without excavation



• Central concept was that of landscape as palimpsest, ie a document erased and written on over and over again

• Hoskins’s own approach, although it emphasised documentary research as a means of explaining observed landscapes, had much in common with Crawford and adopted many of his ideas



• Modern field archaeology is directly descended from this tradition

• It remains firmly practical and empirical in approach

• It is criticized for a lack of sound theoretical basis (see Johnson 2007)

• What is it…




Research carried out in advance is an important step in guiding the location and focus of fieldwork, saving time, money and concentrating resources on particular areas of the landscape.

Sources such as maps, documents or aerial photographs may raise specific archaeological questions that can then be tested in the field.

Secondary sources will help to contextualise the features identified on the ground and should therefore also form part of the reflexive and reporting processes at the end of a fieldwork project.



Pre-Fieldwork

• Modern maps• Historic maps (e.g. OS, estate maps, inclosure maps, tithe maps…)• Aerial photography (e.g. Record Offices or online sources)• Documentary research (e.g. Record Offices, libraries, published volumes)• Geology / soils maps• Previous archaeological research (e.g. HER / NMR information, published

work)• Land ownership + access



Fieldwork• Earthworks• Artefacts• Field shapes and boundaries• Vegetation• Rivers and waterways• Tracks, roads and routeways• Settlement plans• Standing buildings• Place names……

Introducing Laxton


Introducing Laxton

• Slide Text


Introducing Laxton


Introducing Laxton


http://www.laxtoncastle.org.uk/

Introducing Laxton


Aerial Photography


Vertical Oblique

Aerial Photography


Vertical Photography

Usually for mapping or reconnaissance purposes, not often archaeological.

Fixed camera mounted on plane flying at constant height.

Photographs contain inherent distortions due to curvature of lens and irregularity of ground surface.

A series of overlapping photographs are usually taken for large area coverage. By overlapping photos by c.60% each part of the ground is covered by at least two images which can then be combined using a stereoscope to create a three-dimensional model.

Vertical photographs can be used for producing accurate plans, providing the images are adequately georeferenced.

However, since they are not flown specifically for archaeological purposes the information they contain may not always be as clear as with obliques.

Aerial Photography


Oblique Photography

Handheld camera used to record a specific site/monument as it is being flown over.

Provides a perspective view that can often emphasise and clarify the nature of a site far more than vertical shots.

The elevation and angle of the shot can be more easily manipulated to obtain the best conditions for the photograph.

Oblique photography is far more difficult to georeference, sometimes limiting the use of the technique in providing archaeological plans.

Oblique photography is most often taken from low flying light aircraft, but can also be taken from any elevated position (e.g. buildings/hilltops…).

Aerial Photography


Visible variation in the growth of plants due to buried features.

Positive cropmarks = The plants grow taller due to negative archaeological features such as ditches, pits, postholes. Provide increased moisture retention and higher nutrient content.

Negative cropmarks = The plants growth is reduced due to subsurface features which block the root system. Provide reduced moisture and nutrients than the surrounding soil.

The window of opportunity in which to see cropmarks depends on a variety of factors: soil type, crop, climate…

What we can see: Cropmarks

Aerial Photography


Some archaeological sites become visible in a field that has been ploughed in preparation of sowing.

Features are usually apparent through colour changes between the archaeology and the surrounding soil.

Negative features such as pits or ditches often contain humic-rich fills which show up as darker tones. Equally, plough damage to walls or rubble can bring some of this material to the surface.

Soil marks are at their clearest immediately after ploughing, with subsequent mixing of layers obscuring the newly revealed features.

It is important to note that soil marks reflect the actual archaeological deposits themselves, rather than their effect on overlying vegetation or topography. If a site is visible as a soil mark then it is already being eroded.

What we can see: Soilmarks

Aerial Photogrphy


Earthworks can be visible through aerial photography as shadow sites. The topographic changes cause variation in the extent and position of shadows.

The height and position of the sun is crucial in determining how well an earthwork site can be seen. Low winter sunlight (either early morning or late afternoon) is often the best, creating long shadows and picking out even microtopographic changes.

The direction of the sun in relation to the orientation of the earthworks is another key factor.

The presence of snow cover on archaeological sites can help to emphasise any earthworks due to the contrast between the highly reflective snow and the dark shadows. Likewise, standing water following heavy rainfall will accumulate in earthwork depressions.

What we can see: Shadow Sites

Aerial Photogrphy


• As well as the visibility of archaeological sites requiring very particular environmental and atmospheric conditions, the interpretation of visible features should be treated with caution.

• Potential pitfalls in interpretation can be caused by the presence of geological features, agricultural activities and modern land use practices.

Aerial Photogrphy


Soil marks of ring earthworks ENE of Bishop Wilton, Humberside (SE 825564), 12 May 1969.Photo : University of Cambridge, copyright reserved

Groups of ring earthworks similar to those shown in this photography are known from the Yorkshire Wolds, East Anglia and the Trent Valley south of Derby.

Site of searchlight batteries from WWII.

The eastern bias of their distribution is due to the direction of the perceived threat.

Aerial Photography


Crop marks WNW of Store Anst, Ribe amt, Jutland, 27 June 1967.Photo: University of Cambridge, copyright reserved

Densely concentrated arrangement of ring ditches suggestive of Iron Age / Migration Period cemeteries in Denmark.

But…arrangement and overlapping features reveals they are actually the effects of irrigation using lines of rotary sprinklers.

The two water jets were misaligned causing a ring of soil that was not as heavily watered.

Aerial Photography


The National Air Photo Library

Based at NMRC in Swindon.

Consists of c. 2.7 million photographs divided into vertical and oblique collections.

Vertical collection comprises reconnaissance and survey photography and covers whole of England. Most flown by RAF but others by OS, Meridian Airmaps Ltd, EA, etc.

Oblique collection contains photographs of particular sites, initially cropmark reconnaissance but now also industrial and agricultural developments. Oblique photography covers c.66% of England.

Oblique photographs from 1880 – present, mainly taken by RCHME/EH but also by independent fliers and from historical collections (e.g. OGS Crawford).

Aerial Photography


To access the NMR aerial photography a coversearch is carried out based on an OS NGR (e.g. SK423 890 + 500m).

Once a search has been made an appointment to view the photographs has to be made.

The oblique collection is open for public browsing at the NMRC.

The photographs can be supplied as photocopies (black+white, photographic and colour). These services incur a cost.

The NMR do not always hold copyrights for the photographs and so photocopies are not always available.

Aerial Photography


• The Cambridge University Collection of Aerial Photographs (CUCAP) is held in the photographic library of the Unit for Landscape Modelling (ULM).

• The catalogue has its origins in the pioneering work of Dr J.K. St Joseph. As lecturer in geology at Cambridge University, St Joseph was provided with access to an RAF aircraft and pilot for ten days in July 1945. This process continued until in 1948 he was appointed Curator in Aerial Photography, a post designed to manage and control the increasing library of images.

• The library now contains c. 500,000 photographs, approximately half of which are vertical (blue) and half are obliques (red).

• Appointments have to be made to view the photographs and charges are applied for obtaining copies (digital or photographic prints).

Aerial Photography


http://www.geog.cam.ac.uk/cucap/

Aerial Photography


Open sources such as GoogleEarth/Maps and Bing Maps

Aerial Photography


1948 1971 2000

Using a time series of photographs reveals recent landscape change

Aerial Photography


Systematic transcription of evidence to a map is crucial

Aims Today

• Examine maps and photographs

• Familiarise self with topography of Laxton

• Make observations


Self Assessment

Learning Outcomes

• Understand the influence of the romantic movement on shaping Hoskins’s thinking and hence contemporary landscape archaeology

• Recognise the limitations in Hoskins 1950s view of early Britain

• Understand how aerial photography an be used in landscape studies


Further Study

Suggested Reading

• Frances Pryor. 2010. The Making of the British Landscape: How We Have Transformed the Land, from Prehistory to Today

Self Study Themes

• Hoskins chapter 2 for next week.


hoskins's england class 2: darkening hills

Education

theory hoskins

years hoskins

critique of hoskins

fact hoskins

signs of landscape

english landscape class

making ofthe english

hoskinss approach