house vol.42 no.2 2017 vol.42 no.2.pdfthe versatility of terraced housing in vernacular architecture...
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Eastern Mediterranean University, Faculty of Architecture, Mersin 10, Turkey
and Development Planning Unit, University College London, 34 Tavistock Square,
London WCIH 9EZ, United Kingdom
openhouseinternational
houseopeninternational
ISSN
O16
8-26
01vo
l.42
no.2
201
7
A e s t h e t i c Q u a l i t y
B e d e s t e n
D e s i g n
E c o U r b a n
E n e r g y E f f i c i e n c y
L i n e a r R e g r e s s i o n
S p a c e S y n t a x
U r b a n G r o w t h
Authors In this issue: Akyay, Atakara, Arel, Arslan, Atalan, Attia, Atun, Bong-Kuk Ko, Çeliker, Eken, Karacor, Lee, Lee, N.A.Goh, Nia, Park, Parlar, Rahbarianyazd, Roshanfekr, Tawil, Yao, Zheng.
open house internationalVol 42 No.2 2017 ISSN 0168-2601
a C I B e n c o u r a g e d j o u r n a l
T h o m s o n I S I A r t s & H u m a n i t i e s
E B S C O p u b l i s h i n g
w w w . o p e n h o u s e - i n t . c o m
w w w . o p e n h o u s e - i n t . c o m E l s e v i e r S c o p u s
BOARD OF EDITORS
The journal of an association of institutes concerned with the quality of built environment.The publishing framework is shaped around the forces which act on built environment,which maintain, change and transform it. The content consists of articles which deal withthese issues and in particular with responsive, self-sustaining and re-usable environ-ments which have the capacity to respond to change, provide user choice and value formoney.
w w w . o p e n h o u s e - i n t . c o m openhouse
openhouse
Dr.Iftekhar Ahmed, RMIT University, Australia.
Dr. Zainab F. Ali, University of Damman, SaudiArabia.
Dr. Robert Brown, University of Westminster,London, Great Britain.
Prof.Marta Calzolaretti, Housing Lab, SapienzaUniversita di Roma, Italy.
Dr. German T. Cruz, Ball State UniversityMuncie, USA.
Carla Corbin, Department of LandscapeArchitecture, Ball State University, USA.
Ype Cuperus, Delft University of TechnologyDelft, The Netherlands.
Dr. Ayona Datta, University of Leeds, UK.
Dr.Md Nasir Daud, University of Malaya,Malaysia.
Forbes Davidson, Institute of Housing & UrbanDevelopment Studies, Rotterdam, TheNetherlands.
Diane Diacon, Building and Social HousingFoundation, Coalville, Great Britain.
Prof. Yurdanur Dulgeroglu-Yuksel,Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Prof. Jin-Ho Park, Inha University, Korea
Prof. Bruce Frankel, Ball State University, USA.
Prof. Avi Friedman, McGill University, Montreal,Canada.
Dr. Ahmed Abu Al Haija, PhiladelphiaUniversity, Eng. & Arch. Dep.t, Jordan.
Prof. Keith Hilton, Mansle, France.
Dr. Karim Hadjri, University of Central lan-cashire, UK.
Prof. Nabeel Hamdi, Professor Emeritus,Oxford Brookes University, UK.
Dr. Mahmud Mohd Jusan, Faculty of BuiltEnvironment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia(UTM).
Ripin Kalra, University of Westminster, and .(WSPimc), London.
Dr. Stephen Kendall, Emeritus Prof. ofArchitecture, 220 West Durand StreetPhiladelphia, PA., 19119
Prof. Bob Koester, Ball State University Muncie,USA.
Prof. Roderick J. Lawrence, University ofGeneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
Dr. Fuad Mallick, BRAC University, Bangladesh.
Prof. Andrea Martin-Chavez, UniversidadAutonoma Metropolitana, Mexico.
Dr. Magda Mostafa, Associate Professor, TheAmerican University in Cairo, Egypt
Babar Mumtaz, DPU, University CollegeLondon, London, UK.
Geoffery Payne, GPA Associates London, UK
Dr. Sule Tasli Pektas, Bilkent University, Turkey.
Prof. Gulsun Saglamer, Istanbul TechnicalUniversity, Istanbul, Turkey.
Prof. Jia Beisi, University of Hong Kong.Dr. Mark Napier, Urban LandMark, Pretoria,South Africa.
Dr. Masa Noguchi, University of Melbourne,Australia
Prof. Ibrahim Numan, Fatih Sultan MehmetUniversity, Turkey.
Dr. Yara Saifi, Al Quds University, Jerusalem,Palestine.
Prof. Paola Somma, University of Venice, Italy.
Dr. Peter Kellett, University of Newcastle uponTyne, Great Britain.
Dr. Omar Khattab, University of Kuwait.
Dr. Levente Mályusz, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), Hungary.
Prof. Amos Rapoport, University of Wisconsinat Milwaukee, USA.
Prof. Seiji Sawada, Meiji University, Tokyo,Japan.
Dr. Florian Steinberg, Asian DevelopmentBank, The Philippines.
Dr. Quazi M Mahtab uz Zaman, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK
Prof. H. J Visscher, OTB, Delft Univertsity ofTechnology, Delft, The Netherlands.
Patrick Wakely, Professor Emeritus, UniversityCollege London, UK.
Dr. Christine Wamsler, University ofManchester, UK and University of Lund,Sweden.
: Esra Can, Emre Akbil, Eastern Mediterranean University Mersin 10 - Turkey. [email protected]: C. Punton, P.O Box 74, Gateshead,Tyne & Wear, NE9 5UZ, Great Britain. [email protected]: The Urban International Press, P.O Box 74, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear NE9 5UZ, Great Britain.: Printed by Pikaj Print House, Gazimagusa, Mersin 10, Turkey: Emmanuel Tibung Chenyi, Eastern Mediteranian University, Mersin 10, Turkey. [email protected]
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Aims
Open House International
The Open House International Association (OHIA) aims
to communicate, disseminate and exchange housing and
planning information. The focus of this exchange is on
tools, methods and processes which enable the various
professional disciplines to understand the dynamics of
housing and so contribute more effectively to it.
To achieve its aims, the OHIA organizes and co-ordi-
nates a number of activities which include the publication
of a quarterly journal, and, in the near future, an interna-
tional seminar and an annual competition. The
Association has the more general aim of seeking to
improve the quality of built environment through encour-
aging a greater sharing of decision-making by ordinary
people and to help develop the necessary institutional
frameworks which will support the local initiatives of peo-
ple in the building process.
The journal of an association of institutes and individuals
concerned with housing, design and development in the
built environment. Theories, tools and practice with spe-
cial emphasis on the local scale.
Delft University of Technology
Department of Housing Quality and Process Innovation OTB
Research Institute of Housing, Urban and Mobility Studies
Jaffalaan 9, 2628 BX Delft, The Netherlands
(Henk Visscher) [email protected] www.otb.tudelft.nl
McGill University
School of Architecture, Macdonald Harrington Building
Centre for Minimum Cost Housing Studies, 815, Sherbrook
Street West. Montreal, PQ. Canada H3A 2K6.
(Avi Friedman)[email protected]
www.homes.mcgill.ca
Ball State University
College of Architecture & Planning, Muncie, Indiana, 47306,
USA. (Stephen Kendall) [email protected]
www.bsu.edu/cap
HousingLab
Dipartimento di Architettura, Ateneo Federato delle Scienze
Umane delle Arti e dell'Ambiente, SAPIENZA Università di
Roma, Roma, Italy. (Marta Calzolaretti)
[email protected] http:w3.uniroma1.it/housinglab
The Glasgow School of Art
Mackintosh School of Archirecture MEARU, 176 Renfrew
Street Glasgow G3 6RQ. Great Britain
(Masa Noguchi) [email protected]
www.gsa.ac.uk
Budapest University of Technology & Econ. (BME)
Faculty of Architecture Budapest, Muegyetem rkp. 3.
1111 Hungary. (Levente Malyusz) [email protected]
www.bme.hu
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM)
Resource Development Division, Perpustakaan Sultanah
Zanariah, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) 81310 Skudai
Johor, Malaysia. (Anuar Talib) [email protected]
http://portal.psz.utm.my/psz/
Philadelphia University,
Engineering & Architecture Department, Faculty of
Engineering, P.O Box 1, Jordan. (Ahmed Abu Al-Haija)
www.philadelphia.edu.jo/content/view/448/590/
University of Malaya,
Faculty of Built Environment, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
(Md Nasir Daud) [email protected]
http://www.fbe.um.edu.my
Ajman University of Science & Technology
Ajman, P. O. Box 346, UAE. United Arab Emirates
(Jihad Awad) [email protected]
www.ajman.ac.ae/austweb/index87ec.html?catid=46&langid=2
Qatar University
Qatar University Library, Aquisitons Department,Bldg# B13 /
Office Room # B154
P.O Box 2713, Doha, Qatar. (Farook Ghori)
BRAC University,
Department of Architecture, Dhaka, Bangladesh,
(Fuad H Mallick) [email protected] www.bracu.ac.bd
Universidad Del Rosario,
Calle 14 No. 6-25, Bogotá, Colombia. (Janneth Espitia)
[email protected] www.urosario.edu.co
Birzeit University Main Library
Ramallah, West Bank, P.O.Box: "14", Birzeit,
Palestine(Taghgreed Shihadeh) [email protected]
www.birzeit.edu
Inha University, Department of Architecture, Inha University,
Incheon, Korea. (Jin-Ho Park) [email protected]
www.d-lab.k
Director & Editor-in-Chief
Nicholas Wilkinson, RIBA,
RIBA,AA,Dipl., Publisher
Collaborating Editor
Dr. Ashraf M. Salama,
PhD. FRSA - FHEA
Head of Architecture
University of Strathclyde
Email: [email protected]
Web Editor
Emmanuel Tibung Chenyi
Eastern Mediterranean Univ.
Dept of Comp. Via mersin 10.
TR
Email:[email protected]
International Technical
Editor
Yonca Hurol,
Eastern Mediterranean University,
Department of Architecture,
Mersin 10 Turkey.
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Contents
EDITORIAL: Nicholas Wilkinson
PAPER TUBE EMERGENCY SHELTER: DESIGN EXPERIMENTS FOR REFUGEES.Jin-Ho Park
PERCEPTION BASED METHOD FOR MEASURING THE AESTHETIC QUALITY OF THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT.
Hourakhsh Ahmad Nia, Resmiye Alpar Atun , Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd
AN APPROACH TO RESPONSIVE HOUSING DEVELOPMENT.Maged Kamal Mohammad Attia
A FIELD STUDY ON CLIMATE COMFORTABLE CONDITIONS OF URBAN PUBLIC OPEN SPACES.Leng Hong, Jiang Cun-Yan
BEDESTENS LOCATED IN THE HEART OF THE COMMERCIAL CENTER IN ANATOLIAN CITIES AND THEIR ARCHITECTURE REFLECTIONS.
Özlem Atalan, Hasan Şahan Arel
INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION IN ECO URBAN.Somayeh.Roshanfekr, N. M. Tawil, N.A.Goh
SUSTAINABLE HOUSING: A CONCEPTUAL APPROACH.Afet Çeliker
SMALL HOUSE SPATIALITY: A COMPARATIVE SPACE SYNTAX APPLICATION’Ayça Arslan.
CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEIGHBORHOOD ATTACHMENT, COLLECTIVE EFFICACY AND OPEN SPACE QUALITY.
Elif Kutay Karacor, Gozde Parlar
INTRODUCING PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS FOR AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN CHINA.Wenbo Qin, Antonio Sánchez Soliño, Vicente Alcaraz Carrillo de Albornoz
DETERMINING A PRACTICALLY OPTIMAL OVERHANG DEPTH FOR SOUTH-FACING WINDOWS IN HOT SUMMER AND COLD WINTER ZONE.
Jian Yao, Rong-Yue Zheng
SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN THE GREEN CITY: KYRENIA WHITE ZONE. Cemil Atakara, Gizlem Akyay
A DIAGNOSIS OF URBAN POOR HOUSING IN VIETNAM. Iftekhar Ahmed
REVIEW.
Open House International has been selected for coverage by EBSCO Publishing, the ELSEVIER Bibliographic DatabaseScopus and all products of THOMSON ISI index bases, SSCI, A&HCI,CC/S&BS and CC/A&H The journal is also list-ed on the following Architectural index lists: RIBA, ARCLIB, AVERY and EKISTICS. Open House International is onlinefor subscribers and gives limited access for non-subscribers at www.openhouse-int.com
NEXT ISSUE: VOL. 42.NO.3 2017: OPEN ISSUE.
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open house in te rna t ional j une 2017 vo l .42 no .2OPEN ISSUE : Covering.... Aesthetic Quality, Bedesten, Emergency Shelters, Future Cities, Housing Development, Living Units,Neighbourhood Attachment. Open Spaces, Sustainability.
Editor: Nicholas Wilkinson, RIBA AA Dipl, Publisher.E-Mail: [email protected]
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Previous Issues
Edited by Nicholas Wilkinson RIBA, Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus.DPU Associate, University College London, [email protected]
Guest Editors: Ashraf M. Salama and David GriersonDepartment of Architecture, University of Strathclyde,Glasgow G1 1XJ, United Kingdom.E-Mail: [email protected]@strath.ac.uk
Editorial. Nicholas Wilkinson
Review on Vandalism and Mathematical Models For Visibility and Accessibility In Housing
Districts: Case Study Sharjah City. Emad Mushtaha, Faisal Hamid
A Comparative Study of the Building Energy Performance of Thermotropic Windows..
Jian Yao, Rong-Yue Zheng
Straw Bale Building and Its’ Economic Perspective. Larisa Brojan, Peggi L Clouston
Creativity in the Initial Phases of Architectural Design. Wael A. Abdelhameed
Women and Low-Income Housing Transformation in Uganda. Eiman Ahmed Elwidaa
Malaysian Affordability Housing Policies Revisited.
Diwa Samad, Nurshuhada Zainon1, Faizul Azli Mohd Rahim1, Eric Lou
Research on the Thermal Environment of Northeast China’s Rural Residences.Cheng Sun, Meng Zhen, Yu Shao
End-Users' Perception from Housing Needs Based on Maslow's Theory of Motivation.
Sayyed Javad Asad Poor Zavei, Mahmud Bin Mohd Jusan
Community, Heritage and Social Capital: Informal Heritage Management in Old Dhaka . Iftekhar Ahmed
Re-Reading Critical Indications of Metabolisim. Cemaliye Eken
The Versatility of Terraced Housing in Vernacular Architecture Case Study: Steep Regions of Iran.
Ehsan Reza, Ozgur Dıncyurek
Measured Neighborhood Environmental Factors Relate to Active Lifestyle Among Elderly.
Hanan Elsawahli, Azlan Shah Ali
Lifestyle as A Resource for Re-Structuring Romani Urban Housing. Milena Grbić, Ana Nikezić
Towards Contemporariness of Local Architecture: Lessons Learned from Previous Experience.
Gasser Gamil Abdel-Azim
A Survey Study on the Defects Found in Low-Income Housing: Case Study Seongnam City Korea.
Bong-Kuk Ko, Woo-Jung Lee, Jae-Hoon Lee
Vol. 42 No. 1 2017
open house international
OPEN ISSUE:Covering.... Affordable housing, Design, Energy Performance,..
Vol. 41 No. 4 2016
open house international
THEME ISSUE: Forging Advances in Sustainable Architecture and Urbanism.
Editorial: David Grierson and Ashraf M. Salama
Morphological-Ontological Analysis of Urban Texture Changing with Dwelling Typologies. Dicle Aydın
Sustainable Plot-Based Urban Regeneration and Traditional Masterplanning Practice in Glasgow.
Gordon Barbour, Ombretta Romice, Sergio Porta
Design for Change: Five Proxies for Resilience in the Urban Form.
Alessandra Feliciotti, Ombretta Romice, Sergio Porta
The Impact of Affordable Housing Developments on Sustainability in Gulf Cities.
Florian Wiedmann, Ashraf M. Salama, Hatem G. Ibrahim
Reframing the Notion of Sustainable Urban Development in the Middle East. Samer Bagaeen
Towards the Development of A Space/Nature Syntax At Arcosanti. Karen Munro, David Grierson
Arcology, Arcosanti and the Green Urbanism Vision.
Ruth A. Rae
Unfinished Business at the Urban Laboratory - Paolo Soleri, Arcology, and Arcosanti.
David Grierson
Assessment of Integrated Performance and Roof Geometry for Solar Energy.
Esteban Zalamea León, Rodrigo García Alvarado, Reinaldo Sánchez Arriagada, Sergio Baeriswy
Envelopment: A Methodological Approach in Structuration of Urban Dialectics. Resmiye A Atun
New Housing Trends in Istanbul. Serpil Özker, Umut Tuğlu Karsli
The Assessment and Impact of Shopping Centers: Case Study Lemar.
Mukaddes Polay, Muge Riza, Mustafa Erbilen
Pedagogy of Architectural Education on Sustainability In Malaysia – Student Perspective.
Nila Keumala, Mohammed Amer Younus, Yong Kuan, Asrul Sani Bin Abdul Razak,
Muhammad Azzam Ismail, Karam M. Al-Obaidi
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Previous IssuesVol. 41 No. 3 2016
open house international
OPEN ISSUE: China....
Edited by Nicholas Wilkinson RIBA, Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus.DPU Associate, University College London, UK.
Guest Editors: Ashraf M. Salama and David GriersonDepartment of Architecture, University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow G1 1XJ, United Kingdom.E-Mail: [email protected]
Vol. 41 No. 2 2016
open house international
THEME ISSUE: An Expedition into Architecture and .....
Editorial:Ashraf M. Salama and David Grierson
Towards Socially Integrated Housing in Chile: Assessing Conviviality Through Two Key
Housing Projects . Beatriz C. Maturana, Ralph Horne
From Compound Houses to Villas: The Incremental Transformation of Dakar’s Urban
Landscape.
Emilie Pinard
Measuring Liveability By Exploring Urban Qualities of Kissy Street, Freetown, Sierra Leone.
Fodei M. Conteh, Derya Oktay
WOUNDED SPACES: WHEN PLANNING DEGRADED CAIRO’S URBAN MEMORY.
Gehan Selim
The Abject Dream of Neo-Capital: Capitalist Urbanism, Architecture and Endangered
Liveability of the Middle East’s Modern Cities.M.Gamal Abdelmonem
Measuring the Potential for Ecological Citizenship Among Residents in Famagusta, North
Cyprus
Buket Asilsoy, Derya Oktay
The Role of Mega Projects in Redefining Housing Development in Gulf Cities.
Florian Wiedmann, Ashraf M. Salama, Hatem G. Ibrahim
A Contextual Framework for the Development of a Building Sustainability Assessment
Method for Iran.Shahrzad Malek, David Grierson
Transforming Lifestyles and Evolving Housing Patterns: A Comparative Case Study.Smita
Khan, Archana Bele
Unsettling Modernity: Shifting Values and Changing Housing Styles in the Kathmandu
Valley.
Vibha Bhattarai-Upadhyay, Urmi Sengupta
Affective Perception of Place: Attachment To Kuala Lumpur Historical Urban Places.
Norsidah Ujang
Visitor Center Design Research Based On Resilience Theory
Ren Hong , Wang Peng , Cai Weiguang , Li Dandan, Du Yongjie, Sun Junqiao, Daniel Abramson
Application of Regional Cultural Elements in Urban Complex-Illustrated By Guizhou, China.
Chen Mingman, Ren Hong, Cai Weiguang, Li Xiaohui, Ren Pengyu, Deson Lee
3d Evaluation Model of Eco-City Planning Based on the Distance Measure. Ren Hong, Du Yongjie,
Cai Weiguang, Ma Xianrui, Wang Peng, Qin Beibei, Chen Mingman
Study on the Construction Innovation of Urban Green Logistics Centers For Agricultural Products
Based on Low-Carbon Idea. Lingyun Zhou, Jie Wu, Dong Mu, Yachao Wu, Zhonghua Gu
Energy Consumption of A Large-Scale Public Building: Improvement of Building Envelope Design
Through Multilayer Feed-Forward Neural Networks. Qiquan Chen, Ji Weng, Stephen Corcoran,
Chenhao Fan
Disaster Prevention Strategies: A Study on Underground Commercial Street In Central Areas Of
Mountainous Cities. Qin Yan, Yin Pan
Value of Planning And Design of Buddhist Temples In Hebei Province, China. Jian Jin, Jindi Yao,
Jianxiang Wang
Study on Preservation Strategies of Ancient City Walls In Chinese Longdong Region in the View of
Systematic Perspective. Xiao-Hui YU, Fei Wang, Lina Wang
Design Innovation Evaluation of the Stadia in China. Xuemin Zhao, Xinbao Wang
Design of Building Evaluation System of Ecological Urban Agglomeration in Qinling Mountains of
China.
Kanhua Yu
Multiscale Model for Urban Flood Control Planning Based On Microcirculation. Tao Zhang,
Wanmin Zhao, Dongjun Tong
Planning Framework of the Circular Economy Eco-City. Zhuorong Du
AND MORE.........
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The articles which take place within this issue cover var-ious subjects of architecture. There are articles about dif-ferent type of houses, urban issues, climatic issues, a his-torical building type and sustainable construction.
The first of these is about shelters for refugees and vic-tims of disasters, housing for poor and new type of smallhouses. Park`s article suggests deployable recyclablepaper tube emergency shelters which has been exam-ined with the contributions of architecture students ofInha University. These houses were designed to be usedby victims of disasters and refugees. Ahmed`s article isabout lack of adequate affordable housing in Vietnam.He focuses on urban poor housing and provides a diag-nosis which leads him to make suggestions for this coun-try. Arslan and Ulusu Uraz claim that there is a demandfor a new type of small house design which is based onopen plan concept. They analyze thirty houses by spacesyntax application in order to identify the changes in thenew small house concept. According to them the spacesin these houses are used for multiple functions.
The second group of articles are about urban aesthetics,local identity, neighbourhood attachment and futurecities. Nia, Atun and Rahbarianyazd`s article is aboutmeasuring aesthetic quality of urban environmentsthrough a perception based model. Perception basedmodel gives different results in comparison to otherapproaches. Attia`s article claims that there is a need formodernization which is balanced with originality in Al-Dira in Saudi Arabia in order to achive a responsivehousing development which considers local identity.According to Attia, the concept of responsive housing isbased on needs of modernization without ignoring therequirements of local identity. Karacor and Parlar`s arti-cle studies the decrease in collective efficacy and neigh-bourhood attachment due to decline in neighbour-hoods. They developed a model to explain neighbour-hood attachment in Kuzguncuk, Turkey. Eken examinedthe four initial metabolist city approaches in order toestablish an ironic notion of future city. She studied Planfor Tokyo (1960-62), Clusters/city in the Air (1960-62),Helix city (1961) and Ocean/Marine City (1962) thatare designed for post-war Tokyo city in Japan.
The third group of articles concentrate on climatic issuesand sustainability. Hong and Cunyan`s article is aboutclimate comfortable conditions of urban public openspaces of Harbin in China. They suggest considerationof marginal seasons for this purpose. According to themcomfort conditions cannot be achieved without consid-ering the marginal seasons. Celiker`s article aims toreckon regional aspects in relation to sustainability andto propose sustainable housing unit models forMediterranean region. This article focuses on passivesolar systems.
The fourth type of article within this issue is aboutbedestens (the covered bazaars) in historical Turkishcities. Atalan and Arel provide spatial analysis ofbedestens within the context of their planning. They seebedestens as a part of inns, baths, mosques, and storeswhich take place at the central part of Ottoman citiesand towns.
Finally, the fifth type of article in this issue is about greensustainable construction in eco-cities. Rosfanfekr, Tawiland Goh studied on the indicators of a green sustain-able construction by considering energy efficacy.According to them, an eco-city is one that utilizes all thecritical elements of the environment and urban sustain-able construction is a vital criterion in this context.
International Technical Editor
Yonca HurolEastern Mediterranean UniversityFaculty of Architecture, Via Mersin 10 Turkey
Editorial
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Refu
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s.Jin-H
o P
ark
1. INTRoDUCTIoN
The number of refuges worldwide has been continuous-ly increasing. according to UNHCR, the numberreached nearly 59.5 million at the end of 2014, whichis a sharp increase compared to 45.2 million in 2012and 37.5 million in 2005.1 The increase is mostly dueto sudden disasters within limited areas where peoplemust escape their homes, seeking safety elsewhere. Inthe initial stage of emergency situations, access to aquick and transient shelter as opposed to well-craftedand skillful structures is immediately required. a shelter isa basic need in the emergency phase of humanitariandisasters where people have an urgent need for shelter.
although many different types of shelters forhumanitarian relief operations have been proposed anddesigned to develop better solutions, there is still a highdemand for more efficient and reliable emergency shel-ters due to the growth in the number of refugees. Inaddition, the majority of existing temporary shelters arecostly and difficult to erect in a short period of time.
Rather than waiting for the provision of tents orother shelters from relief organizations, it is critical formany people whose homes are affected by disasters toperform shelter work as soon as possible, using materi-als and tools that they are able to salvage from theirdamaged home and communities or which can beaffordably sourced from their surroundings.
This study proposes an emergency shelter as ashelter option. While experimenting with multiple designoptions through the design charrette, five differentdesigns as a short term recovery option are proposed.Thereafter, a design was selected for further develop-ment and a full-scale mock model was developed todemonstrate its performance as well as its design andassembly techniques.
2. DeSIGN exPeRImeNTS aND SeTTINGIt is critical to conduct a brainstorming session to identi-fy problems, to learn lessons from precedents, and topromote creative thinking. This process may be one ofthe most effective ways to develop innovative designswithin a studio environment. For this purpose, a designcharrette was organized for two days and an architect,Shigeru ban, was invited as a guest architect to conductthe design charrette with a group of architecture stu-dents. Shigeru ban is known for his use of paper tubesand other recyclable materials for both recovery sheltersin emergency operations and other architectural appli-cations (mcquaid, 2006).
The charrette aims to experiment with differentideas and concepts for emergency shelters and thenbring forward the most creative solutions. During thedesign charrette, five teams comprised of four or five stu-dents were organized. each team proposed uniquedesign ideas and Shigeru ban commented on each pro-ject with regard to their material choice, structural stabil-ity, and design potential.
During the charrette, students reviewed existingdesigns with regard to different prototypes, uses of mate-rials and structures, construction methods, and deploy-ment strategies for different situations and needs. arange of different designs has been surveyed and docu-mented. For example, IFRC catalogued different sheltersin two books. 2 The first booklet contains eight transi-tional emergency shelter solutions which were imple-mented in disaster sites. They were relatively longer termshelter options concerned with the materials, spatial flex-ibility, and durability of the structure. They took a maxi-mum of three weeks to construct the shelter on site. Thesecond booklet contains ten different post-disaster shel-ters, which are also longer term recovery option sheltersthat took about a month to construct. In addition to this,
Jin-Ho Park
Abstract
An emergency shelter design as an immediate response to assist people in disaster situations was evaluated in this
study. The design experiment concerns the use of recyclable paper tubes and simple construction techniques so that
unskilled labor can quickly and readily assemble the shelter where required. The design exercise is a result of a joint
effort of a group of architecture students at Inha University with the help of an architect, Shigeru Ban, who is renowned
for his innovative work with paper tubes. In the first phase, five different design alternatives for a short term recovery
option are proposed and in the second phase, a design was selected and developed on the full scale to demonstrate
its design and assembly technique.
Keywords: Emergency Shelter, Post-Disaster, Recyclable Paper Tube, Deployable Joint System.
PaPeR TUbe emeRGeNCy SHelTeR: DeSIGNexPeRImeNTS FoR ReFUGeeS.
1 Refer to UNHCR web page, (http://www.unhcr.org/)2 The first booklet was published in 2011 and the second one was published in 2013 by IFRC (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies) in Geneva.
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private enterprises such as IKea also participate in thedevelopment of emergency shelters in association withUNHCR.3
Various emergency shelter solutions around theworld are reported in the books Design Like You Give aDamn 1 & 2 (Stohr and Sinclair, 2006, 2012). Thesebooks are showcases that present a number of uniqueemergency designs. In addition, brillembourg et al.(2011) in their book, Beyond Shelter: Architecture andHuman Dignity, illustrated a number of efforts, durablesolutions, and challenges in the recovery process fromdisasters.
after these studies, different designs of emer-gency shelters were explored to ensure fast reaction andrelief to a large amount of refugees. The approaches areemployed in the most urgent situations in the short term.In the beginning, the participants of the design charretteshared their ideas with the other teams and started thedesign process with regard to the theme. each teamclosely discussed their ideas with mr. ban for two fulldays. mr. ban himself exerted great effort to preserveeach team’s original design ideas during the charrette.after the charrette, each team developed their designideas for a couple of more weeks to generate thedetailed design solutions.
3. DeSIGN DeVeloPmeNTSa number of short term shelters using different materialsas well as structural and deployment systems has beenproposed and tested by many public and private sec-tors.4 While some of them have been already imple-mented, new ideas and possibilities are still feasible.During the charrette, the ease of the deploymentmethod, including affordable materials, reduced con-struction time, minimal needs for groundwork with sim-ple tools, and structural integrity to withstand strongwinds and heavy rain, was the focus of attention for thedevelopment of emergency shelters. among others,emphasis for the design development was given to thefollowing four issues: assemblage of components, mate-rials, joints, and structural geometry.
3.1 aSSemblaGe oF ComPoNeNTSeach component must be quickly made and readilyassembled on site. In order to be an efficient, practical,and reliable solution for emergency needs, it is necessaryto minimize the number of components with a low-techand low-cost strategy. all components and their detailsmust be greatly simplified. assemblage of the compo-nents on site needs to be easy and simple, requiring onlya few people to alter or replace components. Thus, thereis no need for a professionally skilled work force toassemble the shelter. Highly technical designs and heavylifting equipment to handle the components are not nec-essary and the materials can be loaded into the space ofa standard truck. The shelter must be as simple as pos-sible to allow anyone in disaster areas to build their ownshelters without any special training.
3.2 maTeRIalSThe basic materials for the shelter must be cheap,durable, affordable, and easy to obtain in the disasterareas. The shelters should be lightweight and quicklydeployed in remote locations. In this design experiment,recycled paper tubes along with wooden or plastic jointswere considered for the structural frames, bolts and nutsfor jointing, cable ties for binding, rope for bracing, andfinally, plastic sheeting or tarpaulin for the covering andflooring.
Recycled paper tubes were used as the primarystructural material for the shelter frame in the designs.although materials are limited during disaster times,paper tubes are readily accessible and are inexpensivematerials. They are also able to withstand considerablecompression and tension. Shigeru ban frequently usesthese materials for temporary structures. according tohim, it is possible to get paper tubes for free because itis one of most common materials utilized by textile indus-tries.
The proposed shelters consist of two layers: aninner frame and an outer waterproof tent. basically, thestructural skeleton is covered by outer plastic sheeting ora tarpaulin. These are the key components of the shelterbecause they are used for the waterproof roofing, walls,and floor covering of the shelter. Holes are punctuatedwith an awl onto the plastic sheeting, and then eyelettabs are inserted and pressed in the holes which are thenthreaded over the structural struts. Rope or cable tiesmay be used to fasten the covering to the structuralskeleton. Styrofoam, straw, or other insulators may beneeded for the flooring.
3.3 JoINTSThe joints are a crucial part for structural stability. Thestruts are made of paper tubes and the joints are madeof wooden and plastic materials. most of the stresses thatthe structure will support will be transmitted through therest of the parts by the joints. Hence, it is important tomake the joints hard and strong. as many joints shouldbe manufactured as fast as possible. as a result, theyrequire a simple geometry and need to be produced injust a few steps. The fabrication process of the jointsshould also be easy to understand so that people canassemble them quickly and without any special instruc-tions. accordingly, simple joint kits are to be designedand constructed with affordable materials. These kitsmay be either available in nearby disaster areas orimported into the areas. Simple screws, bolts, and nutsare used to tightly fix the paper tubes to the joints. Forstructural integrity, wire cables may be used to makebracing that works solely in tension.
3.4 STRUCTURal GeomeTRyThe emergency shelter needs to be structurally soundand durable, capable of providing refuge after a disas-ter. external forces such as wind, snow, or rain applied tothe shelter greatly depend on the geometry of the shel-ter. Considering that a triangle is a stable form, most of
3 IKea develops a solar-powered flat pack shelter with the UNHCR collaboration. It is called “better shelter”. The shelter is easily deployable and temporary home for families. It lasts longer forthree years. Refer to www.bettershelter.org4 materials such as cardboard, timber, bamboo, plastic tents, sandbags, woven mats, and prefab concrete are frequently used for shelters (Stohr and Sinclair, 2006 and 2012)). also, techniquessuch as origami, paper folding, scissor, and pop-up are applied for temporary shelters (Rian I, et al., 2008).
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lar patterns. To this end, the skeleton of the structure ismade of rigid paper tubes to stiffen the frame. This struc-ture must bear the weight of the covering and otherexternal forces. an easy way to improve the resistance ofthe shelter is to make the geometry of the structure a tri-angle. Triangular frames are more resistant than rectan-gular ones. When designed with a rectangular shape,structural frames can be cross-braced by simply bindingthe structural frames with wire cables.
4. FIVe DeSIGN alTeRNaTIVeSDuring the charrette, each team sketched the initial con-cept for the shelter and then developed their designideas with affordable and locally available materialsusing simple construction techniques. Hence, emphasisfor the emergency design should be given to maximizethe use of readily available, lightweight, and sustainablematerials that could be assembled quickly from kits with-out the need for skilled labor. The size of each shelter isabove the minimum covered living space agreed inhumanitarian responses.5 Five different designs as shortterm recovery options are proposed as follows (Table 1).
The shelter of team one is composed of a fourpitched roof, where four individuals occupy each area. Itis designed to act as a foldable umbrella to protect theoccupants living in the tents. This design is based on fourcentral poles that support four roofs. The tents are raisedby the poles in the corners and the frame is stronglybraced so that over the frame, custom-made plasticsheeting gives shape to the tent. a bucket at the centerof the shelter is used for rain water recycling. Ropesshould be used to prevent the roof from sagging and tobrace the structure. Waste bicycle tires may be used forconnections so that connected parts become twisted andloosely fit.
The shelter of team two is based on a simply tilt-ed box with a minimum of four tilted poles. Internal crosstensor braces are needed to comprise the structural sta-bility. It has a sloping roof, and plastic sheeting can beused for the walls and floor. basic materials for the shel-ter include 21 pieces of 2 m long recycled paper tubesfor the structural frames, 18 pieces of ready-made PVCelbow pipes for joints, 30 m long rope for bracing andknotting, and plastic sheeting for covering. Perhaps,given the relatively longer spans of the wall frames, windforces may be problematic so that the shelter framesshould be firmly secured to be able to prevent collapse.
The shelter of team three is based on a simplepentagonal shape. The length of the side is 2 m so thatthe total covered floor area is about 6.88 m². The shel-ter is unique in a sense that the central PVC pole collectsrain water from the roof for water recycling. The materi-als used in this design include 5 pieces of 0.75 m and10 pieces of 2.65 m long paper tubes, folding plasticsheeting, 10 pieces of PVC elbow pipes, a 2 liter waterstorage container, small water bottles, cable ties, and a2.2 m long PVC standpipe. The simple framing systemsare well suited to mass fabrication using unskilled laborso that it is fast to assemble and easy to dismantle.
The shelter of team four is based on a pentag-onal shape and the length of the struts is 2 m. a watercapture system is placed on the roof so that rainwater isfiltered down through the shelter via a central pipe intoa basin. This provides a source of clean water for disas-ter refugees. The structure of the plan provides supportfor the inwardly sloping roof capable of capturing rain-water. The structure is lightweight and uses modular kitsthat can be easily assembled and disassembled,replaced, repaired, and stored.
The shelter of team five has a simple geodesicshape. The form uses an arrangement of triangles in apattern that gives the maximum strength possible usingthe least amount of materials. Hence, it is structurallyresilient due to its structural integrity. It needs minimallabor and effort to set up during emergency situations.The skeleton structures of the shelter are composed ofstruts and connectors. 120 mm diameter, 10 mm thickpaper tubes are used for the struts. The struts and strutconnections are made using 5 way connectors made oftimber. bolts and nuts clamp the shelter struts and theconnectors for secure fasting. The connectors may bemanufactured on the job site with timber that is locallyavailable. The structure is easy to duplicate with simpletraining so that anyone can assemble the shelter on sitewith minimum training using basic tools.
5. FUll-SCale moCK-UP DeVeloPmeNT oF THeSeleCTeD DeSIGN
one of the five proposed designs was selected for fur-ther development. The design of team five was chosenbecause it best meets the requirements of emergencyshelter in terms of efficiency, stability, and affordability.The design has no custom-made detail, is constructedout of affordable materials, and is readily assembledusing simple tools. The development of the detaileddesign produced a complete set of drawings with speci-fications. The team developed the detailed drawings,and mock up models were built and tested. Then, thedesign was fabricated at the full scale to comprehen-sively evaluate the design. The intent was to reenact theway that a shelter is assembled in disaster sites. The cho-sen design was constructed to exemplify and demon-strate the techniques for combining all components.
5.1 baSIC ComPoNeNTSThe basic material for the shelter includes recyclablestraight paper tubes, plywood planks, bolts and nuts,cable ties, and plastic sheeting. These materials have thelowest environmental impact as possible. Twenty five2,000 mm long, 120 mm diameter, and 10 mm thickpaper tubes were used for the struts (Figure 1J). Thepaper tubes are connected by two different joint systemsusing plywood planks in this experiment: one is for con-necting the struts (Figure 1a) and the other is a joint forthe flooring (Figure 1b).
Joint type a is a system that is comprised of acenter port with five planks that are affixed along theperimeter of the port. The number of planks correlates to
5 a minimum of 3.5 m² per person covered living space was agreed upon in humanitarian responses (The Sphere Project-Humanitarian Charter and minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response,
2011: p.259).
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the number of edges present on the center component.The center port is a flat pentagonal shape, yet the affixedplanks are angled to conform to the geometric shape ofthe geodesic structure. Joint type b is another type ofplank where one end of the center port is connected toa wedge-shaped peg to be anchored into the ground.This plank should be at least 30 cm long to ensure bet-ter fixation of the frame to the strap and ground.
In both systems, each plank is designed wherea groove is cut at the end of the plank. The grooves arealso cut at each side of the central port. When planks areinterconnected with the central port, it is strong enoughto hold the paper tubes together. The planks must beable to resist the compressive forces transferred throughthe paper tubes.
Since the design is a geodesic shape with 20faces, an extra tensor for stabilization is not necessary.The planks are inserted into the inside of the paper tubeswhere bolts and nuts are needed to tightly connect the
paper tubes and joints. Plastic sheeting for the roofing,walls, and floor covering is used as the key componentof the shelter (Figures 1D, e, and F). a hole with an eye-let tab in the reinforcement band at each end of the plas-tic sheeting is made to knot the cable tie to the frame. acable tie is used for binding the paper tubes and framestogether, stabilizing frames, or fixing covering sheets inplace (Figure 1H). Simple knots with a cable tie canstand high loads for a long time and also makes theconstruction process easy and quick. Shovels can beused to prepare the ground for a shelter. No heavymachines are needed for the deployment, as a handsawand scissors are sufficient.
5.2 DePloymeNT PRoCeSSFor the deployment of the shelter on site, at most threeor four volunteers would work together for a few hoursto construct the shelter by following visual instructions.The whole deployment process is simple. First, the
Table 1. Five temporary shelter designs for refugees.
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ground is gently packed with dirt and soil. Then, theplastic sheeting used for flooring is spread out. Next, thejoints for the flooring (Joint type b) are assembled. Thepaper tubes are connected to the flooring joints. Then,each pentagonal side of plastic sheeting for the flooringis rolled over tightly to the paper tubes using cable ties(Figure 5).
The paper tubes and joints are assembled toform the structural frame. We start from the bottom ofthe shelter, following the geometric pattern, and thenbolt the paper tubes to the joint systems together. eachbolt should have two washers and one nut. This bottompart must carry the applied loads and anchor it into theearth. once the flooring sheet has been tied firmly, itstension can be maintained by anchoring one end plankof the joint to the ground.
Then, the paper tubes for the roofing frame areassembled. after finalizing the framework, the plasticsheeting for the walls and roof covering is installed. Thecovering is fixed to the structural frame with a cable tie.The plastic sheeting should also be tightly fixed to theframe and to the ground. It must be tightened to avoidflapping in the wind. Some parts of the sheeting are
open for ventilation and the entryway. Drainage ditchesare dug around the completed shelter to guide runoffwater away from the structure. The roof covering can beretracted so that sunlight can be brought into the shelteror it can be closed to provide cool shade. The roof cov-ering can be rolled back. The size of the shelter is about6.88 m², which is the size of two people. When longerand thicker paper tubes are used, the shelter will cover alarger area. Construction of the shelter at this stage wasassisted by six graduate students. The assembly processof the deployment took only a few hours.
6. SUmmaRyIn summary, a creative design for an emergency shelterwas developed. The merits of the design are that it is sim-ple, easy to assemble, and allows the use of availablematerial near the site with minimal labor in such a waythat it may be an excellent addition to contemporaryoptions for fast relief. Recycled paper tubes with simpleplywood joints are sufficient to compromise the structur-al integrity of the shelter. The use of a geodesic geome-try allows optimizing the architectural efficiency of thesystem while maintaining structural stability.
The assembly process can be classified as self-help or do-it-yourself construction. This offers a solutionwhich is affordable and efficient to assemble (Park,2004). This can speed up the deployment process andreduce the cost of construction. In addition, the designalso makes the repair and maintenance of the structure
Figure 1. Kits for the shelter and joint hubs.
Figure 2. A perspective view of the two types of joint sys-tems.
Figure 3. Joint mockups tested for stability .
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more effective and efficient compared to ordinary tem-porary shelters.
This study may also play a significant educa-tional role in promoting an ongoing discourse concern-ing the development of emergency shelters. The lessonslearned from the design and construction can be appliedas a solution to a wider application of similar shelterdesigns in emergency situations. In the end, the designproposal exemplifies a collaborative process wheremany different individuals can participate in designingand constructing emergency shelters.
aCKNoWleDGemeNTThis paper was supported by Inha University ResearchGrant.
ReFeReNCeS
bRIllemboURG a. KlUmPNeR H. CoUlombel P,2011 Beyond Shelter: Architecture and Human Dignity,metropolis books, New york.
mCQUaID m, 2006 Shigeru Ban, Phaidon Press,london.
PaRK J, 2004 an Integral approach to DesignStrategies and Construction Systems-R.m.
Schindler’s “Schindler Shelter”, Journal of ArchitecturalEducation, 57(4): 29-38.
RIaN I, CHaNG D, PaRK J, and aHN H, 2008 Pop-up
Technique of origamic architecture for Post-disasteremergency shelters, Open House International, 33(1):22-36.
SToHR K, SINClaIR C, 2006 Design Like You give aDamn: Architectural Responses to HumanitariansCrises, 1 & 2, metropolis books, New york.
author(s): Jin-Ho ParkDepartment of architecture, Inha UniversitySouth Korea
Figure 4. Cutting plastic sheet according to the desired size and shape followed by placing eyelet tabs on the plastic sheet-
ing
Figure 5. Constance Region based on the intensity of net-
work connectivity.
Figure 6. GConstance Region based on the intensity of net-
work connectivity.
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introductionin contemporary globalized and rapidly growing cities,urban designers are faced with the challenge of creatingurban public spaces with collective and unifying frame-works. the roots of these problems in the configurationof contemporary urban spaces can be traced back to thesecond World War as a result of the need for mass hous-ing and the effect of globalization on the patterns of con-struction in urban spaces (e.g., alexander, 1980; lynch,1981; trancik, 1986; carmona, 2003; thomas, 2002;Mcglynn et al., 1985; hariry, 2016). this researchrevealed that based on human aesthetic perception, theabsence of aesthetic knowledge in three-dimensionalconfiguration of contemporary urban spaces is the mainreason for these problems (see figure 3). consequently,the determinant term which has been highlighted in con-temporary urban construction relates to urban aesthetic.since, the aesthetics of a city effects to the soul and char-acter of the city (cernescu, 2001), it effects on thehuman understanding of the environment. in this regard,the role and the place of aesthetics in the success or fail-ure of urban development processes have been clarifiedbased on user’s satisfaction by many other researchers.scholars such as costonis (1982), Bourassa (1991);Blumber (1969) focused on cultural aspects of urbanspaces in the aesthetic understanding of the urban envi-ronment. the other scholars mentioned to tidiness(nassar, 1983; ferry, 1999), authenticity (Jacobs andappleyard, 1987; nia and suleiman, 2017), safety(ferry, 1993; Burton and Mitchell, 2006), novelty(Weber et al., 2008), clarity (lynch, 1960; alexander,1980) as the elements of aesthetic satisfaction in urbanspaces. in doing so, by looking to the classifications onaesthetic understanding of the urban spaces there areother scholars, focusing on the objective elements ofspatial configuration and aesthetic satisfaction in theurban environment. looking for all the indicators regard-ing to the systematic review of the literature in figure 3,the study highlights the role and importance of the spa-tial configuration and their effects in aesthetic under-standing of the urban environment. despite the fact that
methods for increasing quality in urban spatial configu-ration are well-described (lynch, 1960; cullen, 1961;sitte, 1889; smith et all, 1997; gehl, 1996; nasar,1998; arnheim, 1977; rapoport, 1990) there is no uni-versal patterns of aesthetic preference that can be cap-tured by comprehensive model. in this regard, to be ableto obtain a comprehensive model, all the relevant aes-thetic indicators collected through the literature andorganized in a systematic way to be applied in variouscontexts. hence, by considering the process of urbangrowth based on morphological characteristics, fourmain stages in urban development processes of the cityare identified and a case study is conducted on relevantparts of famagusta. the question of how the impact offormal and symbolic conception of aesthetics can reflecton user's perception has been investigated upon hypoth-esizing (h1) the different duration of urban growth hasdifferent aesthetic values from its user’s point of view.consequently, the study will introduce a method forurban reading to visualize the user’s point of view onurban aesthetics. upon the essence of proposed methodthe expected outcome of this research would also be tomake of a much broader opportunity for architectureand urban design, to consider the ways of organizationand configuration of the elements of the urban environ-ment to generate more aesthetically pleasing urbanenvironment.
urban aestheticsPerhaps the obvious reason for studying urban aesthet-ics is to better understand how to deal with the uglinessand visual clutter in cities. increasing the aesthetic qual-ity of urban spaces can provide pleasing and pleasur-able places to enjoy and in which to relax. (Philipp et al.,1999). stamps (1989) explain the significance of studieson the quality of the perceived environment, based onthe fact that the aesthetics of the urban landscape arerelated to the human need to experience pleasant sen-sations.
Perception is a subjective process, which orga-nizes and interprets the patterns of stimuli in the environ-
Hourakhsh Ahmad Nia, Resmiye Alpar Atun , Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd
Abstract
This study assesses changing aesthetic values and their characteristics in urban environments based on human per-
ception. With this in mind, a model for assessing the aesthetic values of the urban environment based on the three steps
of human cognition has been developed to elaborate the user’s perception in different urban environments.
The results of the survey confirm that by changing urban morphology the aesthetic perception of the environment also
changes. The finding of this research opens up a new window for urban planners to assess the aesthetic effects of the
elements of urban spatial configuration for future urban development.
Keywords: Residential neighbourhood; Aesthetic Quality; Urban Public Space; Cognition process.
PercePtion Based Method for Measuring theaesthetic Quality of the urBan environMent.
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ment. People experience environments through the sens-es and all data comes to us through our perception. theoxford english dictionary (2011) defined “perception”as the process of becoming aware of something.according to Bernstein (2010;123) perception involvestop-down effects as well as the bottom-up process ofprocessing sensory input. let’s say that, bottom-up pro-cessing transforms low-level information to the higher-level by exploring the environment to gain sufficientinformation to interpret it (see figure 1). in bottom-upprocessing, perception directs cognition. the top-downprocessing concerns symbolic meanings associated withplaces, it refers to peoples’ expectations, individual expe-rience, familiarity, knowledge, background and culturalexperiences. in top-down, processing, perception is con-structed by cognition. figure 1 illustrates that in theprocess of perceiving urban environment the amalga-mation of both top-down and bottom-up process isrequired.
from the other hand, the amount of complexi-ty and contradiction of elements in a townscape has adirect effect on the aesthetic perception of the urbanenvironment. figure 2 illustrates that there is an optimumpoint in the configuration of urban spaces, if the config-uration was less or more than this amount, urban spaceswill not create satisfactory conditions for its users.therefore, the aesthetic quality of urban spaces basedon human perception will decrease. (see figure2)
in respect of the fact that each context, due to thechronological development of the city and the geo-graphical, political, economic requirements, leads to dif-fering spatial configurations. each context, therefore, willhave its own aesthetic values (sahraiyanjahromi, 2017).accordingly, the main aim of this research will be to findhow these aesthetic values change from one context toanother. in order to locate the argument of the paperwithin the broad discussion in the field of aestheticunderstanding of the environment, the scholar’s aesthet-ic design consideration after industrial revolution havestudied and listed in figure 3. figure 3 considers schol-ars point of consideration on different dimensions anddifferent attempts in aesthetic understanding of the urbanenvironment in post industrial revolution. after industrialrevolution there was a movement to aestheticization ofurban environment, which reveals the fact that in an aes-thetic understanding of the environment different dimen-
sions have its own effects on aesthetic understanding.these dimensions can shed light in introducing a com-prehensive model for aesthetic assessment in urban con-texts.
integrated Method for Measuring the aesthetic Qualityof urban spatial configuration rapoport (1977; 33) state that there are three steps inthe process of environmental interaction which are per-ception, cognition and evaluation. however, in the cog-nition process cultural differences and preferences affectthe organization of perceived elements (rahbarianyazdand doratli, 2017). urban image plays an importantrole in assessing the aesthetic satisfaction of the observ-er. this study revealed that each study on urban aesthet-ics could be classified into two main categories a)Physical aesthetic (objective) and b) psychological aes-thetic (subjective). the first study refers to the effects ofobjective elements in assessing of urban aesthetics. thesecond study, which is that of the psychological aesthet-ic, refers to the effects of the objective elements of urbandesign and their organization with the human subjectiveunderstanding. also the fact that physical/objectivesense of aesthetics mediated through subjectivity, themain aim of this classification is to divide physical objec-tive indicators which might have effects in human cogni-tion with the one which comes from subjectivity or non-environmental elements of the urban spatial configura-tion. the classification also highlights the role of spatialconfiguration which leads to subjective aesthetic under-standing. the researchers introduced the process of aes-thetic cognition of the urban environment in four mainstages. the phases are organized according to theprocess of human cognition of the environment (geroand fujii, 2000):a) Sensation of the physical elements of urban spaceconfiguration
in the first stage, the observer based on senso-ry receptors (tries to collect stimuli potentials and physi-cal elements of the urban space configuration usinghis/her sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose, mouth, andskin). the study classified the objective elements of urbanspace configuration based on the degree of their effectson human perception in two types: macro-scale (build-ing scale) and micro-scale (city scale). for more infor-mation, please see figure 4.b) Organization factors lead to arousal potential
elements of urban spatial configuration are raw and
Figure 1. Top-down and bottom up processing in the
process of the cognition of the environment (Adopted fromNia and Atun, 2016).
Figure 2. The relation between human aesthetic perception
and the complexity of urban environment.
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impossible to perceive without finding a meaningful rela-tionship between them. in this regard, human mind triesto give meaning to the urban elements by interpretingtheir physical relationship. the physical relationshipbetween the objective elements of the urban spatial con-figuration might create static or dynamic organization(lang, 1987). static organization between objective ele-ments of urban spatial configuration refers to the princi-pals of organization and coherence which creates aes-thetic values from its user’s point of view. this kind oforganization, increase aesthetic values by inculcating theaesthetic sense of immovability such as similarity, enclo-sure, density, scale, order, symmetry, proportion and etc.from the other hand dynamic organization betweenobjective elements of urban spatial configuration refersto the kind of organization which inculcates the aesthet-ic sense of movement such as harmonious relationship,balance, orientation, diversity or variety, complexity andetc. comprehensive lists of indicators which have beencollected through the literature have been shown in thefigure 4 c and 4d. c) Aesthetic characteristic of urban configuration
the next stage of the cognitive process inter-
prets the formal and symbolic meaning of the physicalrelationship between the elements. in this research thesecharacteristics are called the aesthetic characteristics ofurban configuration or meaningful properties. this studyhas divided the literature of the aesthetic characteristicsof urban configurations into two separate classifications,viz. that of formal conception and symbolic conception(see figure 4e and 4f).
formal conception refers to the quality whichmight appear in human subjective mind based on theelements of the urban spatial configuration. the collect-ed indicators in this part refer how objective elements ofurban spatial configuration and their organization canfulfil human aesthetic requirements in urban spaces (seefigure 4e). to be able to assess formal conceptionregarding to the elements of urban spatial configurationfigure 4e illustrates a comprehensive list of subjectiveindicators regarding to the objective elements of urbanspatial configuration and their organization. symbolicconception of the cognitive process refers to subjectivequalities which are coming from the organizationbetween the elements of urban configuration. they arealso called as non-built environmental factors in an aes-
Figure 3. Aesthetic design consideration post the industrial revolution (Adopted from Nia and Atun, 2016).
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thetic perception. human mind regarding to its cognitionprocess tries to interpret the environment in a way that togive its users the sense of meaningful place. the indica-tors which prepare an opportunity to assess aesthetic ofsymbolic conception in regards to the urban configura-tion have been collected in figure 4f. as the indicatorsappeared in figure 4, they are wide ranging andbecomes difficult to see how they can be used in a sub-stantive way. the paper attempts to organize those indi-cators in a more structured and systematic way by con-sidering the human cognition process in psychology. thecollected indicators selected and organized according tothe main concern of the research which is aestheticappreciation in urban space configuration.d) Human aesthetic response
consequently, the research reveals that thehuman mind’s interpretation of the formal and symbolicconception of the subjective and objective urban envi-ronment will lead to the human aesthetic response.Based on the hedonic value (the aesthetic characteristicsof the urban configuration) the observer will be able tojudge the environment.
after an understanding of the process of urbanaesthetic perception based on human perception, anaesthetic design-thinking model of the urban environ-ment (figure 4) has been suggested to contribute to the
Figure 4. An Aesthetic design thinking model in the urban environment.
Figure 5. The chronological development of residential
building in Famagusta.
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literature. despite the fact that other studies haveexplored the aesthetic cognition process (appleton,1975, 1988; Kaplan and Kaplan, 1982; Balling andfalk, 1982; orians, 1980; ulrich, 1983), this studyexclusively provides a widespread method by consider-ing the environmental aesthetic within the human cogni-tive process.
case studies
famagusta, which is the second largest city in northerncyprus, has been selected as a case study area by con-sidering the similarities of the rapid urban growth offamagusta with the other rapidly developing cities of theworld (oktay, 2002; Önal et al., 1999; Pasaogullari;2004). oktay and conteh (2007) divided the city offamagusta in terms of its urban expansion and the mor-phological point of view into three zones which are a)the Walled city b) the development directly outside theWalled city and c) the discontinuous developments inthe suburbs. onal et al., (1999) divided the develop-ment of the city into seven main stages from its inception.they believe that the chronological development of thecity can be divided into seven main steps a) the earlyperiods (648–1192 ad — the foundation of the city), b)the lusignan period (1192 1489), c) the venetian peri-od (1489–1571), d) the ottoman period (1571–1878),e) the British period (1878–1960), f) 1960–1974, e)the post 1974 war period. considering the fact that
onal et al., (1999) conducted their research in 1999 thecontribution of our research to the existing literature is tointroduce a method to illustrate the process of the urbandevelopment of the city based on the similarities of resi-dential neighbourhoods from a morphological perspec-tive till 2015. the proposed map of urban expansion isimportant on account of the fact that the residentialinfrastructure has increased by 30 percent since 1999.figure 5 illustrates this development.
the study has aimed to explore the aestheticcharacteristic of urban spaces from a morphologicalpoint of view. in the case of famagusta, the authors ofthis paper considered chronological development ofurban expansion through the history as a measure inaesthetic assessment. in this regard, the morphologicaltransformation of the residential neighbourhood in thecity was classified into four major periods. since in eachperiod of urban growth the morphological character ofeach neighbourhood had somehow the same valuesfrom an aesthetic point of view, the researchers by con-sultation of urban designer and experts of the areadecided to choose one residential neighbourhood fromeach period of urban growth. the selected four neigh-bourhoods are defined in the following paragraphs.a) The Walled city (Dating back to the Lusignian, theVenetian and the Ottoman period)
the Walled city with its organic alleys and cul-de-sacs,present similar characteristics from a morphologicalpoint of view (onal et al., 1999). a lot of buildingshave also already been demolished which contributes tothe ever decreasing aesthetic quality of the city, but, nev-ertheless, the historical significance and the symbolicelements are the main reason for selecting this city asthe case study for this paper( see figure 6a).b) Canbulat neighbourhoodKapali Marash (closed Marash) was the main residen-tial area during the British period (1946). currently entryto this district is forbidden as a result of the political prob-lems between north cyprus and south cyprus.canbulat residential area was selected due to the simi-larities from a morphological point of view and the dateof construction with the Kapali Marash (see figure 6B).
Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Respondents.
Figure 6. Urban texture and the characteristics of the case
studies.
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c) Karakol residential neighbourhoodin the third period of urban development the city was
faced with rapid expansion to the south and west partsof the city. Based on the study illustrated in figure 5 theauthors have highlighted four main residential neigh-bourhoods that were built in this period. due to similar-ities from a morphological point of view, the authors willfocus on the Karakol residential neighbourhood (see fig-ure 6c).d) Tuzla residential neighbourhood
as a result of the considerable urban growth from1981 till 2015 the city faced with the rapid expansion tothe outer part of it. villas and detached houses havebeen constructed on the periphery of the city. during thisperiod of urban expansion the researchers focused onthe residential neighbourhoods in tuzla (see figure 6d).
implementing an integrated model for measuring aes-thetic quality Based on all the discussions in the material andmethod part, the following hypotheses have been setup and tested in the case study area:hypothesis: If we move from the centre of the city to theoutside then the aesthetic understanding of the urbanspatial configuration in each neighbourhood will change.
an exploratory sequential mixed method (ivankova,2006) has been accepted as the methodology of thisresearch. to be able to test the hypothesis of thisresearch, two separate steps of quantitative and qualita-tive approaches for assessing the aesthetic values of theresidential neighbourhoods have been applied. thequestionnaire was prepared based on the proposedmodel (see figure 4). the hypotheses were tested in thestudy areas using a statistical analysis of questionnairesto establish how alterations in the morphological char-acteristics of the city affect human aesthetic perception.
Bye considering the population of selected neighbour-hoods (trnc state Planning, 2011) slovin’s formula(altares, 2003) applied to the case studies to determinethe sample size of each neighbourhood with the marginerror of ±5%. the respondents were selected becausethey were resident in the area and, therefore familiar withit. the target population of this study are the residenthomeowners of each neighbourhood. the responsefrom both genders was given the same value in thisresearch (future research is needed to out find how gen-der affects their perception of the urban environment).
the questionnaire survey was composed of four parts:in part a, five questions were asked to define the profilesof the respondent’s profiles. in part B, 10 questions wereasked to determine respondents’ opinions on the effectsof the physical properties of their aesthetic perception. inPart c, 15 questions were asked to assess the effects ofphysical organization. in Part d, 18 questions were askedto assess the subjective characteristics of neighbourhoodorganization on the perception of the residents. themethod used for structuring the questionnaires wasbased on a likert scale (de vaus, 2002) with fiveresponse items from strongly agree to strongly disagree.table 1 illustrates the demographic profile of respon-dents in each selected neighbourhood.
to be able to compare the outcome qualita-tively the sPss (statistical package for social science) ver-
sion 21 was used to statistically analyse the collecteddata in each selected residential neighbourhood. . sincethe collected data from the case studies (likert scalingmethod) is ordinal, we used the spearman's rank corre-lation coefficient method (spearman, 1904) to analysewhether our hypothesis is acceptable or not. the outputfrom spearman's correlation coefficient (rs) is arrangedbetween -1 and +1. in respect of this, we can describethe strength of the correlation using the following criteria ± 0.80-1.0 – very strong negative/positive linear cor-relation.± 0.60-0.79 – strong negative/positive linear correla-tion.± 0.40-0.59 – Moderate negative/positive linear cor-relation.± 0.20-0.39 – Weak negative/positive linear correla-tion.± 0.00-0.19 –very weak negative/positive linear corre-lation.0 – no linear correlation.
results and findings in total 330 respondents were involved in the four surveyareas, of which approximately 56 % were male and 44% were female. a quick survey of the results based on thespearman correlation in sPss revealed that gender, edu-cation and the level of income has a positive linear cor-relation with the aesthetic perception of the environment.the most astonishing factor was age. the researchrevealed that different generations have different viewson the aesthetic understanding of the environment.consequently, through the study the age factor alsobecomes determinant. younger people believe that thesymbolic elements of urban spatial configuration andtheir vitality and liveability are the most important factorsin the aesthetic judgments of the neighbourhood config-uration. from the other hand older people refer to safe-ty, calmness and quietness as factors of aesthetic appre-ciation in neighbourhood scale.
in the assessing sensation of the objective ele-ments of urban spatial consideration, their psychologicaleffects on human perception are considered in microscale (building scale) and macro scale (city scale) (seefigure 4). considering the fact that the buildings in tuzlawere recently constructed and their residents are in ahigh income bracket, we can see that the building detailsfrom an architectural point of view and the buildingornamentation are well organized. in this regard, 76.1% of the respondents in tuzla believe that the buildingdetails are well organized. the same amount of respon-dents highlighted that the colour of buildings is alsoimportant as this has a direct effect on the aesthetic qual-ity of the neighbourhood. 80.9 % of the residents in theWalled city of famagusta, which is the historic quarter,are not satisfied with the colour of the buildings. theresearch also reveals that residents in all the neighbour-hoods suffer from a lack of lighting at night and shadeduring the day. (see figure 7a)
in assessing the macro scale and the elementsof spatial configuration of the neighbourhood, peoplewere asked to determine how objective elements in theneighbourhood scale affect their perception of the envi-ronment. lack of vegetation and green areas was an
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obvious problem in the Walled city on the Macro scale.distribution of urban amenities and symbolic elementsand landmarks are also the most important factors whichrespondents of the Walled city believe as the importantfactors in aesthetic perception of the environment (figure7b). it also revealed that the residents of Karakol do notbelieve that the macro elements of the urban environ-ment affect their overall opinion of the aesthetic percep-tion of the neighbourhood environment. With reference to the organization of the objective ele-ments of the neighbourhoods which we divided into twostatic (sense of immobility in the organization) anddynamic (sense of mobility in the organization) category,approximately 83.1 % of respondents in tuzla believethat similar building forms and symmetry in the buildingsare the most important factors in the ‘imageability’ of theenvironment. respondents of the Walled city andKarakol stated that there is a high density of building.the study also revealed that the density in the Walled citycomes from the horizontal expansion of the buildingsand the density in Karakol area comes from the verticalexpansion of the buildings. the same amount of respon-dents (65.6 %) believes that the urban amenities incanbulat and the Walled city are well distributed, but inthe other neighbourhood respondents are suffering fromthe lack of urban amenities and their poor distribution.the static organization of the objective elements inselected case studies is well illustrated in figure 7c.
the most astonishing results in assessing a dynamicorganization in the objective elements of urban spatialconfiguration reveal that the Walled city is well organizedand offers a more permeable and robust environment. .the respondents in the Walled city believe that buildingsare well configured and there is a harmonious relation-ship between the elements of the urban spatial configu-ration (for more information see figure 7d).
Based onthe discussionin figure 4 thehuman mindinterprets theorganization ofthe objectiveelements ofurban spatialconfigurationfrom a basis offormal andsymbolic con-ception. theq u e s t i o n s
regarding the formal conception of neighbourhoodsfrom the respondents reveal that the majority of respon-dents in the Karakol area do not believe that their neigh-bourhood satisfies their aesthetic requirements based ona formal conception. respondents in the canbulatneighbourhood rely on the organization of the neigh-bourhood having a moderate effect on their aestheticconception of urban environments. for this reason, theoutputs of the study in the canbulat neighbourhood (seefigure 7e) reveal that that the issues of vitality accessibil-ity and liveability have the lowest level of satisfaction incomparison to the other neighbourhoods.
finally based on the outcomes obtained byassessing the symbolic conception in the neighbourhoodscale illustrated in figure 7f, the linear line based on theresponse of respondents in canbulat shows that the sym-bolic conception of the urban environment has a mod-erate effect on their aesthetic perception. symbolic val-ues, authenticity of the neighbourhood, a sense ofbelonging to the place, ‘imageability’ of the neighbour-hood, are highlighted by the respondents in the Walledcity. in contrast, the indicators of enjoyable complexity,historical significance, and safety have been found tohave the lowest rating in the tuzla neighbourhood.
By interpreting and comparing the results fromthe formal and symbolic conception of urban environ-ments, based on the respondents’ points of view, wecould conclude that, as we progress from the centre ofthe city to the outskirts, the aesthetic understanding of itsresidence based on formal and symbolic elements ofurban spatial configuration will change. the claim canexplain regarding to the finding in figure 7. the reasonfor such a phenomenon might come back to the humancognition process and the effects of built and non-builtenvironmental factors in human cognition process which
Table 3. Pairwise comparison of the results to check the
reliability of the hypothesis.
Table 2. Spearman's correlation analysis
between the case studies.
Figure 7. Mean difference of responses for each question.
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leads to different aesthetic perception of the environ-ment.
By applying spearman’s coefficient correlation(rs) test in sPss, a correlation analysis was carried out totest the hypothesis of this research by using pairwisecomparison between neighbourhoods. table 2 is theoutput of spearman's correlation analysis.
consequently, we assumed and tested the nullhypothesis (h0) by the pairwise comparison of neigh-bourhoods’ responses to find possible relation andamount of their linear correlation in the population.Pairwise comparison of the collected data based on thequestionnaire and the outcomes in spearman's correla-tion analysis by using the sPss revealed that with 99%accuracy, the aesthetic perception of the residents in theWalled city with comparison of residents in canbulat,Karakol, and tuzla are completely different from eachother. it also revealed that, there was a strong positivelinear correlation between the responses of each neigh-bourhood. therefore, automatically h0 will be rejectedand our hypothesis (h1) will be acceptable. table 3reveals the correlation coefficient (rs) of outputs by pair-wise comparison between the opinions of respondents ineach neighbourhood to find whether our null hypothesis(h0) is acceptable or not.
table 3 reveals that the hypothesis of theresearch is acceptable. Just the hypothesis were rejectedin the pairwise comparison of the neighbourhoods oftuzla and Karakol. in despite the fact that there is a weakpositive linear correlation between the responses of thementioned neighbourhoods (rs =.242, n = 72, p >.001) there is no strong evidence to claim that there isenough evidence to reject h0 between those neighbour-hoods. the authors believe that the proximity of con-struction time between the neighbourhoods of tuzla andKarakol is the main reason for the rejection of h1.
conclusion and recommendation having knowledge of the aesthetic of urban spatial con-figuration can support us to know how to deal with theelements of urban spaces in order to create more pleas-ing places to enjoy and relax in. consequently, the aimof this survey was to introduce a model for assessing theaesthetic quality of public urban spaces based on theprocess of human perception. in this regard, the processof human aesthetic perception was divided into fourmain categories as follows: a) sensation of objective. b)Perception of the physical organization between ele-ments of urban spatial configuration. c) formal and sym-bolic conception of the physical organization in thehuman mind. d) the human response to the environ-ment based on the collected information from previousstages.
the proposed model highlights the physical problemsin urban spatial configuration based on human aesthet-ic perception. it will also support our developing knowl-edge in respect of reshaping the city. the study alsoreveals that the classification of urban spaces based onthe chronological development of cities is also applica-ble in the assessment of neighbourhood morphologicalcharacteristics. With reference to famagusta, a sampleof the rapidly developing city was chosen as a case studyand based on the information taken from related litera-
ture and from site surveys; it was divided into four mainmorphological categories. statistical analysis of thequestionnaire survey confirmed that human aestheticperception of the urban environment changes accordingto the changing spatial configuration of the neighbour-hood along with the time span of the construction work.
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author(s):
hourakhsh ahmad niadepartment of architecture, girne american university,north cyprus, via Mersin 10, [email protected]
resmiye alpar atundepartment of architecture, eastern Mediterraneanuniversity, north cyprus, via Mersin 10, [email protected]
rokhsaneh rahbarianyazdfaculty of architecture, near east university, northcyprus, via Mersin 10, [email protected]
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Introduction
The unique urban and architectural character of Al-Dira’, a traditional residential quarter, re-inspired thedebate about traditional and modern that was initiatedin the early nineties (Al Sayyed, 2011). By 1950s, mod-ernism was adopted in Saudi Arabia (Al- Ibrabim,1990). Modernism introduced international architecturalstyle and gridiron pattern of land subdivision to replacetraditionalism which expresses local identity by providingpertinent architectural and urban products and reflectingdeep human experiences (Abu- Dayyeh, 2006; Al-Naim& Mahmud, 2007).
The transformation from traditional to modernin the Saudi housing environment has experienced threeparadigms including hybridizing, transition and contem-porary (Al-Hathloul & Mughal, 1999; Al- Naim, 2005).In the hybridizing stage (1940-1950), reinforced con-crete was utilized on a limited scale (El-Shorbagy, 2010).In the second stage (1960- 1980), the governmentbegan to increase its involvement in the physical envi-ronment by building regulations. Setbacks and grid landsubdivisions were then introduced (Al-Said, 2003). In thethird stage, the gridiron land subdivision and setbackplans were adapted as the only way to deal with thehome environment. Decisions about the the housingenvironment had completely shifted from the people tothe government (Eben Saleh,2004).The present paperargues that Saudi housing environment needs to bereaddressed. Contemporary housing developmentneeds to consider the sensitivity of locality and arrive at
a compromise between the need for modernism and theadvantage of traditional. Understanding values behindtraditional quarters is believed to assist forming aresponsive contemporary environment.
Data and methodsAs indicated in Figure (1), the research initiates by areview for Al-Dira’ quarter and the values inherited in tra-ditional districts. Maps of the study area were prepared;and during a site visit, the urban and architectural fea-tures were photographed. Photographic survey, as partof the historical documentation and analysis process,aims at identifying the significant features of the builtenvironment and understanding the collective physicalexpressions of social, economic and technical impacts.Elements of potential significance and those whichrequire explanation could, then, be identified. A surveyfor selected houses and open spaces came about andillustrated. Structured interviews of open ended questionswere performed with the residents. Combining imagesand field survey can explain how people interact with thelocal architecture, urban pattern, the function of differentcomponents, and the planning and building process.The questions begin with straightforward ones that relateto the daily activities and then move to sensitive matterslike the privacy and women activities. Answers direct theeffort to look beyond the surveyed urban and architec-tural forms. A similar survey for Al-Rabwa, a typical con-temporary officially planned district was conducted; andfeatures which reflect the incompatibility between the res-idents and the built environment were concluded. By
Maged Kamal Mohammad Attia
Abstract
Abstract. Between traditional and contemporary there are two contradictory visions. The first adopts originality and
returning to the traditional, while the second advocates modernity and liberation from the old. The present paper dis-
cusses how to benefit from the present facilities without losing features of the past when developing new neighbour-
hoods. Al-Dira’, a traditional quarter in Al-Jouf, Saudi Arabia, is elected as a case study within which the housing unit
and the urban pattern are analysed. Visual documentation, surveying, mapping, and interviews constitute essential tools
to get an insight on the traditional planning and design process. On the other side, Al-Rabwa, a typical contemporary
officially planned district, is investigated. It is concluded that the need for modernization should be balanced with orig-
inality. Understanding forces that shaped traditional quarters and are still embedded in the community offers a stream
of information that can be utilized in contemporary development. A responsive development needs to consider local
identity while formulating compact low rise buildings with courtyards and carefully positioned openings, small scale
open space system, straight roads for cars and protected walkways for pedestrians, well distributed parking lots, and
integrated relationship between housing, mosque and market.
Keywords: Traditional districts, Al-Jouf, Al-Dira’ Quarter, Responsive development, Local identity
AN APPROACH TO RESPONSIVE HOUSING DEVELOPMENT
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understanding forces which shaped traditional districtsand explaining the resident’s interventions on contem-porary housing environment, a responsive neighbour-hood can be created.
Literature reviewHousing development has been classified into thosewhich grow “naturally” or “organically” and those whichare “artificial” or planned (Batty & Longley, 1994). Oneof the key distinctions is the speed of development;while, another relates to the scale of the development.Organically growing quarters develop much more slow-ly than those which are planned. Traditional districts areformed from myriad of individual decisions at a muchsmaller scale than those which lead to planned growthwhich embody the actions of larger agencies (Ismail,2012). These distinctions articulate themselves in clearvisual ways. Traditional quarters seem to fit their naturalcontext more comfortably in that if decisions are smallerin scale, they reflect the properties of nature more close-ly and reveal more intense concerns at the local level.Planned quarters are usually more monumental andmore regular reflecting the will of one upon the many(Bakri et. al., 2012).
The visual order of traditional quarters resem-bles cell growth, weaving in and out of the context,closely following the terrain and other natural features,embodying the movement through routes in tree-likeforms. Their geometry seems irregular but does not implydisorder (Lai et. al., 2013). Planned developmentappears more man-made in that the patterns producedare more regular, reflecting more control over the natur-al context, and the mobilization and coordination ofmuch larger quantities of resources devoted to the devel-opment. Planned quarters display geometry of straightlines and smooth curves, built on a directness of move-ment which can only be imposed from above, embody-ing some sense of man's direct control over naturethrough technology. Such approach did not take intoaccount differences in natural environment, climate vari-ation and cultural; it contributed in part to solve prob-lems but not without defects (Shin, 2010).
Rapoport (1976; 2004) argues that the builtenvironment reflects culture that distinguishes one groupfrom the others. Yet, the cultural influences seem to bemore evident in traditional houses rather than contem-porary housing (Altman & Low, 1992). This is becausethe traditional houses were individually designedaccording to the desire of the owners. While, the masshousing is designed by architectural teams leaving resi-dents to adapt themselves to such designs. Even whenarchitects attempt to benefit from traditional quartersthey only borrow the images without understanding therelationship between people and the physical environ-ment (Al-Hamad, 1988). This has not been appreciatedby people, who instead refined the new forms accordingto what they actually accept (O’Reilly, 1999).
The importance of traditional districts stemsfrom the embodied values, meanings and connotationsof culture, art, aesthete and economy (Al -Zahrani,2012). They constitute a model one can refer to whendesigning new communities (Yarwood, 1999) .Traditional districts highlight human creativity in a specif-ic period including a unique vocabulary which maintainstheir local identity (Kurtz, 2006; Sozen & Gedık, 2007).A nation looking for the continuity of its culture cannotrely on exotic models and neglect original ones(Ozdemir et al., 2008). For Saudi Arabia, Al-Naim(2003) argues that the most important factor is the reli-gious believes which call for the privacy of women anddefine a sustainable relation with the mosque (masjid ).
The study area, an overviewAl-Jouf is located at the northern borders of the ArabianPeninsula (Fig. 2). It is divided into two governorates:Qurayyat and Dumat Al -Jandal (Rifai & Rifai, 1990) .Dumat Al -Jandal, has a history dating back to the 10thcentury BC. In 633AD, the city became a part of thenewly formed Islamic empire (King, 1998). The impor-tance of Dumat Al-Jandal continued as a trade centrefor Arab tribes. One of the important features in DumatAl-Jandal is Al -Dira’ quarter, which is located in theneighbourhood of Omar ibn Al Khatab masjid. The
Figure 1. Research Methodology. Figure 2. Al-Jouf and Dumat Al-Jandal location in Saudi
Arabia Source: Google Earth, edited by the author.
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masjid was built in 634 AD on the most important junc-tion of ancient trade routes linking Mesopotamia, Syriaand the Arabian Peninsula (SCTA, 2010).
Understanding Al-Dira’ built environmentUrban configuration: The district is characterized by acompact pattern of buildings that are irregular in formsgrouped together in one bulk. This is penetrated by lin-ear tortuous open spaces and narrow walkways that leadto residential entrances (Fig. 3). The cross section ofwalkways is of comparable dimensions. Respondentsindicated that such spaces serve as gathering places forchildren to play supervised by women who used toassemble to relax and socialize. When walkways inter-sect, a wider open space (barha) configures. Barha playsa significant climatic role as it helps moving air throughwalkways to alleviate the impact of hot weather. In addi-tion, barha is a gathering centre for men; it is anothersafe playing place for children. Doors overlooking barhaare situated shifted from each other to maintain privacy.
The circulation system enables inhabitants tomove easily from residence to the masjid and the market(Souq) but that was not easy for strangers. The tortuouswalkways made the circulation system misleading forthose unfamiliar with the quarter in case of attack. Tribalraiding has been a common struggle until the unificationof the kingdom in 1932. From the upper level, the hous-es extend over the walkways creating bridges (sabat)(Fig. 4). Sabat express the cooperation between neigh-bours which is supported by Islamic teachings, provideshade for both pedestrian walkways and surroundingbuildings, and identify points of transmission from onezone to another creating a beautiful scene while crossingunderneath. Sabat serve as an observation point whereresidents can watch the passageway within narrow win-dows.
The residential units: The residence is the basicconfiguration unit of the quarter which replicates to gen-erate the district. The residential units of Al-Dira’ demon-strate careful planning and conformity with the environ-ment, community and needs. Houses, which exceed thenumber of forty, are of different areas according to thefamily size and economic capacity. Residences havebeen affected by climate, topography and soil proper-ties, and religious impacts. The informants reported thatthe quarter was initiated by the founder Hasan Bin Dira',head (sheikh) of the family; from whom the quarterderives its name. Therefore, the sons established theirhouses adjacent to the sheikh residence. The quarterthen expanded by constructing dense grouping of hous-es in the immediate vicinity. The house could be inhabit-ed by more than one family of the lineage.
The design, construction materials and technol-ogy demonstrate uniformity of the residences. Residentialunits of Al-Dira’ are built of stones which are broughtfrom adjacent mountains. Clay mixed with straw is usedas mortar. Arches and stone cantilever (tonaf) appearedas structure systems. Ceilings are constructed of theindigenous woods, tamarisk (ithal) or palm wood.Traditional building materials and corresponding build-ing technology gave the traditional buildings the distin-guished architectural character. The construction processtakes place in a collective action, known as dread(faz'ah), where all neighbours participate in buildingactivities.
Al Nassar house, an example of large resi-dences, indicates that the design depends on the court-yard (housh or masyaf) which represents the core ofactivities (Fig. 5). Besides lightening inner spaces, houshprovides shade and alleviates heat effect. Housh createsa comfortable climate as cold air is stored in during nightand distributed into rooms during day. Housh insures theprivacy of family members and provides an area forfuturistic extension by adding more rooms.
Most residences have two entrances, one formen and the other for women. Gateways lead to brokenentrances which, besides maintaining privacy, are part ofthe defence plan. A bench (dekah or mastabah) is locat-ed beside doorways for men to sit on (Fig. 6). Theentrance leads to the guest room (majlis or al- kahwa)which hosts men guests. Majlis is separated from the restof residence by a wall. The other side of this wall is thefamily section (harim) which is accessed by the broken
Figure 4. Locations and different views of sabat Source:
The author.
Figure 3. The urban configuration of Al-Dira’ built environ-
ment Source: The author.
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corridor. Harim contains a female guest room (lewan), anumber of rooms, a kitchen with a stove and the auxil-iary services. Housh includes a stone staircase (daraj ) toaccess the upper storey. The first floor comprises a num-ber of rooms (sakayf) and an unroofed room ( rawshn)
for sleeping in summer nights. Windows in upper floorsare wide but allocated on a high level in order not toinjure the neighbours’ privacy (Fig. 7).
However, both the urban configuration and res-idential units create a comfortable micro-climate. Thequarter is protected from the hot dust-laden southernwind; while, the northern summer breeze passes throughthe cultivated areas and cools walkways and courtyards.Buildings are adjacent to each other to be protectedfrom undesirable sun and wind. The thick stone wallsprotect the interior spaces from heat absorption in sum-mer. Besides providing shade and protection from sum-mer sun, Sabat create air currents and natural ventilationwhich are enhanced by differentiation in buildingsheight.
Settlement integrated elements: To the southernwest of Al-Dira’ quarter, the souq and the masjid arelocated (Fig. 8) . The location of masjid and souq on theborder of the quarter allows strangers to use them with-out penetrating the quarter; both are located along themain walkway on a wide plaza utilized for trade. Souqworked as a social arena where news and importantissues are announced for public. Whereas, the masjid isthe most important building in Muslim society, its func-tion is not limited in performing the daily five prayers, butextends to act as a centre of social communication.Directing walkways towards masjid is a thematic featureoriginated in the Islamic cities. However, facades adja-cent to souq and masjid are mostly solid to protect resi-dents from strangers’ eyes.
Contemporary neighbourhood, a comparative viewWhen the development process shifted from the handsof indigenous community to central authority, the appro-priate strategies are ignored and the community is leftwith exotic living environment as argued below.
Urban configuration: In Al-Rabwa district, streetlayout follows a gridiron pattern in contrary with the tra-ditional organic one (Fig. 9). Contemporary circulationsystem gives priority to car leaving pedestrians to moveexposed to the harsh sun. Spaces in Al-Rabwa plan are
Figure 8. The relation between Al-Dira’ quarter, the mosque
and the souq.
Figure 7. Plans of selected houses of A-Dira’ quarter
Source: The author
Figure 6. Seating areas in barha and in front of residence
Source: The author.
Figure 5. Plans and different views of Al Nassar house
Source: The author.
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limited to public open spaces which mediates the resi-dential clusters. About 50-60% of private spaces are theneglected setbacks enforced by regulations. Such type ofdevelopment produces punctual tissue in which all sidesof the buildings are exposed to the external influences. InAl-Dira’, one can easily distinguish between public, semi-private and private spaces that are consciouslyarranged. The contemporary public spaces are obvious-ly left vacant. Informant reported that every family is iso-lated in its unit with very limited opportunities for socialcommunication. Neighbours in one residential buildinghave become strangers. Every family is settled in its unitwithout any feeling of responsibility for the community.Younger families missed the relationship with their rela-tives.
The residential units: Two types of housing pre-vail in Al-Rabwa district; these are private residence andthe residential building. The general features of spacedistribution are expressed in Figure (10). The private res-idence consists of two levels. The ground floor includesone or more majlis, a dining room, a kitchen and theauxiliary services. The first floor contains the bedrooms,the bathrooms and the family living room. A staircaselinks the two floors. According to the setback law, allspaces are oriented outward through windows or bal-conies. All activities take place indoor because the out-door spaces are viewed from adjacent units which injurethe privacy of each other’s.
In the residential building, the typical floor areais sufficient to accommodate three 2 bedroom flats. Twoof them overlook the street, while, the third overlooks therear setback. The entrance lobby usually separates theflat into the reception and the sleeping zones. Kitchens,bathrooms and the staircase usually occupy the core ofthe floor from which flats are accessed. Like the privateresidence, all living spaces are oriented outward.Balconies are the only outer space for flats.
The visual documentation of Al-Rabwa indi-cates that the architectural form and style are alien withlittle continuity with local character (Fig. 11) . Modernbuildings can be easily distinguished from traditional
ones. They are characterized by the reinforced concrete,different types of bricks, cement mortar and aluminiumwindows in contrast to the stone and wood of the tradi-tional buildings. The effect of climate was not givenenough attention. The building envelop allows the pen-etration or transfer of heat to the inside. The setting ofblocks ignores the effect of cooling wind; and the openspaces contribute to over-exposure. Relying on air -con-ditioning, which became a must, distorts facades andresults in negative environmental impacts.
Building regulations produced architecturalform that failed to satisfy the requirements of privacy inhousing units and open spaces. Residents found them-selves compelled to shut the windows, board up bal-conies, and increase the height of external fences to pro-tect their privacy (Fig.12). Many residents prescribed inconstructing sitting area in front of buildings. Not beingthoughtful, fences, barriers and sitting areas result in thepoor appearance.
Masjids are located in association with theopen spaces. In fact, they are located within the walkingdistances identified by planning rules. But, according tothe hot climate, and with the absence of shaded paths,residents find themselves compelled to use the cars backand forth. Similarly, with shops which are located along
Figure 10. Plans of different types of contemporary housing
Source: The author.
Figure 9. The contemporary streets and land subdivision
pattern in Dumat Al-Jandal.
Figure 11. Visual documentation of contemporary architec-
ture Source: The author
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a commercial street.Contemporary practice proves that there is
incompatibility between society and the built environ-ment on the levels of planning, urban design and archi-tecture. While, the traditional model, proves that it is stilluseful. The analysis of the traditional built environmentillustrates integrated treatments of climatic, religious,social, economic and regulatory factors. The questionthen is how to maintain the traditional values whileresponding to inevitable change in the built environ-ment. One can argue that knowledge imbedded in tra-ditional quarters contains guidelines for the answer.
There is no doubt that modernization has apositive side that cannot be ignored. It is difficult to arguethat the traditional district can enhance aspects likehygiene, modern devices, ambulance and firefighting.People are continuing to leave indigenous quartersbecause they do not meet the new standards. However,in a changing world, when a force has no effect an ele-ment may disappear or convert. In the Saudi context,many forces accompanied the traditional life have beeneliminated like tribal raiding which undermines the needfor defensible settlements. Likewise, with the develop-ment of transportation means, narrow walkways arereplaced with wide paved streets. On the other side,many impacts such as the environmental conditions, therelation with the masjid, and privacy of women are stillinfluential.
The forces that designers face today are morecomplex than traditional ones which the builder faced inthe past. The present forces might have conceptual andtheoretical bases more than those that affected the tra-ditional built environment. But, in general, the role of thephysical environment should expand beyond shelteringthe functional activities to interact with all human needs.This is the missing part in contemporary neighbour-hoods.
To make use of traditional quarters, the forcesthat shaped them need to be defined. The consciousseparation between continuing and non -continuingforces can help defining the physical features whichseem worth maintaining. Then, the physical productswhere the continuous forces act are brought into bal-ance against modernization. However, by working fromthe micro to macro level, the true affecting forces can beacknowledged. The fact learnt from traditional settle-ments is that the creation of a building, a district or a
town is a bottom-up process. Questions about theaccessibility, buildings’ heights, the integration of menand women in the social life, the relation with the masjid,souq and open spaces, the scale of open spaces, open-ings location and size, house entrances position, and theextent of freedom given to car and pedestrian movementcan be answered. The answers can help formulatingguidelines for a responsive environment.
On the urban level: The study indicates thatcontemporary buildings and spaces shrine to industryrather than things residents enjoy. While, human scalespaces and buildings with identifiable boundaries advo-cate the sense of belongings allowing residents to knoweach others. The issue that needs to be addressed is thescale of development. Al- Dira’ quarter illustrates thatpeople need a compact identifiable spatial unit to live inand belong to. To help people to recognize the neigh-bours they live with, a range of 40 -50 families (240-300 inhabitants) can be grouped within a clearly definedboundary. Such boundary can be accessed through alimited number of streets or naturally designed gateways.Open spaces within the boundary, where social systemcan survive, are not to be very large. Special concernshould be given for the participation of women in thesocial life. This can be achieved when the woman feelscomfortable in small scale spaces watching her childrenwhile communicating with a limited number of neigh-bours. It is beneficial then not to keep the setback sys-tem. Instead, it is proposed to adopt continuous build-ings within which a hierarchical manner of spaces isintended. Spaces are expected to be connected by apedestrian network.
As car has become a must for Saudi families, abalance between secured pedestrian network and roadsfor cars needs to be stricken. A responsive neighbour-hood needs to be easily navigated by both humans andvehicles, with straight roads for orientation and protect-ed streets to allow residents to wander. Enhancing thesocial life requires limiting cars penetration up to thegates of houses. This is expected to generate safe placesfor children to play in and create a chance for residentsto communicate while walking. Parking can be distrib-uted in small lots connected to buildings.
On the architecture level: In contemporarydevelopment, activities have become almost indoor. Al-Dira’ quarter indicates that residents are concerned tohave two types of life, private and visible (indoor andoutdoor). Private life is provided in the enclosed spacesor in the housh which still an important component of theSaudi residence. With regard to buildings, it is impracti-cal to simulate traditional houses which enjoy a greatvariety of forms. Order is of great importance in housingdevelopment, but, excessive order feels alien. It is essen-tial to create a sort of organized complexity that comesfrom establishing parameters like building form, buildingmaterials, construction technology and the shape ofopenings. There, a kind of unity in the neighbourhoodcan be created. Building forms could be kept simple butwith sensitivity towards environmental factors such as ori-entation and shading tactics. To maintain privacy, build-ings’ heights should be kept low, and openings shouldbe carefully positioned. To reflect specific identity, there isa need to use the vocabulary of locally sourced archi-
Figure 12. Some treatments for providing privacy for con-
temporary houses.
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tecture.On the basic communal services: People want
to be close to the masjid to perform the five daily prayers.While, the relation with souq and services varies fromone to the other, some want to be close to them, while,others want to be away for quietness. The balancebetween these two desires determines their location in aquarter. The boundary region can hold a place for thecommon services shared by inhabitants such as themasjid and souq. Buildings can configure an accessbarha that is linked with the main pedestrian spine torealize the required balance.
It should be kept in mind that responding tolocal conditions cannot happen within a nationwide setof regulations. Many building codes and regulationsproved not to be in line with the environmental condi-tions or the people’s social, cultural and economic for-mation. Therefore, building regulations need to leaveflexibility for practitioners to decide about local issues.This is likely to achieve the desired balance betweenmodernization and the careful consideration of the resi-dents’ background and conditions.
To examine the approach, it was proposed as atheme for a Master students’ project. The product provesthe ability to produce integrated urban forms, buildingsthat accommodate actual needs of the residents andreflect local identity, environmentally sensitive context,and socially accepted development (Fig. 13). Theapproach discussed is not rigid; it is flexible in accor-dance with the community needs. Still, there is a rangeof issues that need to be investigated in depth like theland subdivision pattern, the land ownership, the eco-nomics of infrastructure, compatibility with regulationsand the stages of execution that keep the image of thequarter appropriate until it completes. But, the approachis just a step towards getting out of the present rigid pat-tern of development.
DiscussionThere is no logical explanation why the contemporaryhousing cannot be designed making use of both the tra-ditional features and modern technology to introduceinteresting forms instead of the present ones. By adopt-
ing the ideas of the traditional quarters to be imple-mented through modern technology, the continuity ofidentity and the socially acceptable way of life can bemaintained. A major part of the problem is that planners,urban designers and architects work from the macro tomicro scale. While, in the traditional quarters, urbanform is derived from architecture.
Although planning and urban design producethoughtful visible forms and spaces, the interactionbetween people and space is still absent. While, in a tra-ditional quarter it seems that buildings and spaces speakthe same language. This is not to under -evaluate therole of planners and urban designers but to indicate thatthey need to be equipped with knowledge acquired fromtraditional environment. They must define the physicalfeatures of the place and define the forces that resultedin the creation of such features. Then, they must definethe range of contexts where this system of forces and thephysical product are brought into balance. Such knowl-edge will enable them to identify weakness and strengthpoints in their proposals. Professionals will find a varietyof local integrated systems which provide opportunitiesto develop the responsive environment. However, thecreation of responsive development requires compre-hensive regulations that ensure the appropriate implica-tion that satisfies the community needs and sustains iden-tity.
ConclusionThe analysis clarifies that traditional quarters reflect thecomplex interdisciplinary of functions where buildingsand spaces are interweaving resulting in a deep feelingof communal, environmental and social integration. Thisresearch suggests that the desirable qualities of tradi-tional quarters in relation to building configuration,facade treatment, circulation realm, positive openspaces, and privacy could have implications for the plan-ning, the urban design and the architecture of newdevelopment. This can be achieved if an in-depth analy-sis of traditional built environment is available and anopportunity to understand forces that shaped its physicalfeatures is obtainable. Maintaining continuing forcesthrough the physical products of modernism is an appro-priate approach to responsive environment. Buildingcodes and regulations can be re-tailored to play a sig-nificant role in such direction.
AcknowledgmentThis paper is part of a large research carried out at andthankfully funded by King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah,Saudi Arabia between 2010 and 2013. The researchaimed at the documentation of traditional architecture ofSaudi Arabia.
Figure 13. A contemporary quarter generated with the aid
of the proposed approach Source: The author.
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Ozdemir I.M., Tavsan C., Ozgen S., Sagsoz A., & Kars, F.B. (2008).The elements of forming traditional Turkish cities:examination of hous-es and streets in historical city of Erzurum. Building and Environment,43(5), 963-982.
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Author(s):
Maged Kamal Mohammad AttiaDepartment of Architecture, Faculty of Environmentaldesign, king Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, KSA.E-mails: [email protected]
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1 introduction
A number of studies have confirmed that weather andclimate affect people in urban outdoor environment.more than 600 million people have the experiences liv-ing in cold region, according to the Winter CitiesAssociation. during the long winter, people's outdooractivities are seriously affected by the strong winds andheavy snow, especially for people living in the sub-polarregion (Pressman, 1995). in fact, temperatures of wintercities in China are far below those in other countries atsimilar latitudes; the average temperature in January islower than -18℃ due to the cold air that comes fromSiberia every year (leng & yuan, 2008).
As gehl (1992) said, winter cities should pro-vide a favorable environment with public urban spacesfit for four seasons' outdoor activities. Some researchersfocused on studies of microclimatic conditions and peo-ple's outdoor activities of public urban spaces in wintercities. Knowles (1987), Pressman (1988) and givoni(1998) believed that designing for winter was extremelynecessary and gave some ideas about how to designpublic outdoor spaces in winter in order to turn it into ayear-round city. eliasson et al. (2007) found that air tem-perature, wind speed and clearness index significantlyinfluenced people’s assessments of the weather in a
nordic city gothenburg, as did location perceptions andlocation-related attendance. tahbaz (2014) found thatpeople’s outdoor exposure time is related to the outdoorthermal situation, as well as some psychological adap-tation factors such as expectation and exciting conditionsthrough a field study in mid-winter in Sheffield. in addi-tion, several studies advanced macro strategies to con-struct a sustainable winter city (Kesik & Chavez, 2004;Hentila, ronkko, & Soudunsaari, 2013).
However, due to the severely cold climate, tak-ing some control measures regarding microclimates toimprove the urban outdoor environment in winter hasquite limited effects. in winter cities, there are still manypeople doing outdoor activities in public urban spaces inearly spring and late fall; people can reach the bestcomfortable state by depending on clothing adjustmentunder natural conditions. Culjat (1975) advanced theconcept of "outdoor season" for winter cities. this is aperiod when people can do outdoor activities withoutheavy clothing. the specific time of the outdoor seasonis decided by the days with temperatures from 9℃ inspring to 11℃in fall. Another study advanced the con-cept of "marginal season" with a critical temperature of40℃ (4.4℃) (li, 1994); "marginal season" is defined asthe period between winter and the outdoor season.When the temperature is lower than 40℃, few users do
Leng Hong, Jiang Cun-Yan
Abstract
In order to study the importance of climate comfortable conditions of urban public open spaces in marginal season of
winter cities for people's outdoor activities, first, the paper ascertained the specific times of Harbin’s outdoor and mar-
ginal seasons based on meteorological data from 1984 to 2013. Second, this paper conducted field survey, which
includes in situ measurement and structured interview, in three typical urban public open spaces in marginal season.
The calculated results show that Harbin has an outdoor season from Apr 25th to Oct 1st, and the spring marginal sea-
son is from Apr 4th to Apr 24th, the fall marginal season is from Oct 2nd to Oct 24th. At the same time, the results of
in situ measurement show that there is great room for the improvement of climatic conditions of urban public open
spaces in the marginal season of winter cities, especially the public open spaces near to the high-rise buildings and
waterfront, and the apparent temperature in these two open spaces is about 3℃ lower than the air temperature simul-
taneously. The results of structured interview show that people would like to do some outdoor activities when it is nice
weather outside in marginal season, and the regression analysis results show that people's outdoor activities time are
severely affected by climate comfortable conditions in marginal season. They feel that fine microclimate is much more
important for a person than enough facilities and green landscape of urban public open spaces in marginal season.
The paper suggested that the specific times of outdoor and marginal seasons should be added to some urban design
guidance as a specification in urban planning practice, and this paper advanced some urban planning strategies relat-
ed to urban design to improve climatic conditions of urban public open spaces in the marginal seasons of winter cities.
Keywords: Climate Comfortable Conditions, Urban Public Open Spaces, Marginal Season, Winter Cities, Field Survey.
A Field Study on ClimAte ComFortAbleConditionS oF urbAn PubliC oPen SPACeS inmArginAl SeASon oF Winter CitieS.
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outdoor activities; when it is higher than 40℃, on asunny day with mild wind, the number of users doingoutdoor activities increases gradually. therefore, thisstudy suggested that microclimate design in winter citiesshould focus on people's outdoor activities and improv-ing the outdoor thermal comfort of public urban spacesin the marginal season rather than those in winter, whichis the key to extending the outdoor season to be as longas possible (Pihlak, 1994; Pressman, 1996).
marginal season-related research on wintercities is rare in the literature. this study took Harbin, atypical Chinese winter city, as its research subject. themain purposes of the study are (1) Formulate the specif-ic times of the outdoor and marginal seasons based onmeteorological data and previous research; (2) developa field survey on typical public urban spaces in the mar-ginal season to discuss the relation between people'soutdoor activities and climatic condition of public urbanspaces in marginal season; and (3) Advance some plan-ning implication to improve climatic conditions in themarginal season of winter cities.
2 methods2.1 Study siteHarbin is located at 45° latitude n and 128° longitudee and is known as a typical winter city in the northeast ofChina. Harbin is also the political, economic, and cul-tural center of northeastern China, with a total popula-tion of 9.94 million as of the end of 2014. the city ofHarbin encompasses approximately 53000 km2. Alocation map of Harbin is shown in Fig. 1.
Harbin belongs to the temperate continentalmonsoon climate zone, the annual average temperatureof which was 3.6℃. the average temperature of thecoldest month, January, is approximately -19.5℃, andthe lowest temperature of -37.3℃ occurred on Jan26th, 1985. the average temperature of the warmestmonth, July, is approximately 22.8℃, as shown in Fig. 2.Spring is from April to June and is always windy and dry.the temperature in spring is quite changeable, with avariation of approximately 10℃ in one heating or cool-ing cycle. Fall is from August to october; it typically fea-tures little rainfall and great temperature differencesbetween day and night.
2.2 methods for determining specific times of outdoorand marginal seasons meteorological data for Harbin from the Chinameteorological data Sharing Service System from 1985to 2014 was used to formulate the specific times of theoutdoor and marginal seasons, which offers authorita-tive meteorological data for scientific research. this studyused the average adjacent day or month value insteadof using incomplete data in the system. Following Cujat(1975), this study took 9℃ and 11℃ as the critical tem-perature of spring and fall outdoor seasons, respective-ly. it then took 4.4℃ as the critical temperature of springand fall marginal seasons (li, 1994). in the calculation,the five-day running average temperature method wasused to show the stability of outdoor temperature changeand form a more accurate conclusion; this is a commonmethod in meteorology. in continuous daily meteorolog-ical data, the average temperature values from day n today n+5, day n+1 to day n+6, etc., are selected tocompare with the critical temperature in sequence untila stable average temperature value higher or lower thanthe critical temperature occurs. thus, we get the first five-day running average temperature value; then, the firstdaily temperature that is higher or lower than the criticaltemperature among the five days is defined as the initialor final date of the special season (Zhang & Sun, 2008).
2.3 Field survey methods2.3.1 Studies areasthree typical public urban spaces with different designsand varying climatic conditions were chosen as field sur-vey sites in Harbin. these included an exposedWaterfront Park along the ma Jiagou river, a leisureSquare surrounded by multi-layer buildings, and aresidential district open Space surrounded by high-risebuildings. these spaces represent examples of three dif-ferent outdoor public spaces in a Chinese city. the fieldsurvey period design was based on the calculated spe-cific times of spring and fall marginal seasons in Harbin,and in situ measurement and structured interview wereconducted simultaneously in the three selected areas.
2.3.2 in situ measurementFive feature measurement points were chosen in eachurban space to reflect the entire climatic condition con-dition; the detailed situations are shown in tab. 1.measurements were conducted from 09:00 to 17:00
Figure 1. The location Map of Harbin.
Figure 2. Mean daily mean, maximum, and minimum air
temperature in Harbin ,China.
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every three days in the spring and fall marginal seasons.At this time of the day, both the air temperature (Ta) andwind velocity (V) are of interest. the measurements wereonly performed on days without precipitation. teSto435-2 handheld anemometers were used to measure ata height of 1.5 m. the meteorological data were sam-pled every minute, and 20-min averages were recordedat the same time in each urban space.
in addition, this study based its definition of andcomputing approaches to apparent temperature on thenational digital Forest database to analyze the climaticconditions of the three selected areas in the spring andfall marginal seasons in Harbin. Apparent temperaturecan connect urban climate change and human thermalsensation so that local climatic features of winter citiesand their influence on human life can be reflected moreaccurately (glahn & ruth, 2003). As the meteorologicaldata used above for computations of spring and fallmarginal seasons were all below 10℃, wind chill index
was used to calculate the apparent temperature where Twc--Apparent temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
Ta-- Air temperature in degrees FahrenheitV--wind speed in statute miles per hour
2.3.3 Structured interviewthis study adopted structured interviews in the threeselected areas; during the in situ measurement, peoplewere randomly approached. each interview tookapproximately 5 min (thorsson, 2007). the interviewcomprised four main questions; a total of 449 people
participated in the interview process (236 in spring and213 in fall), of whom 81 were interviewed at theresidential district open Space, 148 were interviewed atthe Waterfront Park and 220 were interviewed at theleisure Square. Approximately, 20-40 interviews wereconducted daily in the three areas. Approximately 82%of the participants were between 25 and 70 years ofage.
the first question was, "Which month do youthink is the most suitable one for being in this location?"Participants were asked to select several of twelveoptions: From (1) January, (2) February, (3) march, to(12) december. the second question was, "What is yourperception of the weather today?" Participants wereasked to respond to three 5-point scales ranging from 1to 5: (1)calm-windy, (2)cold-warm, (3)good-bad foractivity (eliasson et al, 2007). the third question was,"How long have you been in this location?" Participantswere asked to answer the exact time they spent here. thefourth question was, "What improvement of this placewould best allow you to enjoy it more?" Participants wereasked to answer the question by selecting from one offour options: (1) Plenty of sunshine, (2) low wind veloci-ty, (3) enough facilities, or (4) green landscape.
2.4 regression analysisregression analyses were performed to investigate theinfluence of three independent variables (wind velocityand air temperature) on the participants’ evaluations oftheir perception of the weather and time for outdooractivities. the statistical method may be viewed as adescriptive instrument by which the influence of the inde-pendent variable on each dependent variable evaluatedcorrectively. the meteorological data were synchronizedto the start time of each structure interview. the analysisis based on the mean calculated value of independentand dependent variables in the three selected areas,putting the value in spring and fall together. the varianceinflation factor (ViF) was calculated to validate the inter-correlation between two independent variables. theresults of the regression analyses described showed ViFSbetween 1.2 and 2.2, indicating a very low level of inter-correlation between wind velocity and air temperature.
3 results3.1 results of determining outdoor and marginal seasonspecific timestab. 2 shows the calculated results for the specific timeof the outdoor season in Harbin based on averagedmeteorological data from 1985 to 2014. the first stablefive-day running average temperature value higher than9℃ in spring is the value from Apr 23rd to Apr 27th, andthe first daily temperature higher than 9℃ among thefive days is on Apr 25th, so it is taken as the initial dateof the outdoor season. in the same way, the final date ofthe outdoor season in fall is calculated to be oct 1st.thus, Apr 25th to oct 1st is defined as the outdoor sea-son, a duration of 160 days. in winter cities, climate con-ditions are very comfortable for outdoor activities in theperiod from late spring to early fall, during which peoplecan reach the best comfortable state without clothingadjustment or active cooling or heating. in the mean-time, the utilization ratio of public urban spaces is the
Table 1. Photographs and environmental characteristics of
the three measurement locations.
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highest during the entire year.tab. 3 shows the calculated results for the spe-
cific time of the marginal season in Harbin based onaveraged meteorological data from 1985 to 2014.through calculation, Apr 4th to Apr 24th is defined asthe spring marginal season, and oct 2nd to oct 24th isdefined as the fall marginal season, a total of 44 days.the average outdoor temperature in the spring margin-al season is 6.98℃ through calculation based on themeteorological data, which is slightly lower than the7.49℃ average outdoor temperature in the fall margin-al season.
3.2 Field survey results3.2.1 in situ measurement
According to the in situ measurement methods and spe-cific time of the marginal season results, 15 days wereavailable for the field survey. Fig. 3 shows V and the cal-culated Ta and Twc values in the spring and fall mar-ginal season in the Waterfront Park during the 15-daymeasurements. V in each measurement point was main-ly between 3m/s and 5m/s. the difference between Taand Twc in each measurement point was mainlybetween 2.0℃ and 3.0℃. Twc for measurement points1, 3 and 5 was generally lower than for other points.measurement points 1 were influenced by the street val-ley wind, and a "throat effect" enhances big V, and theinstantaneous V for measurement point 1 can be7.317m/s. measurement points 3 and 5 were adjacentto waterfront. in particular, Twc for measurement point 5,located downwind from the waterfront, was as low as3.769℃, and was 3.111℃ lower than Ta in spring. the
climatic conditions of measurements 2 and 4 were rela-tively mild, as they were far from the waterfront.
Fig. 4 shows V and the calculated Ta and Twcvalues in the spring and fall marginal seasons, respec-tively, in the leisure Square during the 15-day measure-ments. V in each measurement point was mainlybetween 2m/s and 4m/s. Calm wind often happens inmeasurement point5. Twc of each measurement pointchanged uniformly; most were above 5℃.instantaneous Twc of measurement point 5 evenreached 9.65℃ at noontime in the fall. the differencebetween ta and Twc was mainly between 1.0℃ and2.0℃. beyond a few special cases, the climatic condi-tion in leisure Square was generally good.
Fig. 5 shows V and the calculated Ta and Twcvalues in the spring and fall marginal seasons, respec-tively, in the residential district open Space during the15-day measurements. V in each measurement pointwas mainly between 4m/s and 6m/s. Twc of most mea-surement points was at a low level, and the measure-
Table 2 Selection of initial and final date of the outdoor sea-
son.
Table 3. Selection of initial and final date of the marginal
season.
Figure 3. The result of in situ measurement in the Waterfront
Park (℃)
Figure 4. The result of in situ measurement in the Leisure
Square (℃).
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ment points with a difference value above 3℃ accountfor 60%. Point 2, which is shaded from sunshine with bigV, has the poorest climatic conditions, with an averageTwc value below 3.75℃ in the marginal season. Forexample, point 2 even reached the outlier V of 9.87 m/swith a Twc of 1.079℃; meanwhile, the difference valuefrom Ta was above 5℃, and people felt distinctly coldwhen they passed by. Twc of measurement points 1, 3,and 5 was also lower because of the big V. turbulent airin the high-rise residential district led the high wind veloc-ity of public urban space, and much of the resulting"throat effect" and "corner effect" are the main reasons forthe low apparent temperature. However, measurementpoint 4 had a relatively low V and high Twc, which wasalways beyond the sunshine shadow area and experi-enced a wind shading function from the clubhouse.
3.2.2 Structured interview(a) Which month do you think is the most suitable onefor being in this location? the results are shown in Fig.6. in winter cities, summer is without doubt the most suit-able season for outdoor activities, so June, July andAugust are the most popular months for outdoor activityin the three selected areas; however, some people (30%-40%) also thought April and october, which are the righttime for spring and fall marginal seasons, were suitablefor outdoor activities in sunny or windless days. Somepeople go out for activity in march and november,because these two months are the beginning of springand the end of fall, and they want to touch the nature asmuch as possible after or before winter. in addition, asmall number of people (5%) in the Waterfront Parkchoose december and January due to ice skating activ-ities on the ma Jiagou river.
(b) What is your perception of the weather today? theresults are shown in tab. 4 and tab. 5. in the Waterfront
Park, people’s feeling of “calm-windy”, “cold-warm”and “good-bad for activity” were highly related to thewind velocity, with Sig=0.000, but a relatively low rela-tion to the air temperature, and there is no relationbetween “good-bad for activity” and temperature. in theleisure Square, only wind velocity had a significant influ-ence on “calm-windy” assessment, with Sig=0.000.However, the other two feelings were influenced by airtemperature. more precisely, the current weather waswarmer and more suitable for activity at higher air tem-perature. in the residential district, air temperature hadlittle influence on the three dependents with a extremelylow r2 value of 0.000. on the contrary, people per-ceived the current weather to be calmer, warmer andbetter for activity when wind velocity decreased. it wasalso observed that wind velocity was perceived to beimportant for outdoor activity in spring and fall marginalseasons of winter cities.
Table 5. Results from regression analyses on the influence of
the air temperature on the perceived "current weather" in thethree selected areas
Figure 5. The result of in situ measurement in the Residential
District Open Space (℃).
Figure 6. Percentage frequency of participants' feelings of
suitable months for being in the places.
Table 4. Results from regression analyses on the influence of
the wind velocity on the perceived "current weather" in thethree selected areas
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(c) How long have you been in this location? the resultsare shown in Fig. 7. the results of regression analysisshowed that the climatic condition had a significant influ-ence on people’s outdoor activity time, which increasedwith increasing wind velocity in the Waterfront Park andresidential district, with r2=0.723 and r2=0.547respectively. in the leisure Square, wind velocity had lit-tle influence on people’s activity time, however, the airtemperature accounted for 82.5% of the variance inpeople’ outdoor activity time. thus the results indicatethat when wind velocity is relatively large, it affected peo-ple's activity times, when it is relatively small, it had littleeffect on people's activity times.
(d) What improvement of this place would best allow youto enjoy it more? the results are shown in Fig. 8. thefeeling of people looking forward to improve was signif-icant and positively related to the surroundings. Forexample, most people (more than 70%) in all threeselected areas wanted to have a wonderful environmentwith plenty of sunshine and low wind velocity; in theresidential district particularly, approximately 51% peo-ple choose the requirement of reducing wind velocity.Some people (40%) chose enough facilities provided forpeople to exercise in the Waterfront Park and leisureSquare. only a few people (12% or less) thought greenlandscape was much more necessary in the marginalseason.
4 discussion4.1 implications for urban planning management
Precious studies had formulated the outdoor season insome winter cities. oslo, norway, the outdoor season isfrom may 6th to Sep 16th, a total of 133 days; foredmonton, the outdoor period extends from may 4th toSep 15th, or 135 days; the same outdoor period fortoronto, Canada's largest city, extends from Apr 21st tooct 17th, or 180 days (Pihlak, 1994). Consistent withthese results, outdoor and marginal season specifictimes are determined in Harbin, China. However, in win-ter cities, the outdoor season is relatively short, and opti-mizing climatic conditions in the marginal seasons ofwinter cities is a key to extending the outdoor season.identifying the specific times of the outdoor and margin-al seasons in winter cities would increase the intensity ofurban design control and complete the urban designmanagement system through which the urban spatialenvironment could be controlled and guided effectively.taking Harbin as an example, according to the specifictime of marginal season identification guidance, themicroclimate environment design should consider moreabout the climate conditions during the days betweenApr 4th and Apr 24th, oct 2nd to oct 24th. Sunshineduration design and wind velocity simulation should beevaluated by relative factors in the marginal season, andso forth.
4.2 implications for urban planning and designPrevious studies found that urban planning and designhas a vital role in determining the popularity of an urbanspace (li, 1994) and in optimizing the microclimateenvironment of open public spaces (eliasson, 2000).According to the above analysis, the field survey resultsfor the Harbin marginal season agree well with the cal-culated results based on the meteorological data from1985 to 2014. the Twc value in each selected area hasa similar change rate in spring and fall marginal sea-sons, and the difference between Ta and Twc in the fallwas generally higher than that in the spring for all areasbecause of the higher V in the spring. As shown in Fig.6, for the 30%-40% participants who think April andoctober are also suitable for outdoor activities, the crit-ical air temperature of marginal season 4.4℃ is not acomfortable temperature to stay outside for a long peri-od (li, 1994), thus keeping a favorable climatic condi-
Figure 8. Percentage frequency of people' most like to
improve for being in the places
Figure 7. People's activity times with wind velocity and air
temperature in the three selected areas
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tion is of great significance. Fig. 7 reflects large windvelocity and lacking of sunshine are the most importantfactors extant in public urban spaces in the marginalseason; they lower the apparent temperature.
the residential district open Space was generally cool-er than the Waterfront Park and leisure Square, and theleisure Square had an optimal climatic condition. Asshown in Fig. 3, Fig. 4.and Fig. 5, the average apparenttemperature in the residential district is 1℃ higher thanthat in the Waterfront Park and 2℃ higher than that inthe leisure Square. there is a noticeable correlativitybetween wind velocity and the participants' perception ofthe weather in the residential district, especially the eval-uation of calm-windy and cold-warm, the negative windeffect are mainly coming from high-rise buildings. thus,it should be possible to plan public urban spaces by tak-ing measures such as optimizing surrounding buildinglayouts and appropriate building forms and by keepingproper building density so that wind could be betterguided and controlled in public urban spaces. this is thekey to reducing wind velocity and creating excellentmicroclimate environments in the marginal season.
in the Waterfront Park, wind velocity is also themain factor in influencing participants' perception of theweather. the low roughness of the waterfront may limitwind velocity (Fu, 1987); this, together with the usual dryclimate in the marginal season and the water climaticeffects, contribute to the increase in wind velocity and thedecrease in apparent temperature for local areas (Fu,1994). therefore, for winter cities, water use should bereasonably planned, such as reducing large areas ofartificial water bodies and paying attention to the corre-lation between prevailing wind direction and waterfrontin different seasons so that cool air can be brought intothe public urban spaces in the summer and an adverseeffect in the marginal season can be avoided.
in the leisure Square, climatic conditions aregenerally good, and it is found that within the period ofspring and fall marginal seasons in Harbin, when windvelocity in a relatively low level, air temperature is themain factor in influencing people's outdoor activities. inaddition, People will have a better feeling of thermalcomfort under abundant sunshine conditions with thesame wind velocity. For example, a Swedish study showsthat under the same wind-sheltered condition, people'sbasic dividing line of thermal comfort temperature is11℃ under abundant sunshine, but 20℃ in the shad-ow. there will be a sharp reduction in days of outdooractivities in public urban spaces without abundant sun-shine (Westerberg, 1994). bright sunshine can make youfeel as much as 10℃ warmer (Shitzer, 2007). to guar-antee enough solar access in public urban spaces, sur-rounding building height and density design should bebased on the solar altitude angle of the marginal sea-son.
4.3 Advantages and limitations of the studymicroclimate is not the only, or even the most importantcriterion affecting public life in urban open public spacesin winter cities (li, 1994). People's behavior in publicurban spaces is based on thermally comfortable condi-tions; however, it is more affected by individual expecta-
tions (Katzschner, 2006). People living in different geo-graphical zones with different cultural dimension andage groups may have different attitudes toward climatefactors (thorsson, Honjo, lindberg, eliasson, & lim,2007; Zacharias & Stathopoulos, 2001; Knez &thorsson, 2008). For people in winter cities, theseshould be taken into deep consideration in future designand policy.the relationship between urban planning and extendingthe duration of the outdoor season in winter cities needsto be quantified by studies with more depth. in fact, thereare already some quantitative studies on extending theoutdoor season in winter cities. For example, Culjat(1975) stated that through reasonable planning mea-sures, this outdoor season in winter cities can be extend-ed up to six weeks annually with microclimate modifica-tions. in toronto, although the outdoor temperature inthe marginal seasons is lower than 10℃, the number ofcomfortable days increased by 56 through planningstrategies such as microclimate environment improve-ment and wind-sheltering measures. the usage timeincreased 50% over the former basis of 18 weeks(Klinger, 1991).
Compared with employing data from the Chinameteorological data Sharing Service System, there aresome limiting factors in the in situ measurement such asuse of the equipment and individual differences betweeninterviewees. these could influence measurementresults; such potential experimental error should beavoided as much as possible in further field survey stud-ies.
5 Conclusionsbased on the meteorological data and field survey, thisstudy quantified the specific times of the outdoor andmarginal seasons in winter cities and studied people'sperception of outdoor activities in the marginal season.it drew a conclusion that Harbin had a spring marginalseason from Apr 4th to Apr 24th and a fall marginal sea-son from oct 2nd to oct 24th.
People's outdoor activities are significantly influ-enced by the climatic conditions in public urban spaces,and there is great room for the improvement of climaticconditions in public urban spaces in the marginal seasonin winter cities, it provides planners and designers withuseful strategies to improve the outdoor climatic condi-tion in the marginal season of winter cities on urbanplanning and design projects.
Acknowledgement: natural Science Foundation of China (51278140)
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Author(s):
leng Hong, School of Architecture, Harbin institute of technology, Harbin 150001, China
Jiang Cun-yan School of Architecture, Harbin institute of technology, Harbin 150001, China
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IntroductIon
In terms of the establishment of commercial districts,roads, and structures in the ottoman cities and towns,the contribution of the seljuks was significant. threemajor trading axes belong to the ottoman period. thefirst is “hajj road,” which arrives at aleppo anddamascus all the way from Üsküdar and passes througheskişehir, Konya, adana, and antakya. the second axisis the “Basra–Baghdad road,” which extends to Basraand Baghdad from Üsküdar through İznik, Bolu,merzifon, tokat, sivas, malatya, harput, diyarbakır,nusaybin, mosul, and Kirkuk. the third axis is the roadarriving at both Kars and tabriz, which extends frommerzifon, and through Ladik, niksar, Karahisar, aşkale,and erzurum. many commercial buildings have beenbuilt on these roads over many years (halaçoğlu et al.,2012; Küçükkömürcü, 2005).
In this study, the bedesten structures in the citieslocated on these three major axes were examined andcompared. the bedesten selected were:“ mahmudPasha Bedesten(ankara), hançerli sultan foundationBedesten (Kayseri), edirne Bedesten, the GalataBedesten (İstanbul), the Bursa Bedesten, the old Bazaar(İstanbul), the tokat Bedesten, the rüstem Pasha
Bedesten (erzurum), the merzifon Bedesten, the GeliboluBedesten, and the trabzon Bedesten, as showninfig.1.they were examined specifically within the con-text of their plan schemes, and assessments were con-ducted. typological assessments were conducted basedon the common and differing features of the bedestens.
1. Development of Trade Culture and Commercial
Özlem Atalan, Hasan Şahan Arel
AbstractCommercial areas and bedestens (covered bazaars) are important public areas in Turkish cities and towns. These areasand buildings are essential in that they contribute vital economic and social characteristics to Turkish cities and towns.In the Ottoman period, these commercial areas, alongside inns, baths, mosques, and stores, were engaged in tradingand manufacturing and formed a central part of life for the residents. The number of bedestens in a given city wasdependent on the size of the city or town. All social, administrative, and economic activities were organized within thesebedestens. Commercial structures, in which the bedestens are located, with different functions, such as arasta, inns,markets, covered markets, and stores, are the main components of the commercial districts. These structures were builtby the order of the Sultan for the purpose of reviving and providing direction to the economic life of the city or town.One of the key components of these commercial structures was the bedestens. In terms of Turkish culture, a bedestencan be defined as the heart of the commercial district. Although these structures were built to sell textiles, they later func-tioned as places where antiques and/or valuable goods were also sold. Bedestens were usually a unique type of struc-ture, with masonry masses between wooden stores located in the middle of the trade center of the city or town. The topof the bedesten, which was usually built as one storey and rectangular in shape, had a domed roof covered with lead.In this study, spatial analyses of these important architectural elements were conducted in terms of city planning, folkculture and commercial life. The bedestens selected for the study were those in historical cities located at major com-mercial road axes from the Ottoman period. The bedestens in these historical cities were examined, within the contextof their planning, and assessments were made. The relations that these structures have with each other in general, andtheir common and different features, were also investigated.
Keywords: Bedesten, Commercial Buildings, Trade Culture, Commercial Districts.
Bedestens Located In the heart of thecommercIaL center In anatoLIan cItIes andtheIr archItecture refLectIons.
Figure 1. Bedestens located at the important commercialaxes on the Turkish map
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Districts in the Ottoman CitiesIn the 11th and 13th centuries, priority was given to thedevelopment of commercial buildings and trade, bothinside and outside the cities, due to caravans passingthrough anatolia. many caravanserais were built onthese caravan roads in many cities in anatolia, especial-ly in Konya and Kayseri (Özdeş, 1998). the fact thatanatolia had important connecting roads that linkedeurope with the middle east and the far east supportedthe development of trade in the ottoman period. duringthis period, sections of the silk road and spice road,two of the major routes, passed through anatolia, asseen in fig 2. many new caravanserais and imarets(soup kitchens) were built during that era (Günal andŞahinalp, 2012; Kubat, 2009; Kocadagistanlı).
While commercial movements both in theseljuk and ottoman periods continued to progress intosuburban areas, they also played a role in the emer-gence of commercial districts and residential areas in thecities. In the ottoman period, the commercial and resi-dential areas were separated with precise lines that werealso influenced by the seljuk sand Islamic culture.settlements remain between the citadel and the citywalls. a city contained several sections, which werereferred to as “citadel,” “shahrestan,” and “rabad.” thecitadel was the inner castle, inhabited by rulers andpalace residents. the shahrestan, which was the first sec-tion between the citadel and the city walls, was the areawhere aristocrats lived, and where events related to artand trade occurred. the rabad, which was the secondsegment between the city walls, was allocated as the res-idential area for city folks. the Islamic cities, featuring a
mosque at the center, were divided into several areassuch as market, fortress, and residential area. Variouseducation and public buildings, religious buildings, andcommercial buildings were in the commercial area,located in the first segment. Public areas, social serviceareas, commercial buildings for craftsmen and artisans,inns and baths could also be found in this region(tankut, 2007; saoud, 2002; erzen, 1991; Kuban,1968; Günal and Şahinalp, 2012).
the relationship between religious structuresand commercial structures played an important role inthe formation of these ottoman urban centers.structures such as mosques (which were built to serve thepeople’s spiritual values and prayer needs), madrassahs(where they could receive information on religious mat-ters), and soup kitchens appear to be located close tothe most frequented markets. during the city’s establish-ment, firstly religious and cultural buildings such asmosques and madrassahs were built, followed by com-mercial buildings such as inns, bedestens, and baths.moreover, the expansion of trade activities in the citybrought commercial organizations together. alongsidethis, coming together of similar commercial areas in thecity, common commercial districts and axes were devel-oped. these were markets and shops catering to the var-ious professional groups in the commercial districts.Workshops such as tanneries, felting shops, dye houses;blacksmiths, boiler smiths; and tin shops were located inthe outer ring of the commercial district. fig.3 shows thecommercial streets of various occupational groups(can,1995; Kuban, 1968; Günal and Şahinalp, 2012).
Bedestens, arastas, inns, baths, mosques, andsoup kitchen were all located in the commercial district,but appeared in stages as per their function. especiallyin the historical cities, the mosque or grand mosque, andbedesten played a central role in commercial districts.around the central structures of the mosque or bedestenwere the inns, baths, prayer rooms, coffee houses andworkshops. retail businesses were located according tothe position of the bedesten and the value of the goodssold (Günal and Şahinalp, 2012).
In the periods to follow, commercial bedestenand inns were built with systems of foundations. as seenin fig. 4, these structures served both export and importfunctions, and became the commercial meeting point of
Figure 4. Bedesten the Magnificent (Source: www.envan-ter.gov.tr)
Figure 3. Locksmiths’street, Edirne (Özdeş, 1998)
Figure 2. Regional Land Use and Typical Seljuk City Fabric(Tankut, 2007)
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the city. commercial structures of the foundations werebuilt specifically in areas that would generate income.however, structures with purposes related only to charity,such as mosques, madrassahs, soup kitchens, and hos-pitals were also built in the name of foundations. toenable the foundation to operate continually, it wasensured that commercial structures such as bedestens,inns, baths, and shops that generated income to thesefoundations were donated (cezar and faroqhi, 2014).
2. Historic Bedesten Structuresthe etymology of the word “bedesten” is derived fromthe words “bezistan” or “bezzazistan”. the word “bez-zaz” means “one who sells bez (cloth)” in arabic. theword “bez” is defined as “cloth, weapon or sword” inKamus’ translation. Bedestens, on the other hand, aredefined as places serving the function of a coveredbazaar and stock exchange, which were built initially tosell textiles and later went on to sell antiques and othervaluable goods. In particular, the valuable goods of mer-chants, safe boxes, documents, and books of the markettradesmen and merchants, documents of the artisansand crafts’ guilds were stored in the bedesten.concurrently, these structures were also used as taxoffices and banks. In short, a bedesten can be definedas the heart of the city’s business life (Özdeş, 1998;cezar, 1985; hasol, 1995).
throughout turkish history, bedestens havebeen a feature of major ottoman cities, especially thoseon trade routes. In the Book of Travels, evliya Çelebidivided the ottoman cities into “cities with Bedestens”and “cities without Bedestens.” today, the most frequent-ed and well-known bedestens include fatih sultanmehmet (Bedesten the magnificent) in the Grand Bazaar,the new Bedesten and the Galata Bedesten in İstanbul,and the Yıldırım Beyazıt Bedesten in the center of theGrand Bazaar in Bursa (1398). moreover, bedestens inthe cities of amasya (1483), ankara (1471), Bayburt,Beyşehir, Bergama, ereğli (Konya), erzurum, filibe(Plovdiv–Bulgaria), Gallipoli (1454), Isparta (1562), stip(Yugoslavia), Kahramanmaraş, Kastamonu (1474),Konya (1539), nicosia, manisa, mardin (1480),merzifon, macedonia, sarajevo (1551), thessaloniki(1481–1512), serrez (1419), sofia (1481–1512),damascus (1752), shumen (Kolarovgrad-Bulgaria),tekirdağ (1500), tire (1480), tokat, trabzon (1516),urfa (1568), skopje (1418), Vezirköprü (1670), Yanbolu(1492, Bulgaria), Yenişehir (Larissa–Greece, 1510) andZile (1494) remain even today(İntepe, 2005; Kuban,1968).
Bedestens are a type of trade structure specificto the ottomans. they were built in a way that is associ-ated with arasta and inn structures. for example, it isseen that some of the inns in Bursa such as the emir Inn,the Koza Inn, and the fidan Inn were built in conjunctionwith the Bursa Grand Bazaar. additionally, the BursaBedesten in sarajev, the Bedesten in Kayseri (1497) andthe Çelebi mehmet Bedesten in edirne (1418) constitutea part of the city’s Grand Bazaar (İntepe, 2005; Vuralarslan, 2015).
Bedestens were the centers of both nationaland international business life from the 14th to 16th cen-turies. however, towards the end of the 19th century, the
construction of new bank and commercial structures ledto the decline in the use of many of the Bedestens.Bedestens were rarely built as personal property. thesestructures were usually built, belonging to a foundation.according to the population density of the city and itscommercial capacity, there were one, two or threebedestens in the commercial districts (Günal and Şahi-nalp, 2012; cezar, 1985; faroqhi, 1994).
3. Bedesten Architecturethe architecture of the bedestens is seen as an expres-sion of ottoman culture by the many travelers who trav-elled in anatolia: “these Bedestens are in the form oflong roads containing shops lined up side by side.merchants arrange their goods in these shops with asmuch great taste and care as in the palace galleries inParis. these artfully crafted arrangements are truly daz-zling and provoke the buying impulse of the visitors. thedomes, on which the store lights were located, protectboth sellers and buyers from the adverse effects of theweather” (Beyru, 1973).
In terms of the architecture, the walls of thebedestens were built with a stone masonry constructionsystem. these structures were distinct in that they rise upas a masonry mass between wooden shops in the mid-dle of the commercial center of the city. the primaryobjective of the structures was to protect valuable goodsin the ottoman period when wooden shops easily burntdown. the top of the bedesten structures, which wereusually built as one- storey and in rectangular plan, wascovered and their roofs were constructed in the form oflead coated domes.
the bedesten layout is formed by a combina-tion of square spaces of the same size (approximately7–8m2). the dimension of these squares was due to thestructural characteristics of stone masonry systems.Partial lighting and ventilation of the spaces is throughthe iron lid windows located in the upper part of thewalls, or sometimes in the domes.
Bedestens can be either “covered bedestens” or“open bedestens.” for example, the ankara mahmudPasha Bedesten was built with internal shops and acourtyard in the center, whilst the edirne Bedesten wasbuilt with internal and external shops and a courtyard inthe center (table 1). every bedesten type contains exten-sive shops within itself. the mahmud Pasha Bedesten hasa square plan, and the internal shop divisions cover
Figure 5. The Sandal Bedesten and open stalls, 1890.
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approximately 8–10 m²area. In the edirne bedesten, onthe other hand, the shops facing the exterior coverapproximately 12m²and the shops facing the interiorarea cover 9m². as shown in fig.5, it can also be seenthat the shops inside a bedesten are sometimes usedonly as open sales stalls.
Bedestens were designed in a way to containshops at the exterior of the structure. additional shopswere then built around the shops on the exterior, creat-ing the commercial streets. Locating shops in the imme-diate vicinity of a bedesten structure on a vertical axis tothe entrance made it possible to see these magnificentstructures from a distance. Based on the location of thestructure, there were usually four entrances, one on eachof the four sides of the structure. the main entrances ofboth bedestens and inns were large and very grand, andembellished with stone. In general, the bedesten doorswere made of iron or wood and very ornamental (edgüet al., 2012).
4. Analysis of Bedestens according to their plan schemes since the 15th century, in the plan schemes of thebedestens, no development in connection with centuriescan be noted. In the earlier period, there does not seemto be any similarities between the Bursa Bedesten andthe merzifon Bedesten in terms of their plan schemes.however, it can be said that the needs of the citydepended on its size, which had an impact on the size ofthe plan schemes for the bedesten structures. as such,the old Bedesten, the edirne Bedesten, and themahmud Pasha Bedesten can be evaluated as earlyperiod bedesten examples. these structures have similarplan schemes in terms of the size of the cities where theyare located (taghizadehvahed, 2015).
4.1. Type 1 (Simple Plan with Rectangular Plan)“the Konya ereğli Bedesten”, seen in fig.6 can bedescribed as the simplest bedesten plan. the structurewith the top vault cover, and rectangular plan scheme donot involve any shop or store sections. It can be shownas an example of the domeless bedestens. While thereare similarities between this bedesten and the stipBedesten regarding the rectangular plan type, the stipBedesten also has pillars.
4.2. Type 2 (Square Plan, Open or Closed Shops, 4Pillars)as seen in fig.7a-7b, another plan type is the bedestentype; it has the following features: a square oralmost–square plan, a dome, four pillars, internal, andexternal shops. the trabzon, Galata and merzifonBedestens appear to have only external shops. theİstanbul sandal Bedesten can be described as havingthis plan type without internal/external shops, with rec-tangular plan scheme and with a top cover with 20vaults.
4.3. Type3 (Rectangular, with Open or Closed Shops,4–12 Pillars)the plan type seen in the İstanbul sandal Bedesten, theold Bedesten, the edirne, Bursa, and mahmud PashaBedestens is shown in fig. 8a-8b; fig. 9a-9b-9c and fig.14b. In general, these structures were large structureswith rectangular plans, where open or closed shopsexisted in the structure, shops facing the exterior areaand with a courtyard in the center. In the courtyard, a topvault cover is supported by a number of pillars depend-ing on its width (between 6–8 pillars).the number ofvaults can be as many as 20. In the shop sections, there
Figure 6. The Konya Ereğli Bedesten (Özdeş, 1998)
Figure 7. Fig. 7a. The Trabzon Bedesten (İnan, 1996;Öncel, 2014) Fig. 7b. The Merzifon Bedesten (İnan, 1996;Öncel, 2014)
Figure 8. Fig. 8a. The İstanbul Sandal Bedesten (Özdeş,1998) Fig. 8b. The Old Bedesten (Özdeş, 1998)
Figure 9. Fig. 9a. The Mahmud Pasha Bedesten (Özdeş,1998) Fig. 9b. The Bursa Bedesten (Özdeş, 1998)Fig. 9c. The Edirne Bedesten (Özdeş, 1998)
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is a lower top cover with a hipped roof (Bağbancı, 2007;İnalcık, 1997).
4.4. Other types of Planssome bedestens, such as the erzurum rüstem PashaBedesten was built with a rectangular plan and a court-yard with an open top as seen in fig.10a-10b-10c. thistype of structure has a hipped roof and four domes onthe corners. Bedestens were sometimes built adjacent toan arasta, as seen with the tokat Bedesten (see fig. 12a)and the Kayseri Bedesten (see fig. 14a). therefore,bedestens can also be divided into bedestens “with aras-ta” and “without arasta” (taghizadehvahed, 2015).the construction technique of the bedestens and com-mercial buildings is seen to be a masonry technique ofonly stone or a combination of stone and brick.
security concerns were the primaryreason this construction technique was used. asbedestens operated as banks and stock markets andvaluable goods were sold, stored, and exhibited; in theseplaces, the walls of the structures were made quite thick,and the windows were located high up and built withiron grates. When the architectural characteristics of thecommercial inns and their construction techniques areexamined, it is seen that these structures were built with
either one or two-storey, using a stone and brick mason-ry technique. as it can be seen in table 1, the overallstructures of bedestens were built with stone-brickmasonry materials.
“shops” existed in all bedestens in the com-mercial districts, and stores facing both the interior andexterior areas can be seen in the ankara mahmud PashaBedesten (see fig. 11a) and the old Bedestens in edirneand İstanbul (see fig. 11b and fig. 13b). however, thereare no stores facing the exterior area in the İstanbulsandal (see fig. 13a), Konya ereğli (see fig. 6), erzurumrüstem Pasha (see fig. 12b), or tokat Bedestens (see fig.12a). of the structures that were examined, the sizes ofthe stores facing the interior area vary between 4–8 m²(see table 1). the sizes of the shops facing the exteriorarea, on the other hand, vary between 10–20 m² (seetable 1). In other words, the size of stores or shops fac-ing the interior space was kept smaller.
concLusIonthe formation of turkish historical cities occurred undercentral asian, turkish-Islamic, and ottoman urban poli-cies and concepts. the commercial districts and marketsin these cities show similarities in terms of their locationsand characteristics. especially with regards to the forma-tion of the locations of the commercial areas and mar-kets in the cities, security concerns and the idea behindpositioning them near forts and walls played an impor-tant role. however, other factors, such as the connectionof all commercial regions to administrative and residen-tial areas and their proximity to interprovincial commer-cial roads, influenced the development of these regions.In the ottoman period, these commercial districts (alongwith inns, baths, mosques, and shops engaged in tradeand manufacturing) formed the basis of urban planning. the bedestens examined in this research were predomi-nantly built between the 15th and the end of the 17thcenturies. they form an important part of the historicaldevelopment of the cities in which they are located. In
Figure 14.Fig. 14a. The Kayseri Bedesten Fig. 14b.The Bursa Bedesten
Figure 13. Fig. 13a. The Sandal Bedesten Fig. 13b. TheOld Bedesten
Figure 12. Fig. 12a. The Tokat Bedesten Fig. 12b. TheRüstem Pasha Bedesten
Figure 11. Fig. 11a. The Mahmud Pasha Bedesten Fig. 11b. The Edirne Bedesten
Figure 10. Fig. 10a. The Erzurum Rüstem Pasha Bedesten,(Özdeş, 1998; Öncel, 2014) Fig. 10b. The Tokat, Bedesten(Özdeş, 1998; Öncel, 2014) Fig. 10c. Hançerli SultanBedesten (Özdeş, 1998; Öncel, 2014).
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the plan schemes of the bedestens that were built fromthe 15th century onwards, no development in connec-tion with specific centuries was noted. among thebedestens examined, the simplest type that was built asa single space is the ereğli Bedesten, as outlined byÖzdeş (Özdeş, 1998). the ereğli Bedesten bears thecommon features of the plan schemes of both bedestensand arastas. the Gelibolu Bedesten, the İstanbul sandalBedesten, and the Galata Bedesten, on the other hand,can be evaluated as structures with domes, not dividedinto shops, possessing a single volume and support pil-lars in the center space. the Galata Bedesten emergeswith a scheme that is different, with its shops facing theexterior with a single volume inner space design. the İstanbul-old Bedesten, edirne, Bursa, and mahmud
Pasha Bedestens, on the other hand, feature a rectan-gular shape plan type, with open or closed shops fac-ing both the exterior area and a courtyard.
the İstanbul, sandal, Kayseri, Konya, tokatBedestens were planned as structures with middle pil-lars and no shop divisions. they were planned as asingle space with a closed exterior area. they are sin-gle-storey structures featuring domes in their planschemes. this plan scheme differed in the BursaBedesten, the edirne Bedesten, İstanbul old Bedesten,and the Galata Bedesten. In this differentiation, a cen-ter space that transformed into a courtyard is coveredwith a dome. there are shops on all four sides of thefacing interior and exterior areas. the rüstem PashaBedesten on the other hand, was built as a two-storeystructure with a courtyard and open top.
the commercial structures were built eitherindependently or connected to others. Bedestens canbe classified according to whether or not they are con-nected with an arasta, a marketplace, or inn. as in thetokat and Kayseri Bedestens, some were built adjacentor connected to arastas, markets, and inns. otherbedestens were built independently although they hadarastas, markets, and inns in their vicinity. for exam-ple, the ankara mahmud Pasha Bedesten, the erzurumrüstem Pasha, Bursa, and edirne Bedestens are single,whole structures within themselves. there were noarasta, markets, or inn structures built adjacent to themain structures.
references
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BaĞBancI, Ö. 2007. Investigation of change and transformationProcess in the Bursa region of Inns and a research on theconservation of the region, doctorate thesis, İstanbul: Yıldıztechnical university, Institute of science.
BeYru, r. 1973. the İzmir Province in the 19th century, İzmir:Literature Publications.the mahmut Pasha Bedesten and the edirneBedesten. available from Internet http://www.envanter.gov.tr,http://www. edirnekulturturizm. gov. tr
can, Y. 1995; KuBan, d. 1968; Günal, V.; Şahinalp, m.s. 2012the spatial analysis of the market system in the ottomanurbanization culture In terms of Location and Inter-marketstaging.
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Table 1. Bedestens and Shops (Özdeş, 1998; İnan, 1996; Öncel,2014; Armağan, 2003; Caner Yüksel, 2014; Çulcu, 2005)
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VuraL arsLan, t. 2015. developing a strategic approach for man-aging sustainable revitalization in world heritage sites: historicalbazaar and Khans district, Bursa-turkey.archnet-IJar.9 (1).289-304.
author(s):
Özlem ataLan, Interior architecture and environmental design, İzmiruniversity, Gürsel aksel Bulvarı, no: 14, 35350,Üçkuyular / İzmir / turkey
hasan Şahan areLfaculty of architecture, İzmir university, Gürsel akselBulvarı, no: 14, 35350, Üçkuyular / İzmir / turkey, cor-responding author, [email protected]
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1.Introduction:
concerns about the socio-cultural viability of buildingshave led to the need for sustainable designs, what morewhen it comes to towns and those spaces that wouldhave an impact on human beings, where attentionshould be focused on designing adequate plans thatwould not cause any damage to the surrounding build-ings and monuments. the success and growth of theconstruction industry are the bedrock of the financial sys-tem of the nation. In the modern world, the constructionindustry plays a critical role in the development of costeffective methods for the delivery of the most modernand innovative infrastructure facilities. the economy of anation hinges very much on the availability and perfor-mance of its built infrastructure, such as power stations,telecommunication networks, rails and roads, as this is amajor aspect that is taken into consideration by investorsand corporations before deciding on the location of theirprojects. the productivity of industries is also determinedby the efficiency and quality of the built environment.shriti, Phil, (2008) states that the adaptability, versatilityand productivity of the labour force depend on the prop-er organisation and location of residences and businesspremises.
the whole population of a country is normallycomprised of both rural and urban dwellers. thus,urbanization not only involves the expansion of theurban areas but also the growth in the rural population
when this occurs at a rate that is equivalent to or higherthan that of the urban areas. urbanization is not justabout the expansion, development and appearance ofcities. In every country, the expression ‘urban’ has a dif-ferent meaning. there are many aspects that distinguishurban from rural areas, namely the amount and varietyof services, the size and density of the population, andthe types of jobs available. towns can basically be dif-ferentiated from cities, and cities from megacities.However, according to clark david (1996), it is not easyto have universally accepted categorizations rangingfrom the largest group of megacities to the smallesttowns. figure 1 shown shanghai, a sustainable urban.
Somayeh.Roshanfekr, N.M. Tawil, N.A.GOH
Abstract
This research work is an introduction to sustainable construction. A few significant indicators and many related subsets,
which are crucial to green sustainable construction and also to green buildings, are mentioned in this study. An eco-
city is one that utilizes all the critical elements of the environment. Urban sustainable construction is a vital criterion in
this context. Sustainable construction paves the way for the building industry to progress towards achieving realistic stan-
dards of performance, particularly in view of economic, environmental, and social concerns. Sustainability is a popular
expression that has given rise to various activities throughout the world once people began to grasp the implications of
sustainable construction. Sustainability, which is an important factor in reducing the negative environmental effects of
construction, includes improving the control and efficiency in the use of raw materials, land and power consumption.
The lifetime of a building is based on some factors that are prognostic regarding the manufacture, remodelling, sup-
port, utilization, and administration of the building, and finally, the sources of utilization and waste formation, annihila-
tion and devastation. All of these give rise to a range of ecological issues in the life of a building. Generally, a sus-
tainable building and construction involves a reduction in the utilization of energy and also wastage from the beginning
of the construction process and throughout the lifecycle of the building. Moreover, the environment is faced with mount-
ing devastation due to the exploitation of natural resources for building construction and the replacement of agronom-
ic regions by residential areas.
Keywords: Sustainability, Sustainable Construction, Sustainable Building, Energy Efficacy.
IndIcators of sustaInable constructIon Ineco urban.
Figure 1. Sustainable Urban, Shanghai, (Alamu 2012).
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according to the un, the urban populace canbe identified in three different ways, namely in terms ofthe number of people living within a district; the numberof people living in heavily occupied residential areas;and the number of people who have direct economiclinks to a city centre. the majority of countries have con-flicting points of view with regard to the term ‘urbaniza-tion’, and the un has proposed that there be a univer-sal definition for the term (un Population division2006). the un Population division (2006) revealed thatin reality, more than 24 nations are unable to explaintheir definition of ‘urbanization’. nevertheless, whateverdata that is available is being used extensively as an indi-cator of urbanization throughout the world. In 1987, theWorld commission on environment and development(Wced) reported that sustainable development leads tothe provision of financial, ecological and social servicesto all members of a community without negativelyimpacting the effectiveness of the socio-economic sys-tem in the delivery of these services (Wced, 1987).
rodney r. White (2002) distinguished theessential disparity between a sustainable city and aneco-city. He presented an acceptable definition for aneco-city. He explained that an eco-city is one which isable to provide satisfactory standards of living to its res-idents without destroying the essential ecosystems andbiochemical processes on which they rely on for theirsurvival. furthermore, in his opinion, an eco-city is themost enduring form of community that can be construct-ed by human beings. He argued that this definition is oflittle significance when it comes to the evaluation of asustainable city, as the term ‘sustainable’ encompassesthe broader social and economic aspects, rather thanjust the environmental aspect (rodney, 2002).
rüdiger Wittig (2007) described the uniquenessof an eco-city. He defined an eco-city as one whichreduces the differences between the characteristics of acity and those of a natural ecosystem, thus minimizingthe human exploitation of the ecosystem in the city. Inaddition, he also mentioned that socioeconomic ele-ments and the mind-set of the residents have a greatimpact on the eco-city. He went on to define the impres-sions connected to the description of an eco-city.However, Wittig says that only those cities that share avision for sustainable development in the vicinity withcontributions coming from various interested parties ofthe local community can be regarded as sustainable. assuch, an eco-city comprises a combination of ecologicalneeds as well as socio-economic circumstances(rüdiger, 2007).
the complex issues that are being encounteredby cities have been traced by richard register (2002),who has also written in great detail concerning theapproach to the construction of eco-cities and theopportunities that present themselves as a consequenceof the construction and development of cities. Moreover,he stated that although not all eco-cities display exem-plary standards, they give rise to a new perception ofcities that is beneficial to the environment and the soci-ety. richard register’s design of an eco-city presents anovel approach to construction and life in cities, townsand villages founded on well-grounded principles fromthe past with an evaluation for the future. In his opinion,
the city should be constructed as an intact, composite,three-dimensional living system instead of as a level,standardised and plain system. the functions of the cityshould correspond with evolutionary trends and shouldbe sustainable. according to him, the constructionprocess should follow the steps set by the builder, begin-ning with the foundation and the pattern of land utiliza-tion while maintaining a healthy framework for the entirecity. In addition, the city-building process should see aninversion of the transportation hierarchy, a build-up ofsoils and an improvement in the biodiversity (richard,2002).
the final aim of both a sustainable city and aneco-city is to improve conditions in the urban areas andto create cities that can be inhabited. the main issue thatoften arises when it comes to the building of eco-cities isdetermining what aspect of it should take precedence.developers and architects might want to focus on thedevelopment aspect, while government officials might bemore concerned about the social aspects, and the citi-zens might want more attention to be given to the envi-ronmental aspect. although the concept of an eco-cityand a sustainable city call for a balance in all theseaspects, all the parties involved have their own views ofhow this balance can be attained. the process-orientedand practical approach to the development of a sustain-able city is different from the more imaginative approachto the building of an eco-city, which demands creativitywhen it comes to planning for the future administrationof a sustainable city (dimitri, 2001). In calling for theconstruction of eco-cities, White (2002) described this asthe most enduring form of human settlement, which isable to offer suitable living standards without annihilat-ing the environment or biochemical processes on whichhumans depend on for their survival. sustainable urbandevelopment is aimed at reducing the devastating long-term effects in relation to the interaction that takes placebetween humans and nature and all the associatedaspects of it. the notion of an eco-city provides guide-lines rather than practical instructions on what should bedone in a particular situation. the eco-city concept, likethe sustainability concept, is torn between conserving orproducing suitable living standards for everyone and the
Figure 2. Sustainable Town, Canada, (Antoine Belaieff
2005).
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oHcapacity of the ecosystem to support the current and
future generations. obstacles may arise as a result ofenvironmental regulations, social requirements, commu-nity interests, and economic demands, which may belinked to the conflicting values, aims and policies of theplanners (Jan, 2006). for this research, it was necessaryto investigate the components involved in sustainableconstruction. figure 2 illustrates green sustainable con-struction in a sustainable city in canada.
2.components of sustainable construction:the lifetime of a building is roughly 50-100 years. assuch, this duration should be taken into considerationwhen making ecological and economic evaluations forthe design of buildings. a sustainable building cannot beattained by sticking to an inflexible concept. Instead,each separate project should have its own particularconcept or partial concepts which should comprise vari-ous methods, options and procedures for that project.
there are various aspects to social sustainabil-ity, of which the health and wellbeing of humans are vitalcomponents. environmental issues either cause or exac-erbate most illnesses and lower the quality of life, andthis, in turn, influences the construction industry, as it hasan impact on both the occupants of buildings and thebuilders. the construction industry plays an essential rolein the economic development of a country but at thesame time, it has a considerable effect on the environ-ment. the construction industry consumes the most ener-gy, raw materials and water, and also contributes themost pollutants to the environment. for these reasons,organizations that are bent on achieving environmentalgoals agree that appropriate steps must be taken toensure that construction activities are more sustainable(barrett et al., 1999; Halliday Peter et al., 2012, 2008;abidin, 2010).
according to ortiz, in view of the powerful influ-ence of the construction industry, sustainable develop-ment will very likely be promoted by the sustainablemethod of construction. He also said that sustainableconstruction has developed into a guiding concept forthe creation of an innovative built environment that ful-fils the current needs of the people without restricting thecapacity of future generations to satisfy their individualrequirements. the concept of sustainability is a broadand intricate one that has expanded to become a keyissue in the construction industry. ortiz et al. (2009) stat-ed that sustainability has to do with improving the qual-ity of life to enable people to live in healthier surround-ings under better environmental, economic and socialcircumstances. the construction industry comprises theprofessional corporations and organizations that areresponsible for the development, upkeep, management,and the tearing-down or deconstruction of buildings andother structures that constitute the built environment(bakkens, 2003). according to Zulkifli et al. (2012), theconstruction industry is also involved in the provision ofbasic physical structures and facilities, buildings abovethe foundation, accommodation and other applicableamenities. a variety of activities fall under the definitionof construction activities including the construction ofbridges, the dredging of harbours, dock-works, railways,hydraulics, sewage treatment facilities, highways, air-
ports, tunnelling, and demolition works. the constructionindustry is usually described in terms of physically hugeand costly materials, influential customers, and separa-tion of design from construction, widespread specializa-tion, risk, uncertainty, original made-to-order designs,risk, and uncertainty (ashworth et al., 1997). In everyphase of the construction process, from the commence-ment of the planning and construction, through the useof the building and modifications, and right up to theirdestruction, the goal of sustainable buildings is to cutdown on the use of energy and resources. according tothe fobrP (2001), the purpose of sustainable buildingsis also to reduce damage to the environment.
this can be attained if the following rules are adhered tothroughout the construction process:• reduction in the use of energy and raw materials• use of recycled construction items and materials• extension of the lifespan of manufactured goods andbuilding structures• returning materials to the natural cycle without any riskto the environment• thorough conservation of natural regions and ensur-ing, as far as possible, that buildings are designed tosave space
In general, the economic efficiency of buildings in termsof construction and operational costs, usage, the envi-ronment, health and non-fiscal values, can be substan-tially enhanced by taking steps to implement sustainableplanning at an early stage. to reduce ecological issuescaused by buildings, it is necessary to design structuresthat avoid pollution, utilize the least energy, have appro-priate waste water discharging systems, and keep thebiodiversity intact. this can be successfully implementedif the following factors are borne in mind:
• that social and economic issues are basically signifi-cant• that buildings must be designed and constructed inrelation to the environment.
figure3 Points out Indicator of sustainable construction.High quality buildings are defined as those that havebeen constructed with due consideration to environmen-tal factors, specifically with regard to the efficient use ofenergy and water, as well as the management of waste(shriti et al., 2008). Most ecological contamination islinked to the consumption of energy and the dischargeof toxic gases into the environment. as a result, one ofthe main goals of constructing sustainable buildingsshould be to minimise the consumption of powerresources. the whole building should be designed insuch a way as to extend its lifetime, for instance, by usingconstruction materials that are durable and hardlyrequire looking after, so as to keep maintenance costs toa minimum. Instead of building new infrastructures, thereare benefits to making use of existing infrastructure.usually, locations that are close to public transportationservices are ideal, although the traffic flow in the areashould not be too heavy. the area reserved for trans-portation amenities should be restricted to a certain sizeand, where possible, should have a porous surface. the
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an. architectural design of a building largely determines the
amount of energy that will eventually be utilized by thebuilding, especially for the mechanical ventilation, andthe lighting, heating and cooling systems. However, ther-mal bridges should be avoided, and glass surfaces aregenerally discouraged as these are neither cost efficientnor energy-saving. at present, the requirements of theenergy conservation act, which has yet to be imple-mented, should be followed when designing the heatinsulation system for a building. through the use ofappropriate shading techniques, heat insulation can beachieved throughout the summer season, while night-time ventilation can be used to maintain a temperaturebalance. However, due consideration should be given tothe security of the building, fire safety, and airtight con-ditions.
the advantages and disadvantages of manualventilation should be studied. Heating surfaces shouldnot be enclosed. the energy consumption level of abuilding can be reduced if the mechanical services func-tion efficiently. the use of water-conserving technologiesfor sanitary facilities can significantly reduce water con-sumption in office buildings, while the provision of warmwater can be confined to the kitchen and households.Where possible, there should be separate systems for thecollection and treatment of contaminated water andrainwater. the use of solar panels in a sustainable houseis shown in figure 4.
the economy is also affected in other signifi-cant ways as a consequence of the design, constructionand functioning of the built environment, such as thelevel of consumption of resources (shriti et al., 2008).roughly one third of a country’s landfill waste, 50% of itswater consumption, nearly 50% of its carbon emissions,and 25% of all the raw materials employed for its eco-
nomic development are attributed to the constructionindustry. therefore, this industry plays a pivotal role in thepromotion of sustainable growth and development (shritiet al., 2008).
the lifecycle of a building comprises the extrac-tion of raw materials, the construction of the building, itsuse, the demolition of the building, and ultimately its dis-posal and/or reuse. throughout these phases in its life-cycle, resources are being utilized and the environmentis being affected. the effects on the environment result-ing from the use of resources are defined as thoseimpacts which can be measured or described that arerelated to the actual utilization of resources. the use ofmaterials in buildings has an impact on the environmentat each phase of the lifecycle of the building, beginningfrom the moment the material is extracted, then duringits processing into construction materials, the transporta-tion of the materials, the construction of the buildingitself, the use, renovation and maintenance of the build-ing, and finally, the demolition of the building and itsreuse or removal (Márton et al., 2014).
one of the benefits of recycling is that it causesless damage to the environment since it involves thereuse of scrap or waste material. by intensifying the recy-cling of certain materials, the impact on the environmentdue to their production can be reduced considerablyeven if more of such materials are being used for con-struction (Márton et al., 2014). the waste material thatis produced during the construction process can bereduced or recycled, while the efficient use of energy canbe enhanced through the use of natural ventilation andlight as well as solar energy. the use of water can bereduced or perhaps a system can be installed for the har-vesting of rainwater. the lifecycle approach is beingincreasingly employed to ensure that buildings are moresustainable (Immaculata et al., 2011). the recycling ofmaterials in a building is shown in the figure 5.
Mankind’s greatest impact on the globalecosystem is through the generation, functioning anddisposal of man-made surroundings (Kibert et al.,2000). In 1992, the un conference on environmentand development in rio de Janeiro declared that sus-tainable development should be the focus of all coun-
Figure 4. A kind of residential solar energy system
(SolarCity 2009).
Figure 3. Indicator of sustainable construction.
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tries throughout the world. the key issues with regard tosustainable development are upholding social securityand justice, developing sustainable economies, andconserving and generating a safe environment. thebuilding industry plays a very important role in the sus-tainable development of a country because through theconstruction of houses and infrastructure it is helping thecountry to develop both socially and economically.
However, at the same time, it is a major con-sumer of fossil fuels, contributes significantly to the gen-eration of waste and air and water pollutants, and isresponsible for land abandonment. on many occasions,buildings have proven to be hazardous to workers dur-ing the construction phase, and can also threaten thehealth of those who occupy them. the use and upkeepof the buildings can also have an impact on the envi-ronment in the long run (Wallbaum et al., 2003).according to Wallbaum, building materials are indis-pensable for the construction industry. the average per-son spends roughly 80% of his time either in a buildingor on the road. although building materials help toincrease the efficient use of energy in buildings andadvance the economic development of a country, theyalso have a detrimental effect on the environment.Wallbaum et al. (2003) stated that the constructionindustry is equally responsible for the consumption ofnatural resources and the production of waste.nowadays, the majority of the building materials aremade from the synthesis of petrochemical products orare derived from non-renewable resources. the earthwould benefit from even a slight decrease in the exploita-tion of natural resources. several paints and finishes canbe hazardous to the health of construction workers andthe inhabitants of buildings as these products containpoisonous organic compounds. according to Woolley(2000), any material that is capable of contaminating abuilding internally will most probably be able to conta-minate the surroundings. the past decade has seen anincrease in the demand for green buildings as a conse-quence of the drive towards attaining sustainable devel-opment through the practices of the building industry.
the quality and performance of green buildings are thesame as or maybe even better than those of normalbuildings, with the difference being that their impact onthe environment is less severe. there are basically sevencategories of green building practices namely, energysaving, water saving, land saving, material conservation,storm water runoff reduction, waste reduction and pollu-tion reduction (eco northwest, 2001). at present, atleast 10-20% of the lifetime of a building and more than80% of infrastructures are affected by the constructionmaterials used, and these figures are expected to rise asmore energy-efficient buildings are constructed. this wasalready evident in the recent Green building challenge,where construction materials made up as much as 50%of the impacts on certain buildings (Wallbaum, 2003).even though approximately one-third of the energy thatis utilized by people has to do with buildings and the useof these buildings, a substantial amount of this energyconsumption is actually unnecessary (Wallbaum, 2003).Perhaps the most serious threat to the environment on aglobal scale is the emission of greenhouse gases as aconsequence of climatic changes. according toWenblad (2003), these emissions are primarily due tothe use of fossil fuels. the built environment contributesat least 40% of the global greenhouse gas emissions,with buildings in china leading the way with their carbondioxide emissions, followed next by the u.s. (Kats,2003). construction works directly affect the quality ofthe air inside buildings, and this in turn directly affects thehealth of the occupants of these buildings. for this rea-son, contractors install HVac systems to offer protectionagainst contaminants, include building purges in theconstruction plans, and carry out the work in stages toreduce exposure to contamination from materials. forexample, the growth of mould can be prevented byensuring that certain materials are kept dry (riley et al.,2003). life-cycle approaches are being used increas-ingly to ensure the construction of sustainable buildings.every stage in the building sector is taken into consider-ation in the life-cycle approach beginning from the birthof the structure to the termination of its life of service, andfrom the extraction of the raw materials for the construc-tion of the building to its demolition or destruction.furthermore, all the players involved are also consid-ered, including the planners, property developers, build-ing owners, occupants, salvage companies and landfilloperators. buildings incur substantial environmentalcosts, and the uneP (2003) revealed that at the currentrate of expansion the natural habitat and wildlife in morethan 70% of countries throughout the world will be indanger of damage or annihilation by 2032.
conclusion:Many factors are involved in the development of sus-tainable eco-cities, including the application of sustain-able construction. Various components can go into theconstruction of green buildings and homes, such assolar panels, wind turbines, efficient water systems, non-toxic materials and recyclable products. certain essentialfeatures are necessary for a building to be described asa good and comfortable place of residence such as suit-able design, good combination of materials andcolours, appropriate ventilation, air flow, and size of the
Figure 5. Recycling Material of Construction, (National Coil
Coating Association 2012).
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rooms in the building, adequate room moisture andtemperature, adequate natural lighting, high-qualityconstruction, high air purity (absence of toxic substancesin the air), equipped with technical installations, andproper elimination of noise. all these criteria must be metfor the development of sustainable housing and eventu-ally, eco-cities.
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WoolleY, t. (2000) ‘Green building: establishing Principles’. Ethicsand the Built Environment. Warwick Fox. rutledge, london: 44-56
ZulKIflI , u., danI, s., Wan nadZrI bIn osMan .(2012) ‘adoptionlevel of sustainable construction Practices: a study on Malaysia’sconstruction stakeholders’, IbIMa Publishing Journal of SoutheastAsian Research <http://www.ibimapublishing.com /journals/ Jsar/jsar. html >Vol. 2012 (2012), article Id 270273 doI:10.5171/2012.270273
author(s):
somayeh.roshanfekr, n. M. tawil, n.a.GoHdepartment of architecture and environment, facultyengineering and built environment, national universityof Malaysia
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INTRODUCTION
Green design, eco-design, sustainable design can beused interchangeable referring to sustainable architec-ture; that can be said to capture in the phrase “Reduce,reuse, recycle” and has evolved from its 1960s origins(Bergman 2012:16). Designing sustainable buildingsare not the only solution or way to be environmentallyaware and concerned. This intention should be the ethi-cal responsibility of both the academics and the profes-sional architects. Together with population growth, trans-portation, industrial agriculture, and other factors are thecauses of ecological issues. Buildings are one of thecauses in this respect. As expressed by John, Clements-Croome and Jeronimidis (2005:321), responsible andholistic thinking is increasing as sustainability increasing-ly influences the lives of corporations, individuals andwider society. Hansen and Knudstrup (2005:894)emphasize that “issues of global warming and new leg-islative demands for the energy consumption in buildingshave resulted in a need for methods for developing sus-tainable architecture.” In that sense, this article intends topropose and develop sustainable designs of housingunits, in the region of Mediterranean, specificallyCyprus, by presenting possible plan layouts and facadesfor various locations.
The basic argument is that within the under-standing of sustainable architecture and based on pas-sive solar strategies, a list of key aspects for a sustainablehousing unit specific to the Mediterranean region can beproposed in search of a method for developing sustain-
able architecture in Cyprus. In doing so, first, sustain-ability is studied by defining sustainability, sustainablearchitecture, sustainable building in relation to themeaning of sustainable development and focusing onthe criteria of sustainable architecture/building (basedon the policies of EU commission). Secondly, the region-al aspects of the location are taken into considerationthat are climate (such as precipitation and wind), geog-raphy (such as topography), and other related aspects.Then, the prints of vernacular architecture of the regionare followed, and by observing contemporary sustain-able building examples, conceptual approaches to thesustainable designs of housing units in Cyprus are pre-sented.
In this context, the article presents the designs ofeight (8) graduate students who are architects and inte-rior designers, and are responsible to develop a con-ceptual approach of a sustainable housing unit for thegraduate studio course. The structure of the article devel-ops in the order of the design processes of these gradu-ate students as expressed above. Eventually, the articleintroduces key aspects of sustainable housing in Cyprusand presents eight conceptual design solutions. In doingso, the article aims at creating an awareness for envi-ronment and developing sustainable housing units inCyprus by proposing concrete, diverse and originaldesigns.
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: SUSTAINABILITYAccording to the United States Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA), sustainability is defined as “everything that
Afet Çeliker
Abstract
Sustainable architecture is a well-known and studied subject for severeal decades. The environmental awareness of pro-fessionals has put sustainability in the center of the profession of architecture and has resulted in introducing and imple-menting ecological designs both in the scale of buildings and cities. This article presents sustainable architecture crite-ria, reckons regional aspects, interprets vernacular architecture and, proposes sustainable housing unit models forMediterranean region, specifically Cyprus. The article intends to study existing researches regarding the subject, revealsand updates key aspects on sustainable housing by focusing on the passive solar systems through proposals. The arti-cle contains proposals of an experimental and conceptual approach of a group of graduate studio course students whoare architects and interior designers. The conceptual approaches of design proposals are sustainable through the usageof local materials, orientation, usage of passive solar systems, natural ventilation and lighting, hence these proposalsare intended to create a diversity. In that sense, this article presents possibilities of ideal plan layouts and facades forsustainable architectural housing units in Mediterranean region, Cyprus, based on the revealed key aspects on sus-tainability. The originality of the article is on the design proposals that take inspiration from the characteristics of ver-nacular architecture, but show a contemporary approach of design.
Keywords: Sustainable Architecture, Housing, Environment, Design, Cyprus.
SUSTAINABLE HOUSING: A CONCEPTUAL APPROACH
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humans need for survival and well-being depends, eitherdirectly or indirectly, on natural environment”; and “cre-ates and maintains the conditions under which humansand nature can exist in productive harmony, that permitfulfilling the social, economic and other requirements ofpresent and future generations” (EPA, 2015). Similarly asstated on Environmental and Energy ManagementNews, it is “the collection of policies and strategiesemployed by companies to minimize their environmentalimpact on future generations” (Environmental Leader,2015). As Taleb and Sharples (2011:383) state, sustain-ability comprehends, generally, a blend of environmen-tal, economic and social responsibilities. Bainbridge andHaggard (2011:2) put forward that in understanding themeaning of sustainability, inter-connection of humanactivity and environment should be recognized, sincesustainability is “local, regional, national and global andincludes considerations of past, present and future.”
New legislative demands for the energy con-sumption in buildings and issues of global warming, assuggested by Hansen and Knudstrup (2005:894), haveresulted in need for methods for developing sustainablearchitecture. However, as suggested by Jones (1998cited in Cam and Ong 2005:1738), environmental con-cerns triggered by the oil crisis in the 1970s have influ-enced the profession of architecture. The relationshipbetween human and the environments that can betraced back for centuries creates the basis of environ-mental concern in architecture, since early societies liveclose to nature out of necessity and for survival (Jones1998 cited in Cam and Ong 2005:1738). This is knownas ‘environmental architecture’, which was transformedto the concept of ‘sustainable architecture’ at the 42nd
UN Congress in 1987, officially, as the most recentdevelopment of the definition of sustainable develop-ment (Cam and Ong 2005:1738). As expressed in thepaper Planning for Sustainable Development: EvaluatingProgress in Plans written by Berke and Manta (1999:2),the 1987 report, Our Common Future, of the UnitedNations World Commission on Environment andDevelopment (WCED), puts forward the definition of theconcept as “sustainable development is developmentthat meets the needs of the present generation withoutcompromising the ability of future generations to meettheir own needs” (1987: 1). Therefore, “sustainabledevelopment is a dynamic process in which communitiesanticipate and accommodate the needs of current andfuture generations in ways that reproduce and balancelocal social, economic, and ecological systems, and linklocal actions to global concerns.” (Berke and Manta1999:3).
John, Clements-Croome and Jeronimidis(2005:320) define sustainable buildings by giving refer-ence to the OECD Project, Sustainable Buildings (2002)as “those buildings that have minimum adverse impacton the built and natural environment”; and as “buildingpractices, which strive for integral quality (including eco-nomic, social, and environmental performance) in abroad way.” Regarding these definitions OECD projecthighlighted five objectives, in other words, key aspectsfor sustainable buildings.These are:• Resource efficiency; • Energy efficiency;
• Pollution prevention; • Harmonization with environment; • Integrated and systemic approaches (John, Clements-Croome and Jeronimidis 2005:320).
In this regard, as Taleb and Sharples(2011:383) set forth ecological and energy considera-tions, as well as health-related concerns and quality oflife can be said to be the main drivers behind the pro-motion of sustainable architecture.
The most elementary feature of sustainabledesign is to use “the sun and climate resources for heat-ing and cooling”. Comfort, health, economy, securityand safety during power outages can be listed as bene-fits of sustainable design, as well as reduced impact onthe planet. Being warm in winter and cool in summerwhen the power is off, providing emergency water sup-plies from its rainwater harvesting systems, and providinghot water for showers and cleaning through passive solarwater heater can be added to the benefits of sustainabledesign. Minimal mechanical cooling, heating, and ven-tilation systems and limited artificial light during the daycan be required through a well-designed and construct-ed building. Renewable, locally sourced materials, onthe other hand, can create the possibility and opportuni-ty to be manufactured and maintained without toxicmaterials. Through these features of sustainable design,life quality can be increased (Bainbridge & Haggard2011: viii) (Fig.1).
THE PROCESS (THE CONTEXT)Sustainable architecture and design with climate consid-ering passive solar systems have been studied and con-cerned all around the world. Understanding these fieldsof study has a crucial base point to propose a concep-tual design of housing for a specific geography. Regionalaspects and vernacular architecture of the region shouldbe understood and interpreted well. Many researchershave questioned climatically responsive house designsand traditional architecture of Cyprus in the context ofsustainability (Oktay 2002, Dincyurek and Turker 2007,Ozay 2005, Dincyurek, Mallick and Numan 2003,Gunce, Erturk and Erturk 2008 and Saymanlier 2011).
Oktay (2002) interpreted design with the cli-mate criteria in housing environments by undertaking an
Figure 1. Understanding sustainability (Bainbridge &Haggard 2011:2)
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eranalysis in North Cyprus; Dincyurek and Turker (2007)re-interpreted the contextual values of Cyprus by focus-ing on traditional built environment; Ozay (2005) con-ducted a comparative study on climatically responsivehouse design at various periods of North Cyprus archi-tecture; Dincyurek, Mallick and Numan (2003) searchedcultural and environmental values in the arcadedMesaorian houses of Cyprus; Gunce, Erturk and Erturk(2008) questioned the “prototype dwellings” in te frame-work of Cyprus tarditional arcitecture; and Saymanlier(2011) concerned on climatic aspects of spaces in thecase of Cypriot vernacular architecture. In light ofresearches, it will be possible to proceed on the subjectof sustainable architecture for the island of Cyprus andpropose a conceptual approach of housing design spe-cific to this region.
Regional Aspects: Mediterranean, CyprusEach region has its unique characteristics depending onthe geography it is located. The main regional aspect isthe climatic aspects and environmental impact of thebuilding on the site (Oktay 2002:1003). Local climateplays an important role during the planning process.Orientation of the buildings, building plan shapes,obtaining good solar access to buildings and havingshadow to be kept cool from the bright sun are some ofthe basic principles. As Oktay (2002:1004) stresseseach region has its own climatic conditions and culturalpatterns that should be the basis for the solutions of eachcase. Regarding this, the most important principle isemphasized as protection from sun during summer timein the areas with a hot climate. Gunce et. al.(2008:824), on the other hand, defines important prin-ciples that determine the design of a traditional buildingas topography offered by the geography, materials andtechniques found in the surroundings, and the climate ofthe region.
Ecological considerations have very muchinfuence on the regional aspects as well. Building orien-tations that allow natural daylight and solar radiationinto each building unit should be considered in relationto the site and their relationship with other buildings onthe site. Through a correct planning, high-angle summersun is excluded to keep the buildings cool, whereas,lower- angle winter sun can enter to the buildings to cre-ate warm interiors (Oktay 2002:1004). In terms of eco-logical site planning, many aspects should be examinedto avoid negative effects such as orientation, access,wind directions, topography and vegetation.
As mentioned earlier, local climate plays a cru-cial role. When Cyprus is considered, it should be saidthat the island has two different climatic regions as hot-humid and composite (Saymanlier 2011:47).Accordingly, Lefkosa has composite climate, since it hashot-dry summers and rainy winter seasons. Girne,because of its geographic location and topographicalcharacteristics, is affected by hot-humid climate. It isworth to mention that, the mountain parts have lesshumidity level compared to the parts close to theseashore (Saymanlier 2011:47). Gazimagusa andGüzelyurt show the characteristics of the hot-humid cli-mate due to their proximity to seashore (Saymanlier2011:48).
Following the Prints of Vernacular Architecture of theRegion: Mediterranean, CyprusVernacular architecture can be defined as a traditionalbuilding form that can be varied depending on eachregion of the country. These forms that have beendescribed as vernacular have been obtained through thepractical needs of the inhabitants of a place and theconstraints of site and climate (Oktay 2002:1005).
In vernacular architecture, society’s nature,organization, family structure and aesthetics are all con-siderations of form, as well as, availability of materialsand suitability of the structure to climatic conditions(Celiker, Cavusoglu & Ongul 2014:38).
Closed, semi-closed and open spaces havebeen formed in the vernacular architecture of the region(Dincyurek & Turker 2007:3386; Gunce et. al.2008:825). The traditional formation of these spatialqualities are mainly observed in the rural areas and havebecome the identity of Cyprus traditional houses. In thisregards, traditional Cyprus house can be said to consistof limited formation of closed spaces accompanied bysemi-closed and open spaces (Dincyurek & Turker2007:3386), where open courtyard is located in themiddle.
The courtyard, where is usually located in thesouth, provides shadow in the heat of summer andbecomes an ideal place to take advantage of the sun inwinter in places like Cyprus with a Mediterranean cli-mate. Through these distinguishing characteristics, it is atypical architectural element. The porch, which is a semi-closed area, consists of an arcaded space. It is general-ly located in the southern part of the building (Gunce et.al. 2008:833), aligned to the east-west directions, andis used as a transitional space. This space acts like a reg-ulator of “privacy, climate, indoor and outdoor interac-tions” as cited in Dincyurek & Turker (2007:3386). Theclosed spaces, on the other hand, serve and facilitatemulti-functional purposes and open up to the semi-closed spaces. In this respect, this semi-closed spaceform an indirect relation between the street and theclosed rooms (Gunce et. al. 2008:825).
As emphasized by Gunce et. al. (2008:827-833), receiving sun and being open to airflows, regard-less the type of topography, is the common rule in thedesign of houses. Using natural materials for construc-tion such as sun-dried mud brick and stone sustain life intraditional lifestyles. Characteristics of traditional Cypriothouse architecture has been defined by the natural andbuilt environment. Climate has been described as hotand dry summer, warm winter, low precipitation, east-west wind and yearlong sun. For these natural and phys-ical factors, architecture has been characterized asdense and central village settlement, organic street tex-ture, narrow and shady streets, streets opening to thewind direction, open garden facing the south, porch tobe shady and windy in the summer and sunny in the win-ter, a well-placed multi-purpose room to be warm in thewinter and cool in the summer, cross ventilation for themulti-purpose room and top windows. Topography hasbeen expressed as both steep topography and flattopography.
Regardless the characteristics of topography, ithas been mentioned that house settlements have been
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oriented according to sun and wind and have not beenaltered the natural topographical features. To describematerials and technology, it has been observed thathouses have been built by masonry system with sun driedbricks, stones and yellow stones. For the roof, 3m wood-en beams have been used. Materials with high insulationcharacteristics have been applied by traditional technol-ogy.
CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES OF HOUSING UNITSFor the design proposals in this article, the first step wasto understand the main criteria of sustainability and thento create a set of criteria for the proposed housing unitin relation to a scenario. Therefore, it is aimed to formkey aspects regarding sustainable architecture throughthe perspective of various architects/interior designers.The main criteria of sustainability, generally, has beenexpressed as low environmental impact, thermal com-fort, water conservation, energy efficiency and durability,as well as, being economic in terms of maintenance.
In design proposal one, the proposed housingunit is said to be sustainable due to maximum utilizationof passive solar systems and daylighting, water supplyand storage, energy efficiency, renewable energysources, efficient mechanical system, wall and roof insu-lation, building orientation, natural ventilation and light-ing. To maintain sustainability, usage of adobe for thewalls, photovoltaic glass for the windows and wood forthe floors have been introduced as first decisions (Table1).
The orientation of the buildings have been pro-posed in such a way that each and every building maytake advantage of the passive solar systems to generateenergy for the building. Adobe has been proposed tocreate thermal comfort within the building. Natural light-ing has been aimed to reach each room by havingopenings, which provide natural ventilation as well.Glasses with thermochromics (less heat passage) andphotochromic features will be used for windows due totheir ability to filter infrared light to reduce heat gainwithin the building. Air circulation has been enhancedthrough the openings created both on the ground andfirst floors. Semi-open spaces of traditional architecture
of the region has been integrated as a design element(Fig. 2).
Design proposal two sets the main criteria ofsustainability as energy efficiency, water conservation,thermal comfort, safety and healthy, as well as minimumenvironmental impact. Based on good site analysis, thisproposal aims at sustainable units through control ofwater consumption, passive solar systems, reduction ofwaste during construction and the life-cycle of the build-ing, use of recycled materials and finishes, energy effi-ciency, well-designed insulation systems and control orelimination of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Twodifferent types of housing units, for bigger families andnewly married couples, have been proposed. Locallyavailable materials have been stated as one of the pre-liminary decisions (Table 2).
The main design aspect based on sustainabilityis stated as the orientation. The building is oriented toachieve the maximum features of natural ventilation,natural lighting and indoor air quality. The functions ofthe plan layout have been zoned in such a way that the
Table 1. Design Proposal one, in Lefkoşa..
Table 2. Design proposal two, in Lefkoşa.
Figure 2. A 3-dimensional view of the proposal one.
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activities are going to be guided by the nature, like wak-ing up with the sun. Thermal mass wall (trombe wall) hasbeen proposed for passive cooling of the interior to gen-erate a sustainable thermal comfort. Wind speedincreases as cross-sectional area decreases. Windows ofdifferent sizes have been created to trap the air inside forcooling. Vertical shading elements on east and west ele-vations and horizontal shading elements on north andsouth elevations have been added.
The circulation of warm air and cool breezescan be seen on Fig. 3 and 4. Roof garden has been pro-
posed to create thermal comfort in the interiors. Besideroof garden, green plants have been chosen based onthe orientation of the building for air ventilation, as windbreakers and shading elements (Fig. 5).
In design proposal three, sustainability isdescribed as the intersection of environmental, econom-ic, and social aspects. The keywords reduce, reuse, recy-cle and regenerate are expressed as the ways to achievesustainability. In this regards, the design of a housing unitis said to be energy- efficient. By preserving or restoringlocal ecosystem and biodiversity, the site is going to beprotected. Additionally, the dependence on automobilesis going to be decreased through the design of the com-munity. The selected site is in Lefkoşa. In this proposal,two different types of housing units have been introduced(Table 3).
Vertical shading devices have been provided on the eastand west sides of building to protect the interior.Balconies that can be seen as overhangs serve as hori-zontal shading devices on the south and north sides ofthe building. Using glass bricks on the elevation for thestaircase area reduce the use of artificial lighting on theeast side of the building. The use of photovoltaic tech-nology for the glass surfaces enhance the passive solarenergy (Fig. 6 & Fig. 7).
Concrete wall as thermal mass wall (trombe
Figure 5. A perspective of proposal two showing the roofgarden.
Figure 6. Perspective showing north elevation.
Figure 4. Section of proposal two.
Figure 3. Section of proposal two.Table 3. Design proposal three, in Lefkoşa.
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wall) improves the passive solar system. Nevertheless,polystyrene foams have been used for the internal walls,since they are good thermal insulators. The use of roofgarden serves as an insulator as well.
In design proposal four, energy efficiency, waterconservation, social and economic aspects are pointedout as the main criteria of sustainability. This design aimsat minimizing the impact on the environment by inte-grating features such as energy and water. The design issaid to maximize the use of natural energy and minimizeneed for artificial energy through passive solar designfeatures like orientation, cross ventilation and shading.Energy efficient hot water system using photovoltaic pan-els is stated to reduce cost of heating. Smart light fittingsthat turn off when they are not used are suggested todecrease the cost of energy. In terms of water conserva-tion, grey water is going to be collected, recycled andthen used for watering the landscape and flushing theWC system. The design is planned to be economicallyefficient, because it features smart materials that requirelow maintenance which reduce the cost of running thebuilding units. In this proposal, the site is located at a
point where three cities meet: Girne, Lefke and Lefkoşa,on a main road, in Gonyeli, Lefkoşa (Table 4).
Active spaces in the building such as livingroom, dining room, kitchen and outdoor patios havebeen positioned to achieve maximum natural benefit.Through a planned landscape, it is aimed to directwinds. Hot summer breezes have been forced not toenter the building, for example Fig. 8 & 9).
In design proposal five, thermal comfort, waterconservation, energy efficiency, economy and low envi-ronmental impact are listed down as main criteria forsustainability. The proposed housing unit is going to besustainable due to wall and roof insulation, efficient
Table 4. Design proposal four, in Lefkoşa.
Table 5. Design proposal five, in Lefkoşa.
Figure 9. Perspective showing north elevation.
Figure 7. Perspective showing east elevation.Figure 8. Perspective showing south elevation.
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mechanical system, water supply and storage, maximumuse of passive solar systems, vegetation and garden, andrenewable energy resources (Table 5).
The form of the building has utilized and usedfor natural environmental conditions to achieve maxi-mum daylight. Air circulation within the building hascontributed to the design proposal. Through the processof building planning and selection of the building mate-rials, indoor air quality, natural daylighting and thermalcomfort have been the main criteria (Fig. 10).
Design proposal six points out the same criteriafor sustainability as proposal five. Here, it is pointed outthat the building will make use of substantial amount oflocal materials. Since its habitat is eco-friendly, the build-ing will incorporate the use of green plants at some spe-cific areas. The use of resources that are available in suf-ficient quantity in the construction phase of the design isstated. The building will also be able to adapt and resistthe effects of local climate, thus saves about 60% ofenergy consumption.
The channeling of the air movement within thebuilding has been planned in such a way that hot airrises and cold air descends. Shading devices have beenused as well. Introduction of fountain has been made atthe access points of air which tends to control the indoorair quality. Solar panels have been placed on the roof-top to generate electricity (Fig. 11).
Design proposal seven and eight indicate themain criteria of sustainability as thermal comfort, waterconservation, energy efficiency, economic and low envi-
ronmental impact like almost all of the other proposals.Criteria of sustainability for the proposed housing unit forproposal seven include use of roof garden as thermalinsulation, use of solar panels to increase energy effi-ciency, use of green plants to improve the air quality,thermal mass as passive solar feature, and building ori-entation for natural lighting and ventilation (Table 7).
The building has been oriented towards thesouth in such a way that it permits the flow of the pre-vailing wind and get the benefits of the sun. Along thesouth side of the building, horizontal shading deviceshave been used; along the east and west, vertical shad-ing devices have been designed. To enhance passivesolar systems, a thermal mass wall (trombe wall) hasbeen planned, as well as a sun space. The roof garden,on the other hand, serves as a natural thermal insulatorfor the building that reduces the cost of generating ener-gy and greenhouse gas emission.
Finally, design proposal eight indicates sustain-ability criteria as use of local materials, wind patternsand vegetation, thermal system, and use of mechanicalsystems for water supplies and drainage (Table 8).
Air circulation has been planned in order toincrease the indoor air quality within the building. Forthat reason, a pool has been located at the yard of thebuilding. Solar panels, on the other hand, have beenTable 6. Design proposal six, in Lefkoşa
Table 7. Design proposal seven, in Girne
Figure 10. Perspective showing the south-east elevation.
Figure 11. A 3-dimensional view of proposal six.
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placed on the roof-tops to decrease the cost of energy(Fig. 12 & Fig. 13).
CONCLUSION
Sustainable architecture has a number of criteria. Theyare summarized, in this article, as resource efficiency,energy efficiency, pollution prevention, harmonizationwith environment, and integrated and systemicapproaches. These criteria are based on conservation ofresources and reduction of consumption. According toChwieduk (2003), energy consumption is very high,especially, in developed countries. Towards sustainable-energy buildings, as she expresses, first of all energy con-servation measures have to be developed and appliedfor the buildings. To be able to achieve such buildings,Chwieduk (2003:211) suggests that “a few develop-mental steps are needed, regarding energy, water, land
and material conservation” as well as “the qualities ofindoor and outdoor environments.”
Chwieduk (2003) classifies buildings as energy-efficient buildings, environmentally-friendly buildings andsustainable buildings (Table 9); and to achieve sustain-able-energy buildings, the elements of these three typesof buildings have to be provided step by step. These ele-ments can be set as characteristics of sustainable-ener-gy buildings.
The basic argument of this article, as men-tioned earlier, is that within the understanding of sustain-able architecture and based on passive solar strategies,a list of key aspects for a sustainable housing unit spe-cific to the region can be proposed. On the basis ofthese key aspects, energy efficient, environmentally-friendly housing units can be erected in the region,Cyprus. The region has that potential in terms of climateand characteristics of its vernacular architecture. Thecharacteristics of proposed model have been formed(Table 10) to show these key concepts for sustainablebuildings as minimizing the impact on the environmentand the need for artificial energy, and maximizing theuse of natural energy with emphasis on reducing,reusing, recycling and regenerating.
Maximum utilization of passive solar systems isone of the essential characteristics for the proposedmodel and can be achieved by various aspects.Adaptation and resistance of the effects of local climate,consideration of wind patterns are directly in relation tobuilding orientation that supports natural ventilation andlighting. Designing a thermal mass wall (trombe wall)and well-designed insulation systems as wall and roofinsulation, as well as use of vegetation, enhance the pas-sive solar systems, in other words, minimize the use ofartifical energy.
Control of water consumption is a considera-tion of water supply and storage. This can be maintainedthrough the collection and recycle of grey water. Thisaspect puts emphasis on reducing, reusing and recy-cling, which means to minimize the impact on the envi-ronment.
The other significant aspect is energy efficiencyand renewable energy sources. The use of recycledmaterials and finishes, as well as a substantial amount oflocal materials; the set of smart materials that requirelow maintenance which reduce the cost of running the
Table 9. Characteristics of sustainable-energy buildings(Chwieduk: 213-216).Table 8. Design proposal eight, in Lapta
Figure 13. A view showing the pool.
Figure 12. A view showing the solar panels
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building units such as polystyrene foams may be used forthe internal walls, and photovoltaic technology for theglass surfaces; the use of solar panels to increase ener-gy efficiency; reduction of waste during construction andthe life-cycle of the building; and control or eliminationof volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Additionally, effi-cient mechanical system has to be considered too.
The eight proposals to create sustainable hous-ing units show that consideration of the above-men-tioned key aspects will lead to develop sustainable archi-tecture in Cyprus by bringing an awareness for environ-ment, which is very important not only for the region butfor the whole world as well. It is hoped that, theseaspects will be in the agenda of government policies andother related governmental and non-governmentalorganizations too.
AcknowledgementSpecial thanks are due to Muhammad SaniMuhammad, Ibrahim Baba, Babangida Ahmed Nuhu,Abdulsalam Shema Ibrahim, Ofure Victor Odion, GalvaTahseen Taha, Ibrahim Abiodun Eweje and BabatundeSheriff Balogun.
Declaration and Conflicting InterestsThe author declared no potential conflicts of interest withrespect to the research, authorship and/or publication ofthis article.
FundingThe author received no financial support for theresearch, authorship and/or publication of this article.
REFERENCES
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CAM, C. N. & ONG, B. L. 2005, Building Environmental Assessment Toolsand the Multi-Dimensional Pathways towards Sustainable Architecture, The2005 World Sustainable Building Conference, Tokyo, 1738-1745.
CELIKER, A., TEVFIKLER, B. & ONGUL, Z. 2014, Comparative Study ofCourtyard Housing Using Feng Shui, Open House International 39:1, 36-47.
CHWIEDUK, D. 2003, Towards Sustainable-energy Buildings, AppliedEnergy 76, 211-217.
DINCYUREK, O., MALLICK, F. & NUMAN, I. 2003, Cultural andEnvironmental Values in the Arcaded Mesaorian Houses of Cyprus, Buildingand Evironments 38, 1463-1473.
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GUNCE, K., ERTURK, Z. & ERTURK, S. 2008, Questioning the “PrototypeDwelling” in the Framework of Cyprus Traditional Architecture, Building andEnvironment 43, 23-833.
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JONES D L. 1998, Architecture and the Environment: BioclimaticBuilding Design, Laurence King, London, cited in: C. N. Cam & B. L.Ong (Eds). 2005, Building Environmental Assessment Tools and the Multi-Dimensional Pathways towards Sustainable Architecture, The 2005 WorldSustainable Building Conference, 27-29 September, Tokyo, pp 1738-1745.
OECD 2002, Design of Sustainable Building Policies, Paris.http://www.uea.ac.uk/env/.
OKTAY, D. 2002, Design with the Climate in Housing Environments: AnAnalysis in Northern Cyprus, Building and Environment 37, 1003-1012.
OZAY, N. 2005, A Comparative Study of Climatically Responsive HouseDesign at Various Periods of Northern Cyprus Architecture, Building andEnvironment 40, 841-852.
SAYMANLIER, A. M. 2011, Climatic Aspects of Spaces: The Case ofCypriot Vernacular Architecture, Lambert Academic Publishing, Germay.
TALEB, H. M. & SHARPLES, S. 2011, Developing Sustainable ResidentialBuildings in Saudi Arabia: A Case Study, Applied Energy 88, 383-391.
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Author(s):
Afet ÇelikerEastern Mediterranean University, Faculty ofArchitecture, Famagusta, Northern Cyprus. Via Mersin10 TurkeyE-mail: [email protected]
Table 10 Sustainable architecture criteria and character-istics of proposed model.
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1.introduction
nowadays, the alternative types of small house conceptsare gaining more attention among researchers togetherwith being much appreciated by the users, when com-pared to the conventional family type ones. this is sig-nificant in the development of the new housing projectswith the increasing number of small housing units thatexists within them. evidently, these alternative types ofsmall family houses consist of open and diverse spatialstructures which cannot be compared with the clichéplan typologies of the normal prototype of family housesand are becoming more popular amongst the variety ofsmall house spatial organization. Consequently, themain interest area of this study is to highlight the diversi-ty of today’s small house spatiality through an analysis ofthe thirty case studies examples of the 1+1 type smallhouses with sizes varying between 20 to 100 sqm2.obviously if the space organization of the small house isformed by disassociated / segregated minimum sizes
spaces, its’ spatial flexibility and functional diversity arerelevantly limited. However, when the space organizationis more permeable / integrated, it extensively encour-ages flexibility, diversity by inhabiting and overlappingthe different living functions in the same area; conse-quently, total functional area of the house expands andbecomes bigger than its actual size. the value of thegrowth of the floor area is the basic measurable featuresto show the significant differences between segregatedand integrated space organizations will support the com-parison of the space syntax values of different sizes of theselected small houses.
yet the research mainly concentrated on thecontemporary design of small houses that are producedin high density, mix-use projects at major cities; İstanbul,ankara, İzmir, with high production percentages betweenhousing typologies; 1+0, 1+1, 1+1.5 types most ofwhich show open plan / integrated spatial organizationswith open kitchens, but significantly exhibit diverse spe-cialities when the total dwelling size change. in order to
Ayça Arslan, Türkan Ulusu Uraz
Abstract
It has recently come to light that there is an increasing demand for a new type of small house design, which vary in
area from 20 square metres to 100 square metres and even more. Being remarkably different from traditional types of
spatial organizations, the new house types present an open plan concept with a highly flexible and adaptable spatial
arrangement that exhibit diverse functional spaces within one open, integrated space.
In light of this, the main aim of this study is to reveal the new dynamics of spatial organization found in today’s
small house types and identify the significant changes in the contemporary design approaches to small house layouts
which have evolved from a need for minimized space usage and a requirement for diverse living spatiality.
Subsequently, thirty houses have been chosen to be analysed for the purpose of this study to reveal the differences
between integrated and segregated spatial organizations in regard to flexibility, adaptability, transformability and per-
meability within the spaces. In addition to this, the new spatial relations will be overviewed considering spatial depth,
interpenetration and density to define more implicit organizations which are able to expand constantly and accommo-
date different functional spaces in one open space with the help of spatial identifiers.
The main focus of this research study concentrates on the above mentioned dynamic forms of spatiality that change
from being weak to strong, implicit to explicit and indistinct to clearly defined spaces. These forms are measured,
analysed and basically compare by means of a space syntax application on the values of the space and convex maps
of the thirty selected houses.
In summary, the analysis and measurement of the spatial characteristics of contemporary small houses in this
sphere include both theoretical and empirical components. Firstly, the study discusses the basic definitions of spatial
relations and organizations. Secondly, the space syntax method was used to test and compare new spatial design
approaches by means of the Mean Depth, Mean Integration, Basic Difference Factor and Space Link Ratio values main-
ly to clarify how the spatiality changes according to the size although the plan type stays the same as 1+1.
Keywords: Spatiality, Small houses, New spatial organizations, Flexibility, Space Syntax.
‘Small HouSe Spatiality: a Comparative SpaCeSyntax appliCation’
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zdiscover these diversities 1+1 type thirty houses from 20to 100 square meters organized into three groups, (20-40 / 40-70 / 70-100 sqm2) with equal number of hous-es for spatial and syntactic analyses. Subsequently, it’saimed to analyse the same typology with different sizesto understand the differences between minimized spaceusages to maximum living spatiality in the contemporaryapproach of small house design.
the investigation of these new types of integrat-ed spatial organizations will be based on a comparativespace syntax analysis of three groups of ten 1+1 typehouses; 20-40 / 40-70 / 70-100 sqm2, by means of;mean integration (ra), mean depth (mD), basic differ-ence factor (BDF) and space link ratio (Slr) values. theresults show that, spatiality of the largest size of 1+1 typehouses (70-100 sqm2) consists of both integrated andsegregated spaces and the integration of two differentcompartments. these make up the public and privatespaces that are separated from each other but are at thesame time highly integrated. as a consequence, thelargest size of 1+1 small house types show both axial aswell as cluster organizations that consists of the integra-tion of two segregated compartments such as public andprivate.
primarily, this study focuses on space and spa-tiality issues in more general terms. it then investigatesthe small house space characteristics from the samestandpoint employing the space syntax methodology asa comparative tool to test the different spatial qualities ofthe small house types with different sizes.
2. Definition of SpatialitySpatiality is defined in the oxford dictionary very simplyas ‘‘relating to space’’ and in both the audio-english andfree dictionary it is defined as; ‘‘ any property relating to,or occupying space’’. although it has very close relationwith ‘space’, spatiality, is a different concept from space,however, space is a requirement for spatiality. From thepoint of view of lefebvre (1974), definition of spatialitysupports a post-phenomenological approach of place,perceptual space, in other words, post-phenomenologi-cal point of view on place relates to spatiality. it is thecombination of space with the place, the combination ofphysical one with perceptual one. evidently spatialityneeds more perceptual qualities than a simple space.in the architectural literature, one of the latest scholarlysources by meiss (2013) explains spatiality merely inrelation to the definition and perceptual qualities ofspace. in order to clarify the concept of spatiality, theimplicit versus explicit character of spaces are an impor-tant consideration factor for the main research topicbeing concerned with the spatial organizations of inte-grated spaces. For this reason, the structure of spacespresents itself for deliberation in the analysis of integrat-ed spaces that emulate clusters of spaces with weak spa-tial structures. Walls, floors and ceilings are space-form-ing elements in both weak and strong structures. thesethree elements are the main components of space defi-nition and they exhibit two dimensions; the horizontaland the vertical; walls being vertical elements and floorsand ceilings the horizontal elements that create space.(see figure 1 below)
‘‘Genesis of a space defined by indicators which firstleave it only implicit but gradually make it more andmore explicit. this shows the potential of more or less vir-tual planes that the observer re-establishes between con-crete markers. the colonnade explicitly defines spacealthough the amount of void may be greater than that ofsolid. By the alignment of the columns we perceive limitthat separates while acting as a filter’’ (meiss, 2013:131). the early modern discourse introduced De Stijl asan abstraction in painting and spatiality in architecture.De Stijl architects also represented the solid and filigreeconstruction principles in the 1920s, by using thin pan-els in creative space producing processes that eliminatewalls making enclosed rooms become more visible withthe increasing degree of spatiality (Deplazes, 1997).as a result, spatiality occurs by weakening the spatialboundaries to permit more physical and visual relationsbetween the spaces which use to be previously adjacentto each other. Hence, this suggests various types of spa-tial relations.
2.1 Spatial relations Spatial relations can be categorised using three basicdescriptors, which not only imply the growth of the floorarea, but also the consequences of added extensionsand the overlapping of spaces. these descriptors intro-duce the quality of spatiality as; Spatial Depth, SpatialInterpenetration and Spatial Density.
Spatial DepthSpatial depth consists of layers that overlap each otherin one open space. there can be a total of four, five orsix secondary or sub spaces in the same main space yetit appears as only one open space due to the overlap-ping methods used and the associated daily functionsthat occur in that space.
meiss (2013), defines spatial depth through leCorbusier’s painting (see figure 2) as such; ‘‘the mostcommon and effective indicators of depth perceptionare; on the one hand, the effect of perspective with,notably, texture gradient, on the other, phenomenonwhich tells us that an object partially hiding another mustbe in front of it’’ (meiss, 2013:134). With spatial depth,small house spaces can expand according to the per-ceiver’s position by extending into other spaces andincreasing the flexibility of the space.
Spatial InterpenetrationSpatial elements and openings characterize different
Figure 1. From Implicit to Explicit Space Configurations
(Source: Meiss, 2013)
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types of spatial relations and organizations. they deter-mine the degree of weakness or strength in spatial defi-nition and accordingly, space relations determine how aspace links to other spaces. there are two basic types ofspaces that link to another space: juxtaposition andinterpenetration. as the latter indicates more implicit divi-sions “plays an indicator role suggesting a spatial subdi-vision that is perceptible but not dominant’’ (meiss,2013: 139). in other words, weak structures between dif-ferent functional spaces increase the integration betweenthem and create serial vision.
Juxtaposition consists of well-defined closedspace sequences such as room, bedroom, cell, hall andcorridor, which are all separated from other spaces withhigh levels of privacy. in turn, spatial interpenetration cre-ates continuity from one space to another at the momentan important element of definition - wall, ceiling, floor-appears to belong to two or more spaces. thereby, inter-penetration creates a high level of integration betweendifferent functional spaces by utilising the dynamic prin-ciple of continuity through visibility. (see figure 3 a-b)
much of the literature on spatiality in architec-ture is closely associated with the implicit, infinite, indef-inite, permeable, visible and flexible character of spaces,which has not changed from the past to the present.
However, modernist architects consider this implicit andhighly flexible character of space as the core of spatiali-ty; in addition, the Dutch De Stijl movement was signifi-cantly concerned with independent planes which definespaces for diverse events in infinite spaces. (see figure 4)
Spatial Densityobviously spaces do not only have depth, but they alsoaccommodate more or less density which is generallyuseful when shallow spaces are the case. the density ofa spatial element determines the sub-spaces within onelarge open space. However ‘‘density is different fromdepth where serial visions and the overlapping of differ-ent functions appear in one space. it may well beenough to suggest subdivisions implicitly through thedecorative pattern of floors, walls and ceilings so that asingle unitary space appears relatively full or on the con-trary empty’’ (meiss, 2013:136). according to Deplazes(1997), ‘‘the way in which the walls relate to each otherenables the creation of clearly defined compartments butalso fluid, interconnected spaces. Depending on theoccupant’s position, he or she can seem to be in two oreven three rooms at the same time’’ (Deplazes, 1997:
Figure 2. Spatial Decomposition of a Painting by Le
Corbusier (Source: Meiss, 2013).
Figure 4. The Setting for the Plate: Theo Van Doesburg,
‘Maison Particuliere’ (in conjunction with C van Eesteren‘counter construction’ (Source: Analyse del’Architecture,1923).
Figure 3. a) Juxtaposition and Interpenetration, b) Spatial
Juxtaposition and Interpenetration (Source: Meiss, 2013).
Figure 5. Fluid Space Continuum, the Fusion of Interior and
Exterior, Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe: Caine HouseProject,1950 (Source: Deplazes, 1997).
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245). (see figure 5) it is suggested that these are the basic spatial relationsthat provide spatial fluidity and create ‘open plan or planlibre’ for the many diverse and flexible usage broadlyapplied in a small house design.
2.2 Spatial organizationSullivan (1969) defines types of growth patterns as;‘‘caused by an increase in scale with several growthtypes such as; axial, cross axial and radial growth. termaxial implies one dominant growth and movement pat-tern. on the other hand, linear growth is a type of axialgrowth too’’ (Sullivan,1969: 9). Supplemental to this, asit has been explained by Dickinson (1986), there areusually secondary paths of growth which could be per-pendicular to the dominant one which creates cross axialspatial organization. Sullivan goes on to define radialgrowth as ‘‘…growth patterns [that] depend on theestablishment of a strong central core. Secondary ele-ments connect directly with the core at one end, provid-ing close contact with the centre and the other elements’’(Sullivan, 1969: 9). (see figure 6 1-2)
Cluster organizations generally exhibit cellularand repetitive spaces that have similar functions andaccommodate a common visual feature such as orien-tation or shape (Ching,1996). (see figure 7)
Figure 7. Cluster organizations with repetitiveSpaces and Common visual Features. (Source: Ching,1996)
the thirty selected cases of spatial organiza-tions that have been determined on plans in this researchstudy, most of the first group (20-40 sqm2 examples)exhibit cluster organizations; and the axial organizationwas more profound in the larger groups. Generally, thefirst and second groups exhibit both cluster and axialspace organizations whereas the third group exhibitsmore axial and cross-axial organization. (as shown infigure 8)
Samples of 20-40m2 groupSamples of 40-70m2 groupSamples of 70-100m2 group
(abbreviations: e: entrance, K: kitchen, l: living room,D: dining room, Dr: dressing room, B: bed room, Ba:bath room, t: terrace, la: laundry, S: storage, wc.)
3. Spatiality of Small Housestwo dual concepts inform the spatiality of small houses,namely, integration and segregation. Similarly, there aretwo basic ways of achieving these spatialities, which arevery widely applied in contemporary small house design.
the first is the integration of the spaces through spatialflexibility, convexity and expandability; the second is thesegregation of spaces through spatial zones such aspublic-private compartments and service cells.
3.1 integration through Spatial Flexibility, Convexityand expandabilityas attfield (2002) indicates the ‘Less is More’ slogan ofmies van der rohe, reflects directly the open plan con-cept of modernist designers. the open plan accommo-dates flexibility to fit ever-changing user demands onspace and gives priority to function as every inch in thehouse is important. By killing-off the traditional parlour,this quintessential modern spatial ethos eliminated wasteof space in domestic interiors as evidenced in the all-in-
Figure 7. Cluster Organizations with Repetitive Spaces and
Common Visual Features. (Source: Ching, 1996).
Figure 8. Axial / Cross-axial / Cluster Organizations of the
Small House Plans with Different Sizes.
Figure 6. Schemes Of Growth Patterns; 1. axial/cross axial,
2. radial/central (Source: Sullivan,1969).
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one living room with the integrated small open kitchen.
Flexibilitythe ability of buildings to respond to changing configu-rations is succinctly captured by Kronenburg (2007)when he describes flexible architecture as ‘‘…architec-ture [that] adapts, rather than stagnates; transforms,rather than restricts; is motive, rather than static; interactswith its users, rather than inhibits’’ (Kronenburg,2007:10) inhabits and welcomes the diverse functions,by melting the massive divisions between them with thesupport of built-in furniture and movable partitions. inother words, any successful spatial density would be gen-erally achieved through flexible space organization.
the most exemplary building in the history ofmodern architecture that exhibits this quality of flexibilityin small house design is Gerrit rietveld’s Schröder Housein utrecht. its’ spatiality shows the remarkable characterof convexity and expandability of ‘the living space’. theground level of the house was planned conventionally;the upper level was designed as one-room living thatresponds to practical necessities with partitionablespaces. (see figure 9)
By being highly flexible, the Schröder houseseems to fully achieve the stated ambitions of the mod-ern movement’s residential design with the free plan asthe liberator of living space, achieved by movable parti-tions in addition to fixed walls into different configura-tions.
Convexityaccording to rosenburg (1998), the inclusion of built-infurniture and partitioning both tend to increase spatialsegregation. as figure 10 shows the opening of the par-titions on the first floor increases the integration of spacesbut the addition of furniture increases the convexity anddefines the sub-spaces and the segregation amongstthem appears with or even without the partitions. theopen plan with the fixed furniture gains higher convexityand increases the hierarchical order of the spatialitymore strongly than the partitioned unfurnished version.the addition of furniture decreases the potential flexibil-ity of this new way of living. this suggests that furniture ismore than just a decorative and useful household arte-fact, it also creates a spatial control within the interior.
Figure 10. Space Syntax analyses of rietveld Schröder
Housein this study, convex map with fixed furniture has beenemployed to define and analyse the zones and compart-ments, which define the segregation in the spatial orga-nization in the small houses; this is further employed forcomparative space syntax analyses.
Expandabilityattfield (2002), explains the modernist open plan con-cept as the ‘‘…result of presenting the domestic interioras a material manifestation of cultural symptoms, there-by, in its design maybe we should be thinking of it asundesigned or a design waiting to happen, a muchmore flexible space to reflect mobility and identity’’(attfield, 2002: 260).
in the contemporary small house, all the differ-ent functional and/or activity spaces exist within oneopen plan without any strict dichotomy between, forinstance, the public and private areas; the kitchen, din-ing room, bedroom, living room, study niche, tv unit, alloccur within one volume of space with the help of con-vexity of sub-spaces. By overlapping the extendedspaces, house sizes get bigger from time to time andexpand more than their actual physical square meters.
Figure 9. The Rietveld Schröder House, Utrecht, the
Nederlands (1924-5) (Source: Flexible Architecture thatRespond to Change, Laurence King Publishing, 2007: 27)
Figure 10. Space Syntax Analyses of Rietveld Schröder
House.
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in figure 11, the growth of home space (insquare meters) from 32.9 sqm2 to 48.5 sqm2 occurs bysequential extensions: the first stage is kitchen extension(K+e) where the house size grows to 39.8 sqm2, thesecond stage is living room extension (l+K+e), thehouse size grows to 48.5 sqm2 with a 47.4 growth per-centage in total. in the small house in figure 12, thegrowth of the home’s squared space from 44.5 sqm2 to55 sqm2 occur by living room integration with 23.5growth percentage.
in smaller house sizes expandability appearsprominently, as indicated by the samples in the 32.9sqm2 small houses there is 47.5% expandability but inthe 44.5 sqm2 small house it is 23.5%.
3.2 Segregation through Spatial Zones: public / privateCompartments and Cellsin the literature, segregation through spatial zones cantake different taxonomic forms beyond the basic public-private dichotomy. For instance, Friedman (2012) classi-fies zones within the consideration of time of use andnatural light usage as Day and night Zones and a thirdas Service Zones. as their names suggest, day zones arespaces that are used during the day; spaces such as,kitchens, living rooms, home-offices etc. these arespaces that also benefit from direct sunlight. Conversely,night zones are generally private spaces such as bed-rooms. in addition, bathrooms and storage spaces canbe classified as service zones (Friedman, 2012).
as indicated by attfield (2002), americananthropologist irwing Goffman defines public / privatezones that changes with open-plan as; ‘‘the front or pub-lic face of the house as part of the household allows for
an audience of outsiders. thus ‘back’ stands for the lessformal area where cosy clutter can prevail over tidinessand order. the boundary between the more public‘front’, and the more intimate and private ‘back’, sepa-rated and defined the domestic space into two distinctareas’’ (attfield, 2002: 254). thereby, the removal of thewall between the two in the modern open-plan caused afeeling of discomfort and is expected to enable the mod-ern way of life for the modern nuclear families. todaypublic private dichotomy that shows more compartmen-tal character and gains another meaning in relation tothe life style of alternative household types and the con-temporary small house typologies.
as emphasized by Deplazes (1997), compart-ment means that there are hierarchies between spaces.For example, in a master bedroom space juxtapose hier-archically, there is a hall of entrance as orientationspace, a bathroom as a separated space, a dressingroom as another separated space and niche space anda bedroom, all of these spaces; hall, bathroom, dress-ing room and bedroom exhibit hierarchical as well asintegrated spaces as a whole. this indicates newapproaches to contemporary small house space organi-zation.in their study entitled ‘an offbeat Spatiality of the newGeneration Small Housing units in İstanbul,’ Gülmez &uraz (2015) define compartments as; ‘‘Keeping the pro-totype organization of mono-space (normally includingkitchen and the main living area) would be the first tocome to mind as in the early example of small houseswhere this perfect compactness is divided. in fact, it istotally dispersed and spatiality is perceived as two com-partments in the recent examples: private night timeusage and public day time usage’’ (Gülmez & uraz,2015;10 (3) :294-304). However, they demonstrate asignificantly unusual location with respect to the entrancedoor. in some examples, public compartment is placedfar from the entrance door, while private compartmentwith its opposing position has comparably easy access.(See figure 13 a-b)
Figure 12. Born-City-1+1, Extension:44.5 to 55 sqm2;
stage 1: Separated spaces 44.5 sqm2; stage 2: Livingroom int. 55 sqm2: %23.5 Growth.
Figure 11. My-Via-414-1+1, Extension: 32.9 sqm2 to 48.5
sqm2; stage 1: Separated spaces 32.9 sqm2; stage 2:kitchen extended (K+E)39.8 sqm2; stage 3: living roomextended (L+K+E) 48.5 sqm2: %47.4 Growth.
Figure 13. a) Nef Points 98, type 1+1H. b) Nef Points 98,
type 1+1I. (Source: Gülmez & Uraz, 2015
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in this study, spatiality of small houses is classified aspublic, private compartments and service cells. publiccompartments exhibit spaces where daily activities takeplace such as, entrance, kitchen, living room and ter-race. private compartments exhibit spaces for nightusage generally such as, bedroom, dressing room andbathroom. Service cells, as single characteristics of spa-tiality, exhibit certain functions such as bathrooms, WCs,and laundries. (see table 1)
remarkably, convexity in turn is one of the basiccharacteristics of the spatiality achieve functional segre-gation in some cases whereas it creates a clear func-tional integration in the layout of the compartmentseither public or private in other cases.
4. Comparison of Small House Spatiality: Space Syntaxapplication understanding space syntax is a set of techniques for therepresentation, quantification and interpretation of spa-tial configuration in buildings and settlements organisa-tion. Configuration in particular, is defined as the rela-tion between two spaces taking into account all otherspaces in the complex (Hillier, 1982; Steadman, 1983;Hillier and Hanson, 1984; peponis, 1985).
4.1. Space Syntax method in this framework, the aim of this paper is not only toanalyze new spatial organizations but also to examineabstract and conceptual definitions with the addition ofmathematical values by applying space syntax to thirty(1+1) small houses which are grouped according totheir sizes; 20-40sqm2 / 40-70sqm2 / 70-100sqm2.each are tested by the means of the following tools; a)mean integration (ra); b) mean depth (mD); c) basic dif-ference factor (BDF) and d) space link ratio (Slr) valuesand are described below: mean integration value - ra: ‘‘expresses how shallow ordeep an average space in the complex is from oneanother. the shallow ringiness complex has the lowestmean integration and the deep tree-like form is the mostsegregated configuration, twice deep overall’’ (Bellal,
2004:114-116). (see figure 14) Figure 14. the shallow bush and the deeper ringy (uni-
linear sequence) complex have the same mean andoverall integration. the difference between them lies in
how integration is distributed (Hanson,1998)
mean Depth - mD: ‘‘illustrates how the differencebetween relationships of spaces can be graphically clar-ified through a useful technique for representing spatialconfiguration namely the justified graph. this techniqueselects a particular space as the starting root where otherspaces in the graph are then aligned above it in levelsaccording to how many one must pass through to arriveat each space from the root’’ (Bellal, 2004: 114-116).Basic Difference Factor - BDF: ‘‘measures how strong orweak a consistency is maintained within a spatial pattern,by calculating the degree of differences amongst theintegration value of any three spaces or functions in acomplex calculated with a formula’’ (orhun, 1995 &Hillier, 1987:28-32).
Choice - Slr: ‘‘this property suggests the exis-tence of alternative routes from one space to another.the space link ratio (Slr) is the number of links plus oneover the number of spaces. this gives a value varyingbetween (0-1) for a tree-like configuration without anyalternative routes and above 1 for the degree of ringi-ness’’ (Bellal, 2004: 115).
Space syntax application consists of two parts inthis study where the first part comprises all the plans ofall houses by space maps, and the second part includesgroup organizations (compartments) of all houses byconvex maps, due to their convexity establishing com-partmentation.
4.2. Space maps - Space relation values this research intents to analyse all the selected casesapplying the above mentioned space syntax concepts:mean integration (ra), mean depth (mD), basic differ-ence factor (BDF) and space link ratio (Slr) values.
Table 1. Definition of Private-Public Compartments and
Service Cells of the Selected Plans from Three Groups.
Figure 14. The shallow bush and the deeper ringy (unilin-
ear sequence) complex have the same mean and overallintegration. The difference between them lies in how inte-gration is distributed (Hanson,1998)
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additionally, a comparison study was carried outbetween the average values of the first, second and thirdgroup, according to space syntax concepts and thegrowth percentages indicating their spatial expandabili-ty. (see figure 15-16-17 & table 2-3-4-5)
main FindingsGrowth Percentage of Sizes: The plan analysis of the thir-ty small houses indicates that the biggest growth per-centage is found in the first group, 20-40 sqm2 houseswith 33.4% by the extension of kitchen into living roomfrom time to time. The growth phase was as follows: a)kitchen extensions, b) living room integrations, c) bed-room integration.
The first group which is also the smallest 20-40sqm2, exhibits a bigger growth stage by an implicit char-acter of spaces, a cluster spatial organization growth, anopen kitchen integration and soft dividers between dif-ferent functional spaces using multifunctional equipment.Generally, it is found that all kitchens exhibit an extension
to the living room when not in original use and all diningspaces are used as work spaces by introducing multi-functional furniture. In addition, living rooms integratedwith open kitchens during original purpose of cookingand dining show that transparent visibility continuesbetween living and kitchen spaces. The second group of40-70 sqm2 houses exhibit less growth with 21.96% andis closer to the third group results with 26.53%. Thecloseness of these two groups indicates that they exhibitmore similar spatial organization with their axial types;their spatial structures are less implicit and their bordersof spaces are more defined.
Mean Integration (RA): throughout these results, the inte-gration value exhibits a significant increase 20-40sqm2=0.41< 70-100sqm2= 0.44 < 40-70sqm2=0.47 implying from the first to the third groupfollowed by the second group. This increase indicatesthat 20-40 sqm2 houses exhibit the lowest RA valuewhich means that houses at this group are the most inte-grated ones with most implicit character and third groupwith 0.44 integration value which is close to first groupalso accommodate high integrated spatial character too.The second group, 40-70 sqm2 houses having the high-est integration value of 0.47 indicates that the houses arenot as integrated as in the first and third groups thereforegiving evidence of a more segregated spatial organiza-tion achieved by clearly segregated public and privatecompartments.
Mean Depth (MD): the comparative result indicates 20-40sqm2=2.50< 40-70sqm2=2.65 < 70-100sqm2=3.45; showing an increase in the meandepth values from 20 sqm2 to 100 sqm2 overall. Thisincrease shows a spatial organization change from animplicit to an explicit way, from shallower to deeperspace organizations where all houses are 1+1 type.Consequently, there must be an increase of the abstract-ly defined spaces (without walls) of the houses (notenclosed) where the 20-40 sqm2 group exhibits the mostimplicit space character because of the non-existence of
Figure 16. Ten 40-70 m2 Small Houses Space Maps with
Justified Graphs
Figure 15. Ten 20-40 m2 Small Houses Space Maps with
Justified Graphs.
Figure 17. Ten 70-100 m2 Small Houses Space Maps with
Justified Graphs
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walls. The 40-70 sqm2 group shows a less implicit spaceand the 70-100 sqm2 reveals a more explicit space char-acter with a deeper spatial structure indicating an exis-tence of different compartments as public and private.
Difference Factor (BDF): the results of BDF values showsan increase 20-40 sqm2=0.54 < 40-70sqm2 =0.56 <70-100sqm2=0.79, 20-40 sqm2 houses exhibiting astrong difference between spaces as well as in 40-70sqm2 houses, whereas 70-100 sqm2 houses show thehighest BDF and less difference which accommodates abetter homogeneity of spaces. Furthermore, the 70-100sqm2 group has adaptation ability and flexibility as muchas the 20-40 sqm2 group but in a different way, ratherwithin the compartments.
Space Link Ratio (SLR) (Choice): the results of SLR amongthe three groups 40-70sqm2=1.19< 20-40sqm2=1.23< 70-100 sqm2=1.24 shows that the thirdgroup of 70-100 sqm2 houses has the biggest SLR valuewhich means liberality and free spatial organization existin the houses without movement controls and restrictionsoffering extra routes and links between spaces evenhelps the unexpected indirect connection between theopposite compartments.
according to the above results it is found that,as opposed to prototype family houses, today’s smallhousehold houses exhibit free spatial organization withnew spatial relations that provide flexibility, convexity,expandability and growth between integrated spaceswithout movement restrictions.
4.3 Convex maps - Space Grouping valuesto determine space grouping values in this study a con-vex map analysis have been used to reclaim groupspaces of the selected cases by means of mean integra-tion and mean depth values. all groups of 20-40, 40-70,70-100 sqm2 houses exhibit differences in convexityespecially by an increase in the number of spaces pro-duced by furniture and recesses. in addition, the meanintegration and mean depth values show differencesbetween convex and space maps in the three casegroups. Firstly, the group spaces (public-private com-partments-service cells) of all group plans have beendetermined (table 6-7-8). Secondly syntactic values havebeen measured to make comparisons between threesize-based groups 20-40 / 40-70 / 70-100 sqm2 hous-es by values of mean integration and mean depth. (table9-10-11)
according to low ra (mean integration) andmD (mean depth) values of the convex maps (see table9-10-11) it should be underlined once more that in allgroups’ public compartments show the most flexible,integrated and shallow space groups, service cells arethe second integrated and private compartments showthe less integrated and rather deep and private charac-ter. However, when the size of the house types increasesprivate zones or compartments become more developedbut at the same time introduce more integrated andshallower order by providing more loops between itsown spaces as well as extra connections with the othercompartment’s spaces. this spatial ordering gives moreflexibility and different way of arranging the privacy and
using the spaces relevantly that gives the householdswho are expected to be crucially different than prototypeones, more freedom to arrange its’ own public and pri-vate life within the permeable spatial order of the house.
RA: PUBLIC COM=0.31<PRIVATE COM=SERVICE CELLS=0.45MD: PUBLIC COM=2.77<PRIVATE COM=3.47<SERVICECELLS:3.49average public compartments: ra:0.30/mD:2.77average private compartments: ra:0.45/mD:3.47average Service cells: ra:0.45/mD:3.49
average ra values indicated that public compartmentsare the most integrated types with 0.30, average mDvalues clarify this with the lowest value (2.77) indicatingthe shallowest character of the public zone. private com-partments and service cells exhibit very close syntacticresults with both ra values of 0.45 and mD values whichare higher than public compartments with 3.47, 3.49values. this indicates deepening tendency of privatecompartments. (see table 12)
5. Conclusionsthis paper investigated small house spatiality from mini-mized space usage to dynamic living spatiality of thirty1+1 type present day small house types ranging from20 to 100 sqm2. these were selected from istanbul,ankara and izmir in turkey for both conceptual and syn-tactic analyses.
in this framework, firstly growth percentages ofall houses are presented, then the three groups of thirtyhouses were observed for the mean integration (ra),mean depth (mD), BDF and Slr values. these are com-pared to find out the changing spatial organizations toreveal their degree of flexibility, convexity and expand-ability of small house spatiality. as a result of the corre-lations between the syntactic values and dimensionalmeasures of 33%, 21.96%, 21.32%, growth percent-ages respectively corresponds to the 20-40 sqm2, 40-70 sqm2, 70-100 sqm2 groups which indicates that thefirst group the most flexible one, accommodating a highgrowth ability due to changing conditions. the rate ofgrowth percentage in all plans has been proven by test-ing the ra-mean integration values of all plans 0.41,0.47, 0.44. this indicates that the first group (20-40sqm2) is the most integrated one and that a significantrise appears in the second group (40-70 sqm2), andthen again a decrease in the third group (70-100 sqm2).
the test performed between three differentgroups and the mean integration values revealed thatthe most segregated organization exists in the 40-70sqm2 group, which also signifies less flexibility. the testperformed again between groups and the mean depthvalues of all plans emphasized the deepening tendencyfrom first to second to the third group and from smallerto bigger houses with the degree of ‘2.50, 2.70, 3.44’.mean depth values demonstrated that there is a directrelationship between the deepening tendency andsquare meters of the houses. this tendency towards anincrease of integration value of the first and third groupswere also tested for the Slr values yielding the sameresults: ‘1.23, 1.19, 1.24’, where by first and third groupcirculation values and loop abilities of space organiza-tions were higher, emphasizing a more integrated char-
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zacter. However, the second group’s Slr decreases par-allel to the decrease in the integration value.
the study finds that syntactic results of spacemaps of all the groups and convex maps of all com-partments show a parallel mean depth and mean inte-gration values. the study also scrutinized the increasingmean integration tendency of the first group (20-40sqm2) and the same increase of mean integration inpublic compartments of the third group was also found.Similarly, in all plans, public compartments (which con-sist of entrance, kitchen, dining, living area in one openspace implicitly) emphasized the increasing tendency inthe first group - 0.29 and second and third group -0.31, which supports the results of the all plans.
in conclusion, all groups of 1+1 small house-hold houses today, from 20 to 100 sqm2 exhibit highlyintegrated spatiality with axial, cross-axial and clusterorganizations. this is especially evident in open typekitchens that mostly integrate with entrances and livingrooms. the space syntax tool specifically demonstratesthis high integrated spatial organization with compara-tive results for the mean integration, mean depth, BDFand Slr. it was also found that in the smaller 1+1 types,20-40 sqm2, the spatiality exhibited a highly integratedcharacter with implicit, permeable and infinite spacecharacteristics with flexibility and an ease of adaption todiverse lifestyles without additional constructions due tothe absence of concrete walls between spaces exceptservice cells.
notably, the convexity in the bigger 1+1 typeswas observed with space syntax values where the com-partment organization became much stronger in itself.Furthermore, the 1+1 typology did not change and aclear separation comes to light in the 70-100 sqm2group within the more comprehensive compartmentdesigns where the integration of two clearly segregatedcompartments were revealed show that public and pri-vate living is separated strongly. additionally, the secondgroup 40-70 sqm2 1+1 types exhibit a simpler andstandard small house configuration which is more seg-regated than 20-40 sqm2 group with compartmentorganizations and reaches its most segregated visibleconfiguration at 70-100 sqm2 group.
When a general comparison is carried outbetween public and private compartments of all groups,the public compartments show a more integrated char-acter with 0.30 average ra value whilst private com-partments, similar to service cells with 0.45 ra valuesare more segregated supported by its’ axial space orga-nization. to sum up, in relation to the increase in thesizes of small houses, compartment based spatial orga-nization becomes significantly visible due to the freemovement patterns in the houses by means of loops andcirculations that indicate an increase in the Slr values.nonetheless, a clear segregation exists between publicand private compartments, which can be totally used indifferent ways and by users according their peculiaritieswhen necessary.
reFerenCeS:
attfield J.2002, Moving home: changing attitudes to residence andidentity, the journal of architecture, volume 7, autumn 2002
Bellal t.2004, Understanding Home Culture through Syntactic Analysis:The Case of Berber Housing, Housing, theory and Society2004;21:111-127, algeria, taylor & Francis.
Ching D.K.F.1996, Architecture: Form, Space, Order, John Willey &Sons.
Deplazes a.1997, Construction Architecture: Materials ProcessesStructures, Birkhauser, Berlin.
Dickinson D.1986, ‘Small houses for the next century’, mc-graw –Hill
Friedman a.2012, Town and Terraced Housing for Affordability andSustainability, routledge.
Gülmez Ü.n.& uraz u.t.2015, An Offbeat Spatiality of the NewGeneration Small Housing Units in Istanbul,megaron,2015;10(3):294-304
Hanson J.1998, Decoding Homes and Houses, Cambridgeuniversity press.
Hillier B & Hanson J.& Graham H.1986, Ideas Are In Things: AnApplication of The Syntax Method to Discovering House Genotypes,environment and planning B: planning and Design ,1987, volume14, pages 363-385.
Kronenburg r.2007, Flexible Architecture that Responds to Change,laurence King publishing
(lefebvre H.1974, Space as a social Product, the mit press.
meiss p.2013, Elements of Architecture, From form to place + tecton-ics, epFl press.
rosenburg D.1998, Visibility and Permeability in Schröder House,Decoding Homes and Houses, Cambridge university press
Sullivan J.1969, Movement and Growth Patterns and Their Effect onSpatial Organization of Collages, ontario Department of education,toronto.
author(s):
ayça arslan, türkan ulusu uraz, eastern mediteranian university, Falculty of arch. viamersin 10 turkeyemail:[email protected]:[email protected]
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1. introduction
the use of public open spaces where people cometogether for social interaction has decreased becauseof current life styles, such as smaller family networks,living in high rise buildings as part of gated communi-ties, increased social media use and increased time intraffic (scopelliti & vittoria giuliani, 2004; francis etal., 2012; freeman, 2001). decreased open spaceuse leads to the weakening of social relations, collec-tive power, and place attachment, especially in neigh-bourhoods that include small urban communities, andtherefore, social problems, such as fear of crime, lowsecurity perception, loneliness, segregation, andsocial isolation, emerge (brown et al., 2003; taylor etal., 1984). social capital and trust among neighbourscan be built by parks and open spaces (Comstock etal., 2010; Kim & Kaplan, 2004; Mason, 2010; talen,2000; Rasidi et al., 2012; shukur et al., 2012).development of social capital by daily encounters ofinhabitants may contribute to place attachment(lewicka, 2010). in addition to community basedinterventions, some socio-demographic variables,
such as place of birth (hernandez et al., 2007) andlength of residence (hay, 1998; Relph, 1976), areeffective for place attachment as well. place attach-ment would play an important role in overcoming fearof crime and low security perception, which are themost substantial social problems of today’s cities.therefore, it is important that urban designers, archi-tects and landscape architects develop design policiesthat contribute to place attachment. in sum, this studyseeks to answer the following question: do openspace quality, collective efficacy and socio-demo-graphic factors predict neighbourhood attachment?accordingly, we developed models that can explainthe relationship between neighbourhood attachment,open space quality, collective efficacy and socio-demographic variables.
1.1. place attachment on the neighbourhood scaleplace attachment has been defined as an affectivebond, link or emotional tie between people and places(bonaiuto et al., 1999; lewicka, 2010; hidalgo &hernandez, 2001; McCunn & gifford, 2014;scannell & gifford, 2010a). whereas hidalgo &
Elif Kutay Karacor, Gozde Parlar
Abstract
The decline in neighbourhoods resulting from globalization and technology, which trigger high rise buildings, has been
discussed by several disciplines. Changes in life styles destroy not only traditional neighbourhoods but also open
spaces. This situation leads to a decrease in both collective efficacy and neighbourhood attachment. Place attachment
would play an important role in overcoming fear of crime and low security perception, which are the most substantial
social problems of today’s cities. Therefore, it is important that urban designers, architects and landscape architects
develop design policies that contribute to place attachment. The aim of this study is to develop models that explain
neighbourhood attachment by collective efficacy, open space quality and socio-demographic variables. Kuzguncuk
neighbourhood was chosen as a study area because of its unique character, socio-cultural diversity and the collective
power that is due to the various social groups in the neighbourhood. This study seeks to answer the following ques-
tion: Do open space quality, collective efficacy and socio-demographic factors predict neighbourhood attachment? We
examined whether attachment to a neighborhood is associated with collective power and perception of open space
quality by inhabitants. Therefore, neighbourhood attachment and its predictors were studied in this specific neighbour-
hood. Face to face interviews were conducted with 313 inhabitants using a stratified sampling method. Descriptive sta-
tistics and hierarchical linear modelling analyses were used to predict neighbourhood attachment. We found that col-
lective efficacy, open space quality, place of birth and length of residence were predictors of neighbourhood attach-
ment. Therefore, to prevent social problems, such as fear of crime, low security perception, loneliness and segregation,
policy makers, designers, planners and social scientists should focus on neighbourhoods that have small communities.
In conclusion, the quality perception of open spaces should be considered to increase neighbourhood attachment, and
inhabitants should be encouraged to use public spaces in which social ties can develop.
Keywords: Collective Efficacy, Hierarchical Linear Regression, Kuzguncuk, Neighbourhood Attachment, Open Space
Quality.
ConCeptual Model of the Relationshipbetween neighbouRhood attaChMent,ColleCtive effiCaCy and open spaCe Quality
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cognitive level, McCunn & gifford (2014) indicatethat place attachment affects the relationship betweenplaces and people beyond cognition. place attach-ment has been studied on the neighbourhood scale(bonaiuto et al., 1999; bonaiuto et al., 2003; brownet al., 2003; Comstock et al., 2010; lewicka, 2010),city scale (Casakin et al., 2015; lewicka, 2010;lewicka, 2008; ng et al., 2005) and even the regionor country scale (shamai & ilatov, 2005). placeattachment has been mostly studied on the neigh-bourhood scale in previous studies. neighbourhoodattachment is considered to be part of the placeattachment concept, and the neighbourhood is themost commonly researced scale of attachment thatpeople may attach to in their lifetime because of itseffective social process (bonaiuto et al., 2003).neighbourhood scale studies are becoming increas-ingly important because of neighbourhood declineand weak social ties resulting from physical changes,such as more high rise buildings and the developmentof roadways for motorized vehicles.
1.2. Collective efficacy as a component of social cap-italCollective efficacy has been defined as the linkbetween mutual trust and the expectation for the com-mon good (teig et al., 2009). additionally, collectiveefficacy is a type of collective competence thatincludes shared beliefs amongst group members forallocating, coordinating and integrating theirresources for specific demands (lochner et al., 1999;sampson, 2003) and is a component of social capi-tal. it is formally organized with cognition and trust(perkins & long, 2002). Collective efficacy comprisesinformal social control and social cohesion (sampson2003; brown et al., 2003; Comstock et al., 2010).insufficient social control allows a criminal environ-ment to grow (Jacobs, 1961). social cohesion andsocial control could be provided by open spaces thatare shared by people and that can be used for meet-ing and interacting with people. insufficient collectiveefficacy and weak social ties are related to neigh-bourhood decline and violent crime (sampson et al.,1997; bellair, 1997; brown et al., 2003). social inter-actions, which are created by tangible features of theenvironment, promote cohesion and contribute toknowing the physical environment of the neighbour-hoods (Cohen et al., 2008; li et al., 2005; brown etal., 2003). therefore, people’s awareness and con-sciousness of the happenings in their environmentscould be increased. additionally, increased socialtrust, sense of security, sensitivity, solidarity, and coop-eration could contribute to the development of tiesbetween people and their places. therefore, it couldbe inferred that collective efficacy has an importantrole in attachment to places (Comstock et al., 2010).
1.3. how do open spaces contribute to place attach-ment?public open spaces provide several opportunities fortheir users for social interaction. the chance for estab-lishing a social network and communication in neigh-
bourhood scale open spaces is higher than city scaleopen spaces because they offer daily encounters ormeetings and are accessed by walking. several stud-ies have evaluated the role of the perception of qual-ity or satisfaction from neighbourhood open spaces insocial relations by various perspectives. open spaceswith green areas promote the development of socialties (Kweon et al., 1998; Chiesura, 2004), which leadto trust and social capital (Mason, 2010; holtan etal., 2014) and increased quality of life by developingsocial interaction (sugiyama et al., 2009; thompson,2002). open space quality or satisfaction is an impor-tant predictor of the sense of community, which is adimension of social capital (Kim & Kaplan, 2004;Kearney, 2006; lund, 2002; audirac, 1999; franciset al., 2012). even if the sense of community does notexpress the relationship between people and places, itcomprises place attachment (Mannarini et al., 2006),and attachment plays a role in the development ofidentity; therefore, it influences the sense of communi-ty (hidalgo & hernandez, 2001). therefore, the per-ception of open spaces in a particular area influencesattachment to that place. although some authors indi-cate that experience or access to the natural environ-ment theoretically contribute to place attachment (lowet al., 2005 and McCunn & gifford, 2014), few stud-ies have focused on the relationship between openspaces and place attachment on the neighbourhoodscale. Javan forouzande & Motallebi (2012) suggestthat neighbourhood open space has a principal rolein creating place attachment. Kimpton et al. (2014)focused on the relationship between objective proxim-ity and the availability of green space on residents'place attachment. Comstock et al. (2010) evaluatedneighbourhood attachment as a psychologicalprocess that involves people’s emotional bonds totheir neighbourhood surroundings and explored itsrelationship with home and community garden partic-ipation. attachment to national parks or recreationalareas and the dimensions of attachment were evalu-ated as well (williams & vaske, 2003; Moore &graefe, 1994; Kyle et al., 2005).
1.4. socio-demographic factors affecting placeattachmentas mentioned above, in addition to tangible or intan-gible features of places, such as scale, opportunitiesto meet that comprise identity and socio-demograph-ic factors, are effective on place attachment as well.places where people are born or grow up were expe-rienced by previous generations as affecting placememory (lewicka, 2008) and place attachment (hay,1998). similarly, length of residence is positively relat-ed with place attachment (lewicka, 2005; Rollero &de piccoli, 2010; anton & lawrence, 2014). as peo-ple spend more time in a specific place, memoriesand knowledge increase. as a result of these experi-ences, meaning and cognition can develop attach-ment between places and people.gender was used as a socio-demographic predictorin previous place attachment studies. althoughlewicka (2005, 2010) and scannell & gifford(2010b) could not find significant associations
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between gender and place attachment, dekker & bolt(2005) proved that place attachment was perceived ashigher by females compared with males. the education level is related to neighbourhoodattachment (Comstock et al., 2010; dekker & bolt,2005; Mesch & Manor, 1998). Comstock et al.(2010) associated the education level with the eco-nomic level and expected that people from highincome groups developed greater attachment to theiraffluent neighbourhoods.
according to dipasquale & glaeser (1999),homeownership increases investment in both socialcapital and local facilities. this approach indirectlysupports the view that homeownership increases placeattachment. Contribution of homeownership to placeattachment by providing residential stability, socialcontrol, and feel of belonging have been discussedand are related to place attachment (Comstock et al.,2010; brown et al., 2003; brown et al., 2004).windsong (2010) and Mesch and Manor (1998)acknowledged that homeowners exhibit greaterinvolvement in the social life of the neighbourhoodand develop their local relationships. therefore,homeowners may increase their sensitivity to theirphysical and social environment and are more satis-fied with them. this satisfaction may contribute toneighbourhood attachment.
2. Material and Method2.1. study areathe study was conducted in the Kuzguncuk neigh-bourhood in istanbul. various social groups havebeen living together in Kuzguncuk according to com-munity experts. all religious and ethnic groups, includ-ing armenians, greeks, Jews and turkish people, livein peace, harmony and mutual respect with each other(guven, 2011). places of worship of different religionsare located in the same neighbourhood, and theKuzguncuk Mosque and surp Krikor lusavoriçarmenian Church are adjacent to each other. even ifsome changes occurred in the social structure becauseof gentrification and increased rent values, Kuzguncukcould be accepted as a model for a traditional neigh-bourhood. Kuzguncuk is a mix of residences, officesand retail, including grocers, tailors, bookstores,handicraft shops, tearooms and coffeehouses. theneighbours interact with each other in shops, streets,neighbourhood parks, and a community garden ofapproximately 17 acres. additionally, some artisticactivities, such as theatre performances, poetry read-ings and music concerts, are organized in these openspaces.
we chose the Kuzguncuk neighbourhood asa study area because of its unique character, socio-cultural diversity and the collective power that is due tothe various social groups in the neighbourhood. weexamined whether attachment to a neighborhood isassociated with collective power and perception ofopen space quality by inhabitants. therefore, neigh-bourhood attachment and its predictors were studiedin this specific neighbourhood.
2.2. sampling and data Collectionface to face interviews were conducted with residentsolder than 18 years in their homes. the surveyrequired approximately 20 minutes for each partici-pant. according to the turkish statistical institute (tsi,2015), the population size of the Kuzguncuk neigh-bourhood is 3810. accordingly, the sample size wascalculated as 349, with a 95% confidence level and5% confidence interval, but only 313 survey formswere acceptable and evaluated. the stratified sam-pling method was used, and the samples were select-ed from each block to create proportional distributionsand to ensure the representation of all blocks relativeto the population size.
2.3. Measuresthe survey instrument consisted of 3 scales and socio-demographic variables. the scales were developedfrom previous studies on neighbourhood attachment(bonaiuto et al., 1999; williams and vaske, 2003;lewicka, 2008; Comstock et al., 2010), collective effi-cacy (Comstock et al., 2010; sampson et al., 1997;Cohen et al, 2008), and open space quality(sugiyama et al., 2009) that had adequate internalconsistency (table 1). scale items were presented on a5-point likert scale that included ‘‘1—stronglydisagree’’, ‘‘5—strongly agree’’ and ‘‘3—neitheragree or disagree’. socio-demographic variablesconsisted of place of birth (1 = not in istanbul, 2= inistanbul), length of residence in neighbourhood (1 =< 6 years, 2 = 6-10 years, 3 = 11-20 years, 4 = 21-30 years, 5 = 31-40 years, 6 = 41-50 years, 7 = 50< years), gender (1 = female, 2 = male), educationlevel (1 = elementary school, 2 = secondary school,3 = high school, 4 = associate degree, 5 = bache-lor’s degree, 6 = master’s degree/doctorate), andhomeownership (no = 1, yes = 2).
2.4. statistical analysisexploratory factor analysis was applied to test thevalidity of the scales that were developed from previ-ous studies. a neighbourhood attachment scale wasfound (67.52 % variance explained, eigenvalue 6.75),with factor loadings of individual items ranging from0.67 (“i am rooted here”) to 0.88 (“this neighbour-hood is very special to me”). this neighbourhoodattachment scale has a satisfactory reliability as shownby a Cronbach's α of 0.94 for its ten items. a collec-tive efficacy scale was found (76.35 % varianceexplained, eigenvalue 9.16), with factor loadings ofindividual items ranging from 0.82 (“this is a close-knit neighbourhood”) to 0.91 (“adults in this neigh-bourhood know who the local children are”).Reliability of this collective efficacy scale is highly sat-isfactory; Cronbach's α is 0.97 for its twelve items. anopen space quality scale (55.33 % varianceexplained, eigenvalue 5.53) had factor loadings ofindividual items ranging from 0.56 (“there are goodfacilities -toilets, shelters- in neighbourhood openspace”) to 0.82 (“the paths to neighbourhood openspace are easy to walk on”). Reliability of this openspace quality scale is highly satisfactory; Cronbach's αis 0.91 for its ten items (table 1).
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3. Results
descriptive statistics are presented in table 2. themean neighbourhood attachment was 3.37 (sd =1.09), collective efficacy was 3.65 (sd = 1.02), andopen space quality was 3.66 (sd = 0.84). Mostrespondents were born in istanbul (n=178, 59.3%),have been living here for 11-20 years (n=73,28.3%), were females (n=168, 53.7%), graduatedfrom high school (n=123, 39.9%) and were nothomeowners (n=170, 54.5%). Correlation coefficientvalues showed that all of the variables were signifi-cantly correlated with neighbourhood attachment,except gender and the education level (table 2).
the multi-level analyses were run in spss 17,and hierarchical linear models were employed withthe enter method. seven models were developed tounderstand the relationship between variables andneighbourhood attachment. Model a covariatesincluded collective efficacy. Models b-g built onModel a by sequentially adding additional correlates(table 3). this effect was constant across models.
according to the multi-level models in table3, the quality of the prediction of neighbourhoodattachment dependent variables indicates an ade-quate level of prediction for each model (a=0.522,b=0.626, C=0.644, d=0.662, e=0.664, f=0.666, g=0.669). Collective efficacy, open spacequality, place of birth and length of residence weresignificantly related to neighbourhood attachment ineach model. however, gender, education level andhomeownership were non-significant in the models inwhich they were added. Collective efficacy was thestrongest predictor of all models.
in our final model g, collective efficacy, openspace quality, place of birth, length of residence, gen-der, education level, and homeownership explained44.7 % of the variability of neighbourhood attach-
ment. the model, as a whole, has statistically signifi-cant predictive capability, f (7.24) = 28.089, p <0.001. the general form of the equation of neigh-bourhood attachment from those variables is: predict-ed neighbourhood attachment = -1.008 + (0.403 xcollective efficacy) + (0.491 x open space quality) +(0.282 x place of birth) + (0.076 x length of resi-dence) + (0.117 x gender) + (0.031 x educationlevel) + (0.147 x homeownership). Collective efficacy,open space quality, place of birth and length of resi-dence significantly predicted neighbourhood attach-
Table 2. Descriptive statistics and associations between
model variables.
Table 3. Predicting place attachment by hierarchical linear
models.
Table 1. Components of the scale measure..
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ment; gender, education level and homeownershipvariables were nonsignificant in the model.the homoscedasticity and normality of residuals wasdetermined with the Q-Q-plot of z*pred and z*presid.the plot indicates that there is no tendency in the errorterms in the multiple linear regression analysis (figure1).
4. discussionConsistent with Comstock et al. (2010), higher levelsof collective efficacy were strongly associated withneighbourhood attachment. Collective efficacy, whichcomprises social cohesion and social control, couldbe achieved by the development of trust, sensitivity,awareness and cooperation within the community.
living in safer neighbourhoods and buildingsocial ties by knowing community members is neededto increase neighbourhood attachment. furthermore,it is important that both the availability of physicalspaces where people interact with each other and howpeople take interest or perceive those spaces areimportant. therefore, we focused on the quality per-ception of neighbourhood open spaces that areaccessible and open to the public. similar to our find-ings, Javan forouzande & Motallebi (2012) assertedthat the residents who were satisfied with open spacesexpressed their attachment to their neighbourhood.open spaces contribute to neighbourhood attach-ment because of the meaning given to open spaces.this meaning is related to their positive perception.therefore, attachment to a neighbourhood could beincreased by the positive perception of open spaces,which refers to their quality or satisfaction.
by evaluating the place of birth, we tried todetermine if there was a difference in neighbourhoodattachment between the two groups (those who wereborn in istanbul and those who moved to istanbul afterthey had been born in another city). Consistent withlewicka (2008) and hay (1998), it was determinedthat the people who were born in istanbul were moreattached to their neighbourhood compared with thepeople who were born outside of istanbul. place iden-
tification, which is related to place attachment (uzzellet al., 2002), could be developed by adopting andidentifying the places where people were born andhave memories of old generations.
Consistent with previous studies, length ofresidence was positively related to neighbourhoodattachment (bonaiuto et al., 1999; brown et al.,2003; anton & lawrence, 2014; Casakin et al.,2015). place attachment develops over time by usinghistory and knowledge, so it is linked to length of res-idence (Raymond et al., 2010). Knowing both the his-tory and previous residents of the neighbourhood andthe development of social interaction between old res-idents and newcomers may lead to increasing new-comers’ neighbourhood attachment.
similar to our findings, lewicka (2005, 2010)and scannell & gifford (2010b) could not find anysignificant gender difference in place attachment. incontrast to this study, dekker & bolt (2005) andhidalgo & hernandez (2001) demonstrated that placeattachment in females was higher than males and sug-gested this finding was because “being a woman stim-ulated social interaction”. this situation could resultfrom more frequent experiences of common spaces,such as open spaces and streets, by women who havechildren or are unemployed. female residents in ourstudy area are actively involved in working, similar tomales. this situation could exhibit an insignificant dif-ference between males and females in terms of socialinteraction and, accordingly, place attachment.
the education level was related to neigh-bourhood attachment (Comstock et al., 2010; dekker& bolt, 2005; Mesch & Manor, 1998). the educationlevel was associated with the economic level, and highincome groups were more attached to their affluentneighbourhoods (Comstock et al., 2010). theinsignificant relationship between the education leveland neighbourhood attachment could have resultedfrom the mixed socio-demographic structure, in whichpeople have been living in peace and in which thefacilities are not intended for a specific group.
although we found that homeownership wascorrelated with neighbourhood attachment (table 2),homeownership did not predict neighbourhoodattachment in our Model g (table 3). homeownershipwas not associated with neighbourhood attachment inprevious studies (Comstock et al., 2010; brown et al.,2003; brown et al., 2004). living in the same apart-ment for many years and not moving may increaseplace attachment in tenants as much as homeowners.
therefore, we could not find any significanthomeownership difference in place attachment.additionally, tenants prefer to live in this neighbour-hood as it holds nostalgic value because of its uniqueidentity. living in places that include personal memo-ries, characteristics and aesthetics increases attach-ment to these places.
4.1. Conclusionin our research, we found that collective efficacy, openspace quality, place of birth and length of residencewere correlated with neighbourhood attachment.therefore, to prevent social problems, such as fear of
Figure 1. Normal P-P Plot regression standardized residual.
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gation, policy makers, designers, planners and socialscientists should focus on neighbourhoods that havesmall communities. in conclusion, the quality percep-tion of open spaces should be considered to increaseneighbourhood attachment, and inhabitants shouldbe encouraged to use public spaces in which socialties can develop. further research should be conduct-ed to determine how proximity to and visit frequencyof neighbourhood open spaces affect collective effica-cy and neighbourhood attachment. if we consideredthese differences in our study, we may contribute tofurther developments.
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thompson, C. w. (2002). urban open space in the 21stcentury. Landscape and Urban Planning, 60(2), 59-72.
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uzzell, d., pol, e., & badenas, d. (2002). place identification, socialcohesion, and enviornmental sustainability. Environment andBehavior, 34(1), 26-53.
williams, d. R., & vaske, J. J. (2003). the measurement of placeattachment: validity and generalizability of a psychometricapproach. Forest Science, 49(6), 830-840.
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author(s):
elif Kutay KaRaCoR duzce university, landscape architecture departmentduzce / turkey 81620 [email protected]
gozde paRlaRduzce university, landscape architecture departmentduzce / turkey 81620 [email protected]
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1. Introduction
affordable housing is an important tool for ensuringbasic living conditions for people, stabilizing society,keeping social harmony and promoting economicdevelopment.
china has experienced in recent years aprocess of rapid urbanization, industrialization and theintroduction of a market economy, together with the con-tinuous expansion of urban populations. this has led tohigh urban house1prices.
Promoting affordable housing construction ispractically required in building a new people-orientedurbanization. the chinese central rural Workconference in 2013 and the 2014 "government Workreport" clearly emphasized the need to solve the 3 one-hundred-million problems people have, namely, to help100 million rural people get town residential identities,to transform shanty-towns and villages in cities for 100million people and to give instructions to people in themiddle and west regions about the 100 million urban-ization program. the primary issue for the above is solv-ing their living space and to make sure they haveaccommodation. thus, building a thorough social hous-ing system, enlarging the coverage of social housing sys-tem and getting the migrant rural population into theurban social housing system remain the short and medi-um term objectives (research group of the Marketingdepartment in the state council development andresearch center, 2012).
It was clearly stated in the 2014 "governmentWork report" that more effort will be made to increase
affordable housing constructions. new constructions willinclude more than 7 million apartments and 4.8 millionaffordable housing units that will be basically completedwithin 2014.
currently, most literature on china’s housingissues relate to: policy changes from the 1980s housingreform to the current various housing policies, the resultsof housing reform, the market forces that drive houseprices which influence an equilibrium or bubble housingmarket and also the potentially less desirable outcomesof housing reform (i.e. unfair distribution mechanism,biased housing price etc.). few papers focus on solvingchina’s affordable housing problems (dang, liu &Zhang, 2014; hui & Wong, 2006; Yeung, & howes,2006; Zou, 2014).
In this paper we address one possible way ofaddressing the affordable housing issue, i.e., Public-Private-Partnerships (PPPs), and how PPPs can be appliedto china’s affordable housing supply. We contribute withsuch insights as the advantages of this method for newhousing supplies, potential risks relating to this kind ofapplication, better ways for risks allocation and incen-tives for private investors to get involved in this coopera-tion. section 2 explores the affordable housing pro-grams that have been implemented in china in the lastyears. section 3 explains the advantages and limitationsthat PPP arrangements could bring to the affordablehousing sector in china. section 4 provides specific PPParrangements that could be used in the chinese afford-able housing arena. finally, in section 5 we offers themain conclusions of this paper.
Wenbo Qin, Antonio Sánchez Soliño, Vicente Alcaraz Carrillo de Albornoz
Abstract
Though China is taking many steps to offer affordable houses to the public, the gap between the demand and supply
for such affordable houses is still huge. Rapidly growing demand for affordable housing has encouraged large Chinese
cities, faced with housing imbalance, to invest in developing affordable properties. As a result, the Chinese central gov-
ernment has started to encourage local governments to use Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) and private capital to sup-
plement the funding deficit. There is also an on-going debate regarding the need to establish prerequisites for institu-
tions to meet in order to achieve effective PPPs. In this paper, we examine what the current institutional environment is
in China and how China is meeting these prerequisites for effective PPPs. We also examine the main programs on
affordable housing and propose a potential field for using PPPs. We draw the conclusion that PPPs are more favorable
for renting-oriented type projects than owning-oriented projects. In this context, the advantages of the PPP model for
China’s renting-oriented affordable housing programs are would be the provision of private financing, the enhancing
efficiency by involving private sector experts and the statement of bundling constructions and maintenance and opera-
tion work in the contract, which motivates the private sector to build properties up to standard for its cost efficiency from
the whole project perspective.
Keywords: Affordable Housing, Public-Private Partnership, China
IntroducIng PublIc-PrIvate PartnershIPs foraffordable housIng In chIna.
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2. affordable housing programs in chinaduring the past twenty years, china’s housing reform hastransformed substantially. the government haslaunched several affordable housing programs to sup-port this reform, and there is extensive academic litera-ture covering them (see, for instance, Zou, 2014 andchen et al., 2010).
before the 1980s, it was the responsibility of the centralgovernment to invest in housing. during the 1980s, localgovernments and work units started to share the burdenof housing provision together with the central govern-ment. as stated by eddie c.M. et. al ( 2006), “Prior tourban housing reform, most chinese people lived inrented accommodation provided by state agents—namely local governments, state-owned enterprises(soes) and work units. tenants paid only a nominal rentto the housing providers. this, however, proved neitherfinancially viable, nor sustainable.”
In 1994, the state council launched ”thedecision on deepening urban housing reform”.
In 1998, the central government was deter-mined to deepen the decentralization of housing provi-sion and initiated a housing privatization and introducedproperty rights (Wang & Murie, 1999, 2000). chen et.al (2011) found that the abolition of the policy on theprovision of welfare housing in 1998 is an importantmilestone in chinese urban housing reform, whichresulted in the market-oriented urban housing provisionsystem.
In the meantime, urban workers were still earn-ing comparatively low wages so it was unrealistic forthem to buy commercial houses on the market.
In september 2011, the state councilannounced the ”guidance on affordable housing con-struction and management” requiring focus on publicrental housing development. the land and resourcesdepartment instructed beijing and shanghai, in January2012, as the pilot cities for building public rental hous-es with collective owned land.
all these programs implemented since the1980s are meant to support the housing reform but theyplay a more important role for being part of social secu-rity and social welfare for the population. thus, the socialimpact of these programs in china is considerable. li etal. (2014) assess the social impacts of affordable hous-ing projects through a new methodology and concludethat these projects produced quite positive socialimpacts, and reveal potential improvement such associo-economic effects that should be emphasized. forthese indicators, they cite as pressing issues: reducedcrime around the projects studied, better communica-tion, convenient water supply facilities and improved out-bound public transport.
In order to gain deeper understanding of theaffordable housing projects and maximizing the positivesocial effects of those projects, we have to take a look atthese programs first. examples of such programs are:
• Peaceful living Project (PlP): according to Wang(2001) this project was launched in 1995 and co-financed by a loan from the central government (40%)and local governments self-funding (60%). the target
population was middle-and low-income families. thePlP was the first ownership-oriented affordable housingprogram.
• economic and comfortable housing (ech): this pro-gram was launched in 1998 and is still operational. thetarget population is low-income families, which are oftencapable of certain payment or with certain expected pay-ment ability. It is supported by land transfer from the gov-ernment, and developments are free of all kinds ofadministrative fees (such as infrastructure fees) and enjoytax discounts. the government determines the houseprices, and the house owners own limited property rights.
• two caps housing: this program was launched in2006 and is still operational. local governments mayorganize bidding for land to construct houses with cer-tain constraints on the size and price of each apartment.the winner of the bid has to build houses that meet theagreed standards and sell them at the pre-determinedprice to qualified buyers.
• cheap rental housing (crh): this program wasdeveloped since 1999 until 2004, and then on a secondphase since 2007. the target population is the lowest-income families. the houses constructed in the programare owned by governments or public organizations.governments lease these houses at very low rents (oreven waive rents altogether) to low-income families. thebeneficiaries of the program have no ownership rights. .according to Zou (2014), the central government urgedall cities and counties to establish a crh provision sys-tem by 2007 because some households could not affordtheir own house. however the development of cheaprental housing is still sluggish due to a lack of completealignment on the interests of central government, localgovernments and low-income households.
• Public rent housing (Prh): Public rental houses areprovided by organizations, delegated by governments,to middle- and low-income families at market prices.Meanwhile, the government subsidizes a certain per-centage of the rent to these families. the program wasmeant to solve the living problems of those who do notqualify for crh but cannot afford economic and com-fortable houses. the Prh program in changpingdistrict, beijing was at an advanced stage in June 2012and was ready for operation.
the Ministry of housing and urban-rural developmentof the People’s republic of china (Mohurd)announced a document on merging the operation ofpublic rental houses and cheap rental houses in 2013(“notice regarding combining operations of Publicrental housing and cheap rental housing”). thisannouncement is explained by the state council’s for-warded document “notice regarding deepeningeconomic Mechanism reform Key Issues” initiated by thenational development and reform commission and the“recommendations regarding the construction andManagement of affordable Peaceful living Projects” ini-tiated by the general office of the state council. thisannouncement stated that public rental housing and
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ozcheap rental housing are harmonized as “Public rental
housing” starting from 2014.there are many problems with the implementa-
tion of the “owning-oriented” affordable housing pro-grams (economic and comfortable housing and twocaps housing), such as the lack of affordable housingproperty and loose eligibility standards. economic andcomfortable houses are targeted at middle-and low-income household but the main buyers are middle-andhigh-income people. this is because there is no obviousdifference between commercial houses and economicand comfortable houses. the economic and comfort-able houses have no evident price advantage. also, theeconomic and comfortable houses do not work well aspart of social housing program. the eligibility screeningprocess of these houses is not strict and formal (evendevelopers can decide who is eligible for these houses insome places). some developers are so motivated bythese affordable upper-income customers that they pre-fer to build larger houses to attract these upper-incomeclients which also make it more difficult for middle-andlow-income families to buy an affordable and comfort-able house for their income level. the debate regardingeconomic and comfortable housing is mainly on thepositioning, pricing and quantities of these houses. forpositioning, in some districts, economic and comfortablehouses are even constructed such as villas which wellexceed the area standard of economic and comfortablehouses. In tianjin “Meijiang” economic andcomfortable housing Zone, there are even garden vil-las which average 170 m2 per unit with the largest onebeing 269 m2. free riders are common in the provisionof economic and comfortable houses while the lowincome households are powerless. as for the pricingissue of economic and comfortable houses, since theland for economic and comfortable houses is offered bythe government with several tax reductions, the eco-nomic and comfortable houses should naturally becheaper than the commercial houses in the same loca-tion. however, in practice, the economic houses are noteconomic at all. there is great potential for china’shousing market. With the economic development, pop-ulation growth and urbanization, huge housing marketpotential is expected in the coming 30 years. however,economic and comfortable housing cannot meet theneeds of middle-and low-income families with smallscale projects while a larger scale project might hurt thecommercial housing market. so the perfect calculationof the right amount is another issue. there are also somecontradictions in economic and comfortable housing.on the one hand, economic and comfortable housesare socially affordable in the housing supply systemaccording to the regulations and policies. on the otherhand, in practice, the construction and sale are clearly inline with the market. the large quantities of economicand comfortable houses cannot be borne by the gov-ernment alone in terms of developing, constructing andselling. but for the real estate developer, economic andcomfortable houses are just operation activities just likethe common commercial houses. the developers willbuild larger sized and luxury conditioned houses toattract high-income people. this will further bias theoriginal target of the project. Plus, the supervision of the
construction of economic and comfortable houses isunderdeveloped. the income level varies among differ-ent areas so this makes it harder to set a clear standardfor middle-and low-income level households who areeligible for such houses.
Moreover, economic and comfortablehousing programs are regarded as a temporary mea-sure to solve living problems of the middle-incomehouseholds who are willing to owning a house instead ofrenting. since the execution process of such programswas not satisfactory, the prospect of such projects isunclear.
a summary of these programs, their dates ofimplementation and the population targeted by themcan be found on the following table:
3. using PPP for affordable housing in chinaPPP projects involve an important risk transfer to the pri-vate sector when compared with projects that are deliv-ered through traditional procurement. PPPs create valuewhen the risks arising from these projects are allocatedamong the players who can handle them best. the pre-cise allocation varies case by case. (europeancommission 2004)
the concept of PPP is confusing among politi-cians and the social arena. It is, therefore, rather neces-sary to clarify what public-private partnerships imply inorder to avoid misunderstanding. according to thecanadian council for Public-Private Partnerships(Moskalyk, 2008), the definition of PPPs is -a coopera-tive venture between the public and private sectors, builton the expertise of each partner that best meets clearlydefined public needs through the appropriate allocationof resources, risks and rewards. In the present study theconcept of PPP is broader and inclusive, originating fromthe european commission (2004) definition of PPPs asfollows:
In general, the term (“PPPs”) refers to forms of coopera-tion between public authorities and the world of businesswhich aim to ensure the funding, construction, renova-tion, management or maintenance of an infrastructure orthe provision of a service.
In these arrangements the private developer is expectedto perform all the developments that are comprised in
Table 1. Affordable housing programs in China. note:above contents are summarized according to the pub-lic announcements by the government.
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the project, while the public agencies may take the rolesof regulator, enabler, moderator and facilitator all atonce (abdul-aziz & Jahn Kassim, 2011).
there are some common misunderstandings when itcomes to PPPs:
• the concept denotes “an image of private-sector, for-profit business, working in parallel, perhaps as an equalpartner, with the public sector to provide some societalbenefit” which can be misleading to some extent accord-ing to Wallace et al. (1998). Most of the time, it is thepublic sector that has been the main motivator and ini-tiator that starts the partnerships, yet their importance isnot reflected in the term title.
• PPPs are often understood as a synonym of privatiza-tion. savas (2000) regards public private partnerships asa particular malleable form of privatization. this is wronghowever - as bult-spiering and dewulf (2008) write:“public and private parties share costs, revenues andresponsibilities in a partnership, whereas in privatization,private sectors take all the responsibilities over provi-sions.”
there are certain general characteristics which are com-mon to PPPs. PPP projects usually have a relatively longduration and this kind cooperation involves both thepublic and the private partners working together on dif-ferent parts of the project. funding of the PPP projectsmainly come from the private sector, often in the form ofcomplex arrangements among various players. In somecases public funds, which may be substantial, are usedto co-finance the project. the private sector usually man-ages the design, construction, operation and mainte-nance of the related infrastructure or public service,retaining the associated risks.. the public sector standsfor the public interest and tries to monitor the quality ofthe services provided
advantages and disadvantages of PPPsPartnerships between the public and private sectors leadto “synergy”, the pooling of expertise, resources andskills in a collaborative fashion rather than a purely com-petitive one. each party contributes its strengths anddelivers a better outcome at lower cost (haughton &Whitney, 1989; Mackintosh, 1992). a further advantageis that risks are shared between public and private sec-tors at different stages (shen, Platten, & deng, 2006).the risk of cost overruns and project delays can be dras-tically reduced with the commercial disciplines broughtin by private sectors (ho, 2006; li & akintoye, 2008).also, “it becomes possible to allocate particular risk tothe partner best able to manage the risk” which makesthe partnerships achieve value for money (allan, 2001).regarding the cost of PPP projects, hart (2003) con-cluded that the contracting costs, which seem to be sec-ondary to financing issues, may shift to become the cen-tral issue. hart distinguishes between productive invest-ment and unproductive investment in the constructionphase of projects. Productive investment reduces opera-tional costs and enhances quality of the service.unproductive investment saves operational costs but
quality decreases. In conventional provision(“unbundling of building and operation”), the builderinternalizes neither the social benefit nor the operatingcost. so the builders under conventional provision dotoo little on the productive investment and just the rightamount of the unproductive investment. however, undera PPPs agreement (“bundling”), the private party doesmore of both the productive investment and the unpro-ductive investment. under these conditions, the bundlingmodel may outperform the conventional provision insome sectors (hart, 2003).
the private sector can inject flexibility, technicalknowledge, fair risk allocation to players who handle thisbest, marketing expertise, and quick reaction to unex-pected changes of PPPs projects. all the above con-tribute a lot for successful PPPs in infrastructure develop-ments (abdel aziz, 2007; harris, 2004; li et al., 2005;Zhang, 2005).
finally, through PPP arrangements it is the pri-vate sector the one in charge of financing the construc-tion of the project. budgetary constraints and technolog-ical changes have left many governments almost nospace to uphold large-scale investments in deliveringpublic services (allan, 2001; bult-spiering & dewulf,2008). thus, PPPs allow to bring forward investments intime, developing projects that would have to wait sever-al years under the traditional procurement approach.
PPPs also present some disadvantages howev-er. although PPPs are taken as a way of providing pub-lic services at little or no cost to the general public, thisdoes not mean it is cost free. Kumaraswamy and Zhang(2001) introduced several bot (build-operate-transfer)venture cases that had encountered problems due tocost overruns, unrealistic prices and income projections,and legal disputes between private and public partners.also, in occasions the tendering process of large PPPprojects is biased to favor well-known companies, result-ing sometimes in ineffectiveness, slow progress, lack oftransparency and even widespread corruption (rui et al.,2008) – something that can be avoided with an opentendering (Xu, 2008).
Why introducing a PPP housing program in china?the amount of investment required for affordable hous-ing construction projects, as previously stated, is quitelarge. as a result, chinese public authorities suffer bud-getary constraints or lack of sufficient financial resourcesfor solving affordable housing problems. using a PPPsocial housing program would take some pressure fromthe budget, and still allow many chinese families to haveaffordable dwellings. financing advantage is often thedominant motive for adopting PPP infrastructure projectsin developing countries.
although important, this shouldn’t be the onlymotivation. there are already a large number of com-panies in china with expertise in the construction andoperation of buildings. bringing those capabilities to asocial housing program through a PPP could lead tohigh standard public products or services provision - thatis, higher standards than if the government was to imple-ment the programs on its own, without transferringenough risks to other parties that have high capabilitiesin the design, construction, operation and maintenance
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4. Potential areas for affordable housing PPPs in china
In this section, we will make an in depth analysis on thepossibility of applying PPPs to affordable housing pro-jects in china.
the affordable housing programs can be cate-gorized in two broad-groups: renting-oriented and own-ership-oriented. crh and Prh are classified as renting-oriented as the objective of such programs is to providequalified people with houses for renting. While ech andtch are grouped as ownership-oriented since they areintended for people who are capable of buying or own-ing a house.
as for ownership-oriented housing program,the funding issue is not as prominent as renting-orientedhousing programs, because they are aimed at middle-and low-income households who can afford to purchasea house/apartment. thus, the use of PPPs in these pro-grams would require less financing from the private sec-tor, which in practical terms would limit the capacity ofthe government to effectively transfer risk to the privatesector sponsors. this issue questions the logic of using aPPP arrangement for this sort of programs.
therefore, in what follows we shall focus on thepossibility of applying PPPs to renting-oriented socialhousing programs.
PPPs could be implemented to support the cur-rent social housing programs. the private partner couldbe required to fund, design, construct, operate andmaintain the dwelling units. these units would then berented to families. the economic incentive of the privatesector would lie in the remuneration that it perceives forthecapital and services provided, as well as the riskassumed – a remuneration that could be financedthanks to the rents of the families that would rent thedwelling units, plus eventually (if this is not enough) someadditional contribution from the government.
the target population for renting-orientedhousing programs is low- and moderate-income classhouseholds which makes gloomy expectation on futurerent cash flow. although the government may subsidizethese tenants in various ways, the uncertainty and com-paratively longer time span of return could harm theattractiveness of these programs for investors. so if PPPsshould be used for china’s affordable housing, theirstrength in cost efficiency and funding resolutions shouldbe further highlighted and made the best use in renting-oriented affordable housing.
given that the public rental housing and cheaprental housing share many similar characteristics, we willdiscuss here the potential applications of PPPs for suchprograms together.
here we present a possible PPP model forcheap rental housing and Public rental housing pro-grams which we will call design-finance-build-Maintain-operate-transfer plus special arrangementson land Provision Model (“dfbMot+salP”). two com-ponents form the whole model, the prevailing tradition-al PPP model of design-finance-build -Maintain-operate-transfer and a specification regarding the spe-
cial way of offering land to private land operators.
dfbMot PPP arrangementthe process would work as follows: a contract would bemade between the public sector and private investors.the new Public rental housing project (-merged bycheap rental housing and Public rental housing) isgranted to certain investors through bidding or othercompetitive selection method. Investors are responsiblefor designing, financing, building, maintaining and oper-ating the construction within a time span specified in thecontract. on the other hand, governments have to pro-vide the land in which the project will be developed, pro-vide compensation to the private sector investors (forinstance letting them keep the rents paid by the benefi-ciaries of the program, eventually complemented withsome additional funds if necessary), keep their promiseof the agreed special policies supporting such projectsand taking over the project after the maturity of the con-tract.
during the tendering process, the governmentshould focus on the financial and technical capabilitiesof private companies. the primary reasons for choosingPPP provision are to improve the quality standards of theprogram and to solve the absence of capital in Publicrental housing program. Penalty and reward clausesshould be included in the contract so as to ensure theprivate and public parties act professionally.
the above figure1 proposes a PPP arrange-ment in which design, financing, construction, availabil-ity and demand risks are transferred (are least to a cer-tain extent) to the private sector. this generic schemecould be modified in several ways. for instance:
• No transfer of demand risk to the private sector: ten-ants would pay the monthly rent to the public manage-ment entity in charge of the project, that would performan availability payment to the SPV.
• Depending on the economic conditions of the project(that is, if the project is self-financing or if it needs someeconomic support in order to guarantee its feasibility),the Public Sector could perform some payments to theSPV in order to compensate the lack of revenues coming
Figure 1. Simplified Proposed DFBMOT PPP arrangement
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from the tenants. If the tenants could pay very high rents,then the opposite could also be implemented: the SPVpaying a canon to the Public Sector, that could be usedto pay for the Public Sector monitoring of the contract.
• The public sector could be a shareholder in the SPV,creating an effective Joint Venture between the publicand the private sectors.
table 2 represents the obligations of both the public(government) and the private (developer) parties.
the partnership binding contract will specify theinvestment, project duration, transfer clause, qualitystandards etc. such a contract can constrain the cost ofthe projects and allocate risks efficiently. for example,adding maintenance obligations to the private partnermotivates the private company to build the houses to therequired standards.
the project company can use the market toraise funds and divide the capital burden into severalstages which makes the capital more efficient. also,there is a vertical integration of the whole project, name-ly the preparing, designing, implementing and manag-ing process are all integrated and handled by the projectcompany. It enhances the connection of each stage andhelps reduce overall costs, since a lifecycle approach isused. as private investors take the responsibility of main-taining the houses after the construction within the con-tract period, they have more incentives to build qualifiedhouses to avoid following quality issues in order to keepthe whole cost low.
salPthe private sector sponsor will need to recoup its initialinvestment. If this was a regular private real estate devel-opment in china, an important part of this investmentwould be destined to land acquisition rights. reducingthe cost of land acquisition rights to the private sectorsponsor would contribute to the project requiring a lowercapital expenditure, and ultimately in having a low rent.
governments can cooperate with private realestate developers by offering cheap rent houses in wayof co-developing land. this represents an option of
involving private capital in construction and provision ofpublic rental houses. this is achieved by providing devel-opers with the right to develop certain land at a discountprice and in the meantime requiring certain proportionof the construction land used for public rental houses. Itis also an initiative of Public rental housing project givenby the government since this is like implicitly giving awaysome payment obtained on the land transfer to privatedeveloper. It saves some detailed processes and prob-lems for the government since the public rental housesare explicitly offered by the developer. the cost is direct-ly reduced from the land transfer payments. namely, theprivate developer has already deducted the cost of offer-ing cheap rent houses in their quotation.
In summary, we regard the design-build-finance-Maintain-transfer plus special arrangements onland Provision Model (“dbfMt+salP”) in the construc-tion of public rental houses, as valuable for the followingpoints. first of all, the operation efficiency of the asset isenhanced as the private sector keeps on managing thesehouses instead of the government providing mainte-nance themselves. the acute insights of the private sec-tor of the market and advanced management mecha-nisms can make the whole project work better. the gov-ernment is also free of these detailed operations andmanagement issues. all in all, since land is offered by thegovernment at a discount price, or even free, whichmakes the final charge to end users comparatively lessand the incorporation of maintenance work by the pri-vate sector in the agreement, makes the project qualitybetter which is another benefit for the end users.
What is more, it helps solve the financing prob-lem. Private developers can use their own capital orfinancing through capital market and enlarge the financ-ing channels for public rental house construction. sincethe private investors get all their investments back after arather long period of constructing and operating periodof the project, the government is not exposed to any sig-nificant financial pressure during this time. also when thecontract is finished, the government can get all the prop-erty rights of the public houses back unconditionallywhich makes the previously money-consuming publicrent housing projects affordable for the public sector.Moreover, since the government invests less or no capi-tal investment at all, the whole project is constructed andmanaged by private investors which have an importantincentive to speed up the construction of public rentalhouses so that the middle-and low-income householdscan move into those houses earlier. Private developershave the right and obligation to operate after the con-struction so that the investors can make a profit throughrent collection and other subsidy or favorable policy sup-port.
so using PPPs in Public rental houses is a win-win solution for both the public and private sectors andbenefits the general public both on the low rents and sat-isfying quality of those houses.
5. conclusionschina’s social housing reform has made some progress.several affordable housing programs offer differentincome level households different ways of owning orrenting a property. but the lack of financing support andproject efficiency is still an urgent issue.
china’s social housing programs can be cate-gorized in two broad groups: programs which aim athelping middle-and low-income households rent ahouse, and programs which are for middle-incomehouseholds to own a property.
Table 2. Obligations of Government and the Private Sector
Sponsor under the previously described PPP arrangement.
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ez s
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ozbased on our analysis of those affordable hous-
ing programs, we draw the conclusion that PPPs aremore favorable for renting-oriented type projects thanowning-oriented projects. the advantages of the PPPmodel for china’s renting-oriented affordable housingprograms are: the provision of private financing, theenhancing efficiency by involving private sector expertsand the statement of bundling constructions and main-tenance and operation work in the contract, which moti-vates the private sector to build properties up to standardfor its cost efficiency from the whole project perspective.
More specifically, as for the renting-orientedaffordable housing programs we propose a design-build-finance-Maintain-transfer plus specialarrangements on land Provision Model(“dfbMot+salP”) which falls in PPPs scope. hopefully,it offers some implications for future academic research.
6. references
abdel aziz, a. M. (2007). successful delivery of public-private partner-ships for infrastructure development. Journal of ConstructionEngineering and Management, 133(12), 918-931.
abdul-aziz, a.-r. & Jahn Kassim, P. (2011). objectives, success andfailure factors of housing public–private partnerships in Malaysia.Habitat International, 35(1), 150-157.
allan, J. r. (2001). Public-private partnerships: A review of literatureand practice: saskatchewan Institute of Public Policy.
bult-spiering, M. & dewulf, g. (2008). Strategic issues in public-privatepartnerships: An international perspective: John Wiley & sons.
chen, J.; guo, f. & Wu, Y. (2011). one decade of urban housingreform in china: urban housing price dynamics and the role of migra-tion and urbanization, 1995–2005. Habitat International, 35(1), 1-8.
chen, J.; hao, Q. and stephens, M. (2010). assessing housingaffordability in Post-reform china: a case study of shanghai. HousingStudies, 25 (6), 877-901.
dang, Y.; liu, Z. & Zhang, W. (2014). land-based interests and thespatial distribution of affordable housing development: the case ofbeijing, china. Habitat International, 44, 137-145.
european commission (2004). Green Paper on Public-PrivatePartnerships and Community Law on Public Contracts andConcessions. coM(2004) 327 final, brussels.
harris, s. (2004). Public private partnerships: delivering better infra-structure services. In: Recouping Infrastructure Investment in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean. ed: Juan benavides. Inter-americandevelopment bank, Washington.
hart, o. (2003). Incomplete contracts and public ownership: remarks,and an application to public”private partnerships. The EconomicJournal, 113, 69-76.
haughton, g. & Whitney, d. (1989). equal urban partners?. ThePlanner, 75(34), 9-11.
ho, s. P. (2006). Model for financial renegotiation in public-privatepartnership projects and its policy implications: game theoretic view.Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 132(7), 678-688.
hui, e. & Wong, f. K. (2006). affordable housing in china. HabitatInternational, 30(2), 275-276.
Kumaraswamy, M., & Zhang, X. (2001). governmental role in bot-led infrastructure development. International Journal of ProjectManagement, 19(4), 195-205.
li, b., & akintoye, a. (2008). an overview of public-private partnership.In: Public-private partnerships: managing risks and opportunities,blackwell Publishing.
li, b.; akintoye, a.; edwards, P. J., & hardcastle, c. (2005). criticalsuccess factors for PPP/PfI projects in the uK construction industry.Construction management and economics, 23(5), 459-471.
li, d.; chen, h.; Man hui, e. c.; Yang, h. & li, Q. (2014). a method-ology for ex-post assessment of social impacts of an affordable hous-ing project. Habitat International, 43, 32-40.
Mackintosh, M. (1992). Partnership: issues of policy and negotiation.Local economy, 7(3), 210-224.
Moskalyk, a. (2008). The role of public-private partnerships in fundingsocial housing in Canada: canadian Policy research networks.
research group of the Marketing department in the state councildevelopment and research center (2012). PracticallyInvokingaffordable housing’s influence on Improving People’s lives,Making structural adjustments and stablizing Investments. ChinaDevelopment Observation, (12), 26-27.
rui, M.; Jong, M. and heuvelhof, e. (2008). Public-Private Partnershipand the Management of Expressways in China: An Agency TheoryApproach. delft university of technology, delft.
savas, e. s. (2000). Privatization and public-private partnerships:chatham house Pub. shen, l.-Y.; Platten, a. & deng, X. (2006). roleof public private partnerships to manage risks in public sector projectsin hong Kong. International Journal of Project Management, 24(7),587-594.
Wallace, J.; Pomery, s.; lampert, g. & sheehan, r. (1998). the roleof Public-Private Partnerships in funding affordable housing. Preparedfor the CMHC [Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation]Housing Affordability and Finance Series. Ottawa: Canada Mortgageand Housing Corporation.
Wang, Y. P. (2001). urban housing reform and finance in china a casestudy of beijing. Urban Affairs Review, 36(5), 620-645.
Wang, Y. P., & Murie, a. (1999). Housing policy and practice in China:Macmillan.
Wang, Y. P., & Murie, a. (2000). social and spatial implications ofhousing reform in china. International Journal of Urban and RegionalResearch, 24(2), 397-417.
Xu, s. (2008). Applying Public-Private-Partnership to Chinese SubwayInfrastructures. Master thesis, faculty of Policy, technology andManagement, delft university of technology, delft.Yeung, s. c. W., & howes, r. (2006). the role of the housing provi-dent fund in financing affordable housing development in china.Habitat International, 30(2), 343-356.
Zhang, X. (2005). critical success factors for public–private partner-ships in infrastructure development. Journal of ConstructionEngineering and Management, 131(1), 3-14.
Zou, Y. (2014). contradictions in china's affordable housing policy:goals vs. structure. Habitat International, 41, 8-16.
author(s):
Wenbo Qin*, antonio sánchez soliño (correspondingautor)**, vicente alcaraz carrillo de albornoz†
*department of economics and Management, beijingInstitute of technology 100081 beijing, Pr china
**, † construction department, Polytechnic university ofMadrid 28040 Madrid, spain
Correspondence Address: antonio sánchez soliño, etsIngenieros de caminos, Profesor aranguren s/n, 28040Madrid, spain. tel.: 34-91-3366649. e-mail: [email protected]
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1. introduction
Building energy consumption accounts for about 30% ofenergy consumption in china (yao 2011; zhou 2013).there is a great need to adopt building energy savingmeasures to realize the low carbon city, since energy lossis mainly through building envelope in which windowsconstitute weak spots. their significance is enhanced bythe high proportion of glazing typical of buildings. thusthe thermal transmittance of windows tends to be muchhigher than that of the neighboring opaque elements(yao 2010).
overhang, as one of solar shading devices, isthe most common energy saving measure in preventingsolar heat gain in summer in tropical climate region andmost residential buildings are designed with overhangs.however, nowadays a lot of public buildings with largeglazing do not install overhangs, in order to achieve agood appearance, causing high energy consumption inusing period. if overhangs can be used, energy savingeffect will be obvious.
the significance of overhang has been report-ed by many researchers. for example, raeissi et al.,(1998) investigated the optimum dimension of overhangfor energy saving in the air-conditioning system underthe iran climatic condition. there research showed thatthere was a reduction of about 12.7% in cooling load insummer while an insignificant increase of 0.6% in winterheating energy demand. using trnsys, florides et al.(2002) studied the performance of overhang in loweringthe building energy demand in a typical house incyprus. they found that a saving of 7% to 19% in cool-ing energy could be achieved by a balcony shading aswell as adding different insulation materials. lee andtavil (2007) reported that electrochromic window com-
bined with overhang could significantly reduce annualenergy saving for large-area window. chan’s study(2010) showed that residential buildings in hong Kongwith southwest facing balcony and clear glass glazedwindow achieves the highest saving percentage of12.3% in annual air-conditioning consumption. otherresearchers also reported similar analysis on overhang(ebrahimpour 2011; van moeseke 2007; gsmez-muqoz 2004).
for hot summer and cold winter zone, over-hang design should not only consider summer condi-tions to block solar radiation but also winter conditionsthat need solar penetration to warm indoor space toreduce heating load as well as lighting energy demand.however, research on overhang in this area remains lim-ited. only cao et al., carried out a calculation of opti-mal overhang dimension by considering solar shadingcoefficient both in summer and winter (cao 2006). theyconcluded that the optimal overhang depth for south-facing widows is about 0.3 to 0.4m in this region. theshortcoming of this study is that they did not considerannual energy performance, which is the most importantfactor in determining the optimal overhang depth.whether the optimal overhang depth in this region is still0.3-0.4m is not sure and thus there is a need to carryout a comprehensive analysis on overhang depth byconsidering thermal and visual conditions. this studygave such an investigation into the optimal overhangdepth in hot summer and cold winter zone by consider-ing building energy consumption, daylight performanceand glare protection.
2. methodology2.1 the typical buildinga typical building room with 2 persons (dimension:
Jian Yao, Rong-Yue ZhengAbstract
This study investigated the building energy, glare and daylight performance of overhang using building simulation soft-
ware Energyplus in order to identify an optimal depth in hot summer and cold winter zone. A typical building with dif-
ferent window-to-wall ratios (WWR) was modeled and different overhang depths were considered. Results showed that
the optimal overhang depths are 0.9m (WWR=0.15), 1.16m (WWR=0.3) and 1.62m (WWR=0.57), respectively. The
total energy savings from overhang design can be ranging from about 3% to 24% depending on WWR and overhang
depth. Moreover, the regression relationship between optimal overhang depth and WWR is given to help identify the
best overhang dimension at the design stage. The potential energy saving performance for different WWRs then can
be roughly inferred according to a total energy saving chart without building energy simulation. In conclusion, to be
applicable in buildings, an overhang depth of 0.6-0.8m is suitable in this region since it has a balance in energy per-
formance and aesthetic appearance.
Keywords: Building Energy, Daylight, Overhang, Optimal Depth, Windows
Determining a practically optimal overhangDepth for south-facing winDows in hotsummer anD colD winter zone.
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4×4×3m, see fig. 1) is modeled in energyplus (crawleyet al. 2001). to investigate the impact of overhang depthon energy performance, different window-to-wall ratios(wwr) were considered with a south-facing window ofthree sizes of 1×1.8m (wwr=0.15), 2×1.8m(wwr=0.3) and 3.8×1.8m (wwr=0.57), respectively,and an overhang (dimension ranging from 0 to 1m by a0.2m interval). larger wwrs than 0.57 are generallywindow curtain wall cases which usually either do notinstall overhang for aesthetic purpose or are hard toinstall due to no external walls. and rare cases havewwr<0.15 in this region. thus wwr ranging from0.15 to 0.57 represents most window sizes.
the dimension and setting of buildingenveloped and hvac etc comply with the energy designstandard in this area (china academy of buildingresearch 2005) and listed in table 1, and the typicalmeteorological year data for ningbo city (a typical city inhot summer and cold winter zone of china) was used in8760 hours simulation. through simulation, annualcooling, heating, lighting and total energy performancewill be discussed and the optimal overhang depth will bedetermined for different wwrs. further more, a fittingequation will be given to guide designers selecting suit-able overhang depth considering both energy perfor-mance and aesthetic appearance. to have a compari-son with standard suggested method, the optimal depthwas also calculated using the equation suggested bydesign standard in this area.
2.2 evaluation indexto carry out a comprehensive analysis, several indexes oraspects were considered. for thermal conditions, build-ing energy consumption and transmitted solar radiationwere compared for different overhang depths. to evalu-ate the daylighting performance, the useful daylightindex (uDi) was considered. for the glare aspect, themost used index at the international level is daylight glareindex (Dgi) since it is relatively suitable for evaluation ofdaylight induced discomfort glare experienced from win-dows (piccolo 2009). when analyzing Dgi, it is assumedthat occupant sits (1.2m high) toward outside and thedistance from the occupant and the window is 0.5 m.according to (olbina 2012), a Dgi<22 means a com-
fortable visual condition for building rooms.
3. results and discussion3.1 energy demand3.1.1 cooling energy demandcooling energy demand decreases as overhang depthincrease as shown in fig.2, with a higher wwr leadingto a larger energy saving (14.77% for wwr=0.15,18.39% for wwr=0.3 and 27.54% for wwr=0.57,respectively, when the overhang depth is 1m). and thecooling energy demand for wwr=0.57 is about 2times higher than that for wwr=0.15. this is becausea larger window receives more solar radiation in summerand thus is responsible for much more cooling energydemand. it can be seen that the optimal depth is muchlonger than 1m since the cooling energy demand keepsa dropping trend due to blocked solar radiation by over-hang. a fitting with a quadratic curve is also shown infig. 2 and the regression equations for these three wwrcases are shown in below. where ec is annual coolingenergy demand and X is overhang depth. according tothe following equation, the cooling energy performancefor other overhang depth can also be calculated.
Ec=48150X2-164473X+764977, R2=0.9964, WWR=0.15;
Ec=73787X2-273846X+1053780, R2=0.9957, WWR=0.3;
Ec=128676X2-579445X+1582467, R2=0.9949, WWR=0.57;
3.1.2 heating energy demandon the other hand, heating energy demand rises withincreased overhang depth as shown in fig.3, with ahigher wwr leading to a larger energy increase(24.21% for wwr=0.15, 47.06% for wwr=0.3 and145.86% for wwr=0.57, respectively, when the over-hang depth is 1m). this increase ratio is much higherthan the decrease ratio for cooling energy demand.
Figure 2. Cooling energy demand vs overhang depth.
Figure 1. Building model.
Table 1. The dimension and setting of building enveloped
and HVAC etc.
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Does it indicate an increase in total energy demand? itwill be discussed in the following section. the regressionequations for these three wwr cases are shown inbelow:
eh= 33884X2+16244 X+196999, r2=0.9944, wwr=0.15;
eh= 39277X2+12492X+104864, r2= 0.9956, wwr=0.3;
eh= 49626X2+174X+33107, r2= 0.9985, wwr=0.57;
fig.3 heating energy demand vs overhang depth
3.1.3 total energy demandBesides cooling and heating energy, lighting energy isusually considered. in this paper, it is however not takeninto consideration since the artificial lighting energy canbe neglected due to a good dayligting performance. Bycounting the hours that needs to turn on lights, it is foundthat even the worst case (the least wwr=0.15 with anoverhang depth of 1m) there is only 288 hours for day-lighting illuminance levels of less than 300 lux underwhich artificial lighting is needed. this means that themaximum lighting energy is only 3168 wh, much lessthan heating energy. therefore, the lighting energy is notconsidered in the following total energy demand discus-sion.
as shown in fig. 4, it is clear that the total ener-gy demand shows a downward trend as overhang depthincrease and a higher wwr contributes to an increasedtotal energy consumption. this is because the decreaseof the cooling energy is much higher than the corre-sponding increase of the heating energy due to coolingenergy dominated south-facing rooms as shown in fig.5. for wwr=0.15, heating energy demand accountsfor higher than 20% of total energy demand. however itonly accounts for about 2%. therefore, the total energydemand will be decreased even there is a higher heat-ing energy increasing ratio as described in the abovesection. the regression equations for these three wwrcases are shown in follow:
et=82034X2-148229X+961976, r2=0.9941, wwr=0.15;
et=113064X2-261355X+1158643, r2=0.9945, wwr=0.3;
et=178302X2-579271X +1615574, r2=0.994, wwr=0.57;
where et is the total energy demand and X means theoverhang depth. the high values of r square (more than0.99) mean a very good fitting. therefore, using these
equations, it is easy to calculate the optimal overhangdepth with minimal energy consumption for differentwwrs. these optimal values are 0.9m (wwr=0.15),1.16m (wwr=0.3) and 1.62m (wwr=0.57), respec-tively. these values are much higher than previousreported optimal depth of about 0.3-0.4m and indicatea too deep overhang to be used in the viewpoint of aes-thetic appearance. why this research findings do notagree with previous work. the author tries to give aninsight into this confusion in the following context.
wwr=0.15
wwr=0.3
wwr=0.57
3.2 solar radiationprevious studies focused on the beam solar radiationwhen calculating the optimal overhang depth. they sim-ply assumed that the optimal condition for overhang isto block beam solar radiation in summer but admittingit in winter. however, a significant factor influencingenergy performance without being taken into considera-tion by previous researchers is diffuse radiation. asshown in tables 1-3, the diffuse radiation accounts for68% of total solar radiation and has a substantial impacton cooling energy demand since diffuse radiation ishard to be blocked by overhang in summer. thus itwould not be neglected in determining optimal over-hang depth. now it is clear why the previous reportedoptimal overhang depth is less than the findings of thispaper. the reason is that a short overhang (0.3-0.4m) isenough to block direct solar radiation if diffuse radiationis not considered, but it should be longer to block bothdirect and diffuse solar radiation.
Figure 5. Building energy breakdown..
Figure 4. Total energy demand vs overhang depth.Figure 3. Heating energy demand vs overhang depth.
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3.3 theoretically optimal overhang depth in terms ofenergy aspectaccording to the above 3 calculated optimal overhangdepths for the three wwrs, a linear regression isobtained as shown in fig. 6 with the following equation:
Xoptimal = 1.713wwr + 0.6442, r2=1
where Xoptimal is the optimal overhang depth. a verygood fitting with a r square equal to 1 means this equa-tion can be used to predict precisely the optimal over-hang depth for other wwrs. to validate this equation, awwr=0.5 case was simulated in the same way and aregression equation for its total energy demand isobtained:
et=164827X2-492141X+1480653, r2=0.9939, wwr=0.5
according to the above equation, the optimal overhangdepth is 1.49m, which is almost the same as the regres-sion result of 1.50m using the above equation.therefore, this equation is suitable for determine optimaloverhang depth for most south-facing rooms with regu-
lar window size.
3.4 Daylight aspect
Daylight is an important factor for occupants’ satisfactionin a room space since it provides occupants with psy-chological benefits as well as reduced artificial lightingenergy consumption. however, daylight is useful only ifits level is neither too dark nor too bright. the useful day-light index (uDi) is then proposed by mardaljevic andnabil in 2006. it is a dynamic daylight performancemeasure that is based on work plane illuminance (nabil2006). the uDi corresponds to the ratio of time whenthe daylight illuminance on the work place is rangingbetween the two extreme values, with the lower value of300lux and the higher value of 2000 for regular roomspaces.
fig.7 gives the useful daylight index for differentwwrs with different overhang depth. it is clear that uDidecreases as wwr rises, while uDi increases as over-hang depth increases for each wwr (48%, 45% and72% for 0.15, 0.3 and 0.57, respectively). the officehours (oh) for the whole year are considered to be3650h with 10h a day. thus, the ratio of uDi to oh is47%-71%, 27%-39% and 17%-30% for wwr=0.15,0.3 and 0.57, respectively. the uDi value forwwr=0.15 is two times higher than that for
Table 4. Transmitted solar radiation for WWR=0.57.
Table 3. Transmitted solar radiation for WWR=0.3.
Table 2. Transmitted solar radiation for WWR=0.15.
Figure 7. Useful daylight index (UDI) for different WWRs with
different overhang depth.
Figure 6. A linear regression for optimal overhang depth for
different WWRs
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wwr=0.57. this is because larger wwrs lead to high-er daylight illuminance values of more than 2000lux.this means that a wwr ratio of more than 0.15 con-tributes to a negative impact on uDi, but an increasedoverhang depth between 0-1m helps improve uDi.therefore, it is not a good idea to design a large wwrin terms of uDi. however, an overhang would be a use-ful remedy if a large wwr is needed.
3.5 glare aspect
fig.8 presents hours for Dgi<22 for different wwrs (acomfortable visual condition) with different overhangdepths. it is clear that the comfortable visual condition isimproved as overhang depth increases. in addition, anincrease of wwr also leads to an enhanced comfort-able hours. the total hours for wwr=0.57 reach 288(rank first) at overhang depth of 0.8 and 1m, whichmeans larger wwrs contribute to more hours of com-fortable visual conditions. this may attribute to areduced illuminance contrast ratio of indoor surfaces towindows when direct solar radiation reaches windows. alower wwr (e.g. 0.15) results in a larger contrast ratiocompared to a higher wwr. thus the maximum Dgi forwwr=0.15 is higher than wwr=0.57 as shown in fig.9, which is an intolerable visual condition as Dgi indexhas been more than two times higher than recommend-ed values of maximum allowable Dgi index. however,the situation for annual average Dgi (see fig. 10) iscontrary to hours for Dgi<22. average Dgi index notonly reduces as wwr lowers, but it also declines whenoverhang depth increases. the decrease of Dgi index isnot significant when overhang depth is higher than0.6m.
4. standard suggested equation
to guide the overhang design in hot summer and coldwinter zone of china, the design standard for buildingenergy efficiency suggests an equation for overhangdepth design as follows:
where l is overhang depth, h is the distance from thebottom of window to the overhang, hs is solar altitudeangle and is wall azimuth angle as shown in fig. 11.
according to this equation, overhang depth for two typ-ical days in summer (summer begins from about 6-1 toabout 9-30) are shown in table 5. the optimal depth 6-21 is about 0.12-0.15m while it is about 1.2m for 9-21.this means the optimal depth differs largely for different
Figure 9. Annual maximum DGI for different WWRs with dif-
ferent overhang depths.
Figure 10. Annual average DGI for different WWRs with dif-
ferent overhang depths.
Figure 11. Schematic diagram showing overhang depth
determination
Figure 8. Hours for DGI<22 for different WWRs with differ-
ent overhang depths.
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days in the same season. therefore, it is hard for design-ers to determine the optimal overhang depth by usingthe equation in the design standard. according to theanalysis in the above section, building simulation helpidentify the optimal depth compared with standard sug-gested equation.
5. total energy savings
total energy savings for the three wwrs with differentoverhang depth are shown in fig. 12. Due to a highcooling energy demand as discussed above, the totalenergy savings increased with overhang depth deepen-ing, and a higher wwr achieves more energy savingsunder the saving overhang depth. since the wwr rang-ing from 0.15 to 0.57 represents the most common win-dow sizes in buildings, energy savings from overhangdesign can be ranging from about 3% to 24% depend-ing on wwr and overhang depth.
on the other hand, an overhang depth mightnot be too long to be applied in terms of aesthetic per-formance. therefore, one can design an overhang aslong as about 0.6-0.8m to have a balance in energyperformance and aesthetic appearance. meanwhile, thetotal energy saving trends after overhang depth over0.6m show that 0.6m might be enough for wwr=0.15whereas 0.8m might be much suitable for wwr>0.3since the energy saving is still significant when overhangdepth over 0.6m.
for designers, this chart can help them have aroughly idea about how much energy savings can beachieved by using overhang and also it guides them todesign a suitable an overhang with maximum energysavings but remain a desired aesthetic appearance.according to the wwr value and desired overhangdepth, a point or a small region can be roughly deter-mined in fig.7 and thus the total energy saving can beapproximately estimated by the point or small regionlocated in which part of the light blue areas (there aretotally 8 areas).
6. conclusion
this paper carried out building simulations to investigatethe influence of overhang dimension on building energy.a typical room with different window-to-wall ratios wasmodeled in building simulation software energyplus toidentify an optimal depth in hot summer and cold winterzone. results showed that the optimal overhang depthsare 0.9m (wwr=0.15), 1.16m (wwr=0.3) and1.62m (wwr=0.57), respectively. the total energy sav-ings from overhang design can be ranging from about
3% to 24% depending on wwr and overhang depth. tobe applicable in buildings, an overhang depth of 0.6-0.8m is suitable that has a balance in energy perfor-mance and aesthetic appearance. furthermore, anenergy saving chart was given to help designers findinga suitable overhang depth.
7. acknowledgments
this work was supported by national Key technologyr&D program of the ministry of science and technologyunder grant 2013BaJ10B06, and the authors wouldlike to thank the K.c.wong magna fund in ningbouniversity.
Table 5. Calculated optimal overhang depth.
Figure 12. Total energy savings for different WWRs with dif-
ferent overhang depth.
references
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gsmez-muQoz v. m. and porta-ganDara m. a. 2004, Generalmodel to build awnings and external walls with optimum shading inter-action. renewable energy, 29, 605-613.
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olBina s. and hu J. 2012, Daylighting and thermal performance ofautomated split-controlled blinds. Building and environment, 56, 127-138.
piccolo a. and simone f. 2009, Effect of switchable glazing ondiscomfort glare from windows. Building and environment, 44, 1171-1180.
raeissi s. and taheri m. 1998, Optimum overhang dimensions forenergy saving. Building and environment, 33, 293-302.
van moeseKe g., Bruyhre i. and De herDe a. 2007, Impact ofcontrol rules on the efficiency of shading devices and free cooling foroffice buildings. Building and environment, 42, 784-793.
yao, J. and Xu, J. 2010, Effects of different shading devices on build-ing energy saving in hot summer and cold winter zone, 2010international conference on mechanic automation and controlengineering, wuhan, china, 5017-5020.
yao, J. and zhu, n. 2011, Enhanced Supervision Strategies forEffective Reduction of Building Energy Consumption-A Case Study ofNingbo. energy and Buildings, 43, 2197-2202.
zhou y. and zhou D. 2013, Effect of Envelop Insulation for IndoorThermal Environment in Summer: Tests and Analysis. Journal of ningbouniversity(natural science & engineering edition), 26, 100-102. author(s):
Jian yao, faculty of architectural, civil engineering andenvironment, ningbo university, ningbo, china email: [email protected]
rong-yue zhengfaculty of architectural, civil engineering andenvironment, ningbo university, ningbo, chinao
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INTRODUCTION
The concept of sustainable urban development which isstrongly related to social, economic and ecologic agentsshould intensely influence the approach in consideringvarious precautions in order to conserve the livablenature of cities (Ataöv, Osmay, 2007). The main targetof this is to create awareness on the precautions to betaken in order to reduce the undesirable effects of theincrease in population due to migration from rural areasto cities and the destruction of the greenery during theexpansion of cities. In addition, providing recommenda-tions in order to preserve healthy living environment isanother major focus.
Kyrenia, which is one of the cities in North Cyprus,is a developing city due to the increase in population.Unfortunately, apart from the irrepressible rise in popu-lation, the approval endorsed by the zoning law to buildmulti-storey high rise buildings also contributes tounplanned urbanization. The impact of unplannedurbanization displays its influence on the city in variousways: problems related to economic, ecologic, social,environmental conditions and traffic are on the rise.
SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATIONSustainable urbanization means the development of a
city to exist better than it has and it allows further devel-opment to cater the needs of future generations (Ertürk,1996: 175). Moreover, it allows the healthy expansion ofcities towards less populated rural areas surroundingthem. However, this expansion brings along problems ofthe production and consumption of energy and otherresources; it creates a negative influence on ecologicalstructure, transportation and infrastructural systems. Inorder to avoid these negative waves of many variables,the natural structure of the city should be preserved(Blowers,1992 :3-10).
Among the objectives of sustainable urbanizationare: improving the quality of life, counteracting againstpoverty, preserving and cultivating biological variety,ensuring technological rennovations, keeping popula-tion increase under control, using sustainable energyresources and sustaining clean and reliable environment(Çahantimur, 2007:10). In order to ensure maximumparticipation in responsibility this requires along with ahealthy follow-up of these goals, the use of land bears avery important role. Furthermore, public awarenessshould be raised and a supportive program should beestablished to oversee those sustainable plans and pro-grams. In this respect, in order to strengthen collec-tive/societal identity, a strong opinion of public spacesand pedestrian network should be created while historic
Cemil Atakara, Gizlem Akyay
AbstractCities were first formed, they have been developed and advanced together with the development of humanity and tech-nology. The cities in urbanization process have been going through technological, economical, social and culturalchanges. These changes have brought along lots of problems affecting the environment humans live in. The environ-mental pollution caused by increasing population and degeneration of the environmental resources, and the problemscaused by local economic and social disorganization have become the basic concerns of this area. The rapid popula-tion growth affects also the cities in social, cultural and economic manners. Especially with the increasing number ofmulti-story structure demolished in acts of urban centers, because of new and larger settlements housing, water, gen-eral health conditions, transportation, environmental degeneration, decrease in green fields etc. like these problemshave been arose. The physical structure of a city is comprised of its habitants' social, cultural, economic aspects andtheir interaction with each other.
In this study , in Kyrenia White Zone and Environmental Protection Area encountered in the development processlike economic, ecological , environmental problems, and the green field areas that being destroyed day by day areanalyzing for the city effects . While evaluating this analysis, LEED ND neighborhood scale, which is created for theadvancement in urban sustainability and which is one of the environmental-performance certificate and evaluation sys-tems have been preferred. In this study, the green fields, environmental problems, economic and ecological develop-ments of the region were also taken into account. In order to learn the size of the development and problems, 5 regions-including environment protection region- with different aspects were chosen and a survey was conducted.
Keywords: Sustainability, Urban, Sustainable Urban Development, Green Fields, LEED ND
SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN THE GREENCITY: KYRENIA WHITE ZONE
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structures are preserved. At the same time, transporta-tion systems should be improved and alternative modelsshould be supplied (Karakurt, 2007: 16).
THE SCALE OF NEIGHBOURHOOD IN SUSTAINABLEURBANIZATIONWhen the change of many cities is observed closely, itbecomes clear that the technological improvement inmany areas and the change of life styles have influencedthe cities as well as the societies inhabiting them. Thisinteraction has given way to the wish of creating a moresustainable environment and it requires a more awareand educated society to achieve it. Neigbourhoods, asseparate units of society, play a very important role indevelopment as they provide us a realistic scale. Systemsthat have been established using neigbourhood scalemethod has inspired other methods of analysis (Sev,Canbay. 2009).
LEED NDLEED is the most commonly known and applied systemin the world. This system, which is in the scale of a build-ing, was first used in the USA in 1998. It has carried outevaluations in very many diferent categories until 2002when LEED ND neighbourhood scale has been added toit (Roderick, McEwan,Wheatley , Alonso, 2009). Themain reason why this system has started to be used wasbecause of the increasing rate of car dependency, highcarbon emission levels, having unreliable neighbour-hood, and the weak environmental awareness of thepeople in America at the times. This system carries outthe analysis and evaluation with three main criteria(CNU, NRDC, USGBC, 2011).These criteria are the following,
1. Smart location and linkageRegion selection and planning are important factors onenvironmental sustainability. Even if the buildings withgreen construction technique are constructed on chosennatural fields, the naturality still fall into ruin. Chosenfield mostly represents developed area and sites. In theseareas, efficient use of the land, green areas, importanceof ecological and agricultural areas are regarded(Loures, Santos, Thomas, 2007). Among these selectedregions, having housing, shops and public domains isconsidered as an advantage for the region. At the sametime, transportation is regarded as well. Facilitating thetransportation with public transportation and bicyle trails,having walking-tracks also supports the environmentecology (CND, NRDC, USGBC).* Location* Ecosystems and Open Spaces* Contaminated Sites* Transit-Accessible Locations* Cycling Facilities* Jobs and Housing Proximity
2. Neighborhood pattern and designAt the land use, sustainability quality of places which aredeveloped by protecting natural areas and making land-scape design are more. On the basis of creating a pro-ductive neighborhood, schools, stores, green areas,playgrounds and public transportation are needed. To
improve the tendency to the public transportation sys-tems, having walkable neighborhoods and close stops isimportant. Also, these situations have been affectingwater and infrastructure systems with compact develop-ment (Ewing , Cervero, 2010).* Walkable Streets* Compact Development* Neighborhood Connections* Mixed Uses* Affordable and Diverse Housing* Parking and Transportation Demand* Parks and Recreation* Universal Design* Community Participation* Local Food* School Access and Design
3. Green infrasructure and buildingGreen buildings have been representing the buildingsthat have an effect on enviromental consciousness, con-sist materials with sustainable resource and high airquality by increasing energy and water productivity(Edwig, Cervero, 2010). LEED ND have been creatingenergy and water productivity, a sustainable functionali-ty for the neighborhood in addition to the water saving.On the landscape design of the building, xerotolerantplants which are suitable for water saving and ecosystemshould be chosen. Irrigation techniques, which will col-lect the rain water and recycle, with productive irrigationequipments should be used (Handy, 1996).* Construction Techniques* Energy Efficiency and Conservation* Energy Production and Distribution* Water Efficiency and Conservation* Stormwater and Wastewater* Green Building Process* Historic and Existing Building Reuse* Heat Islands* Recycling and Reuse* Light Pollution
Sometimes, some people would like to skim through thechecklist in just 30 minutes or just an hour for getting thegeneral idea. On the other hand, some other peoplewould like to focus on it much more for researching, cal-culating or even mapping site conditions to get a moredetailed and accurate evaluation. In either case, it issuggested that you should take notes while skimming thecehcklist, especially if you have ideas for how the pro-posal, plan, or neighborhood could be developed muchmore. And also, if you would like, you can guess thescore under the LEED-ND Rating System (Handy, 1996).
KYRENIA WHITE ZONE AND SUSTAINABLE URBAN-IZATIONThe White Zone in Kyrenia - the zone where urbanizationis permitted- has shown a fast and rapid developmentrecently and the population in the area has incrased inparallel to this growth. As a result of this, the city is fac-ing some predictable but challenging issues such asenvironmental pollution, congestion in traffic and insuf-ficient infrastructure. As a consequence of all these, fiveseparate areas have been selected within the borders of
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Kyrenia White Zone and Environmental Protection Zonein order to analyze and evaluate the environmental, eco-nomical and social changes sourcing from urbanizationaccording to LEED ND standards (See Fig.1).
SWOT ANALYSISAn analysis was carried out in order to investigate thepresent situation and sustainability of Kyrenia WhiteZone, which is a continuously and rapidly developingarea, according to the zoning law.(See Fig.2) Takingthe green infrastructure standards and European LEEDND standards into consideration, this analysis aims toevaluate the sustainability of the city to serve the futuregenerations in terms of the proportion of multiple-sto-rey buildings, the proportion of allocated green areasand of land.(See Fig.3)
EVALUATION OF RESIDENCEThe evaluation of the present residence profile in KyreniaWhite Zone and Environment Protection Zone displaysthe result of 3.366 residences according to the data pro-vided by Kyrenia municipality. Among these, there are875 single-storey buildings, 1068 two-storey buildings,888 three-storey buildings, 400 four-storey buildings,102 five-storey buildings, 19 six-storey buildings, 6
seven-storey buildings, 6 eight-storey buildings and 2
nine-storey buildings. (See Fig.4)The zone harbours many old buildings with his-
torical value as it is situated in the old city centre ofKyrenia. The percentage proportion of the two-storeybuildings is high as the zoning law only allows suchbuildings in Zones B and C. The evaluation outcomereflects that there are 26.06% one-storey buildings and31.70% two-storey buildings. However, in Zone A a vari-ety of buildings can be observed. The density appears asfollows: 26.38% three-storey buildings, 11.88% four-storey buildings 3.03% five-storey buildings. In thisrespect, the breakdown of the rest appears to be as0.56% six-storey buildings, 0.17% seven-storey build-ings, 0.17 eight-storey buildings and 0.05% nine-storeybuildings. It should also be noted that the military zoneis not included in these evaluations. (See Fig.5)
THE EVALUATION OF LAND/FREE SPACEIn the area that has been analysed and evaluated, thewhite zone covers a 427.26 hectare (4,272,644.58 m2)area, on the other hand, the environmentally protectedarea covers a 67.71 hectare (677,122.72 m2) area.The identification of free space has been done in thearea, too, and according to the data provided by Kyreniamunicipality, this is 88.29 hectare (882.943m2) areaand the roads are not included in the calculations. InZone A, there is 66.71 hectare (667.193 m2) freespace. Zone B does not have free space at all since itcovers the area known as the old city centre where there
Figure 4. Number of building storey type.
Figure 3. White Kyrenia District and EnvironmentalProtection Area (Girne Emirnamesi 2011).
Figure 2. Swot analysis (Girne emirnamesi 2011) .
Figure 1. 5 different regions in Kyrenia (Kara 2015).
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are long-estab-lished residen-tial buildings.Zone C con-tains 7.17h e c t a r e(71.702 m2)free space.
According tothe zoning law,in Zone A thereshould be max-imum 600 peo-ple and 190
residence, if the free space is filled, the numbers of bothpopulation and the residence per hectare are epected torise by 40.000 people and 12.675 residence (SeeFig.6). Generally, when this has been analysed accord-ing to the zoning law requirements, a residential areawith the population of 33.207 is expected to show anincrease by 41.434 and reach the total number of74.641 when the free space is used. (See Fig.7)
GREEN AREA EVALUATION The analysis and evaluation carried out on the WhiteZone and the Protected Area displays the presence of agreen infrastructure of 1891 hectare (189.187.87 m2)out of 494.97 hectare (4.949.767.30 m2) area. Thebreakdown of this designated green area is as follows:10.59 hectare (105,972.39 m2) green area designatedto parks, 7.46 hectare (74,660.22 m2) green area tostadiums, 0.85 hectare (8,555.26 m2) green area tocemeteries. This evaluation shows that the area, with apopulation of 33.207 has 3.82% of land designated togreen infrastructure.
When we evaluate the open-air green area, wherecurrently 33.207 people reside in an area with189,187.87 m2 green area, the use of the open-airgreen area looks like 5.70m2/per person. In this case,the insuficiency of the green area in the current conditi-ons will increase drastically with the recent zoning lawrequirements that allow the increase in the number ofstoreys and this should be taken into serious considera-
tion (Karagüler, 1993:26).(See Fig.8)
THE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF 5 DIFFERENTZONES IN KYRENIA WHITE ZONE ZONE A1 A1 is one of oldest residential zones and survived untiltoday. The residential buildings in this area consist of sin-gle-storey houses which are about to lose their uniquefeatures due to the developing nature of the area. Thechanges in the zoning law encouraged the rapid rise inpopulation in that area. In addition, the area is popularas it is located close to the main roads.
A questionnaire is used as part of the survey toanalyse and evaluate the current situation of this areaand 17 female and 8 male participants have been askedto contribute to the research. The 40% of the partici-pants’ age ranged between 31-40 and 44% of themhave been living in the area for between 10-15 yearsand 32% have been living there for 15 or more years.24% have been living there between 5-10 years. Thisindicates the condition of the buildings that have sur-vived until the present day. The average family consistsof 4 members and they have average income, 60% ofthe participants earn between 3000-4000 TL/month.
As for the questions about green areas and envi-ronment, it has been observed that 40% people whohave participated the survey like to spend their free timeat cafes and restaurants as these places are close to the
Figure 6. Population rate.
Figure 7. Empty Plot in White Kyrenia District andEnvironmental Protection Area.
Figure 8. Green Area in White Kyrenia District andEnvironmental Protection Area (Girne Emirnamesi 2011).
Figure 5. Analysis of Storey in White Kyrenia District andEnvironmental Protection Area.
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main roads and the city centre. While 28% prefersspending their free time in green areas and parks, 28%prefers staying at home; due to the fact that the 32% ofthe participants were housewives, this preference is high.The majority of participants prefer spending time in thegreen areas once a month or every fortnight. 36% pre-fer that for recreational and rest purposes and 28% pre-fer it for a change. The nearby parks are considered tobe well-kept and the area has not got garbage problemswhich pleases the local community in this area. In thisarea, 80% of the sewage facilities belong to the munici-pality and from time to time the inhabitants complainabout some problems such as blockage, smell and over-flow in this area. Among the questions regarding thezoning and environmental pollution, 48% are disturbedby environmental pollution, 40% by noise pollution and12% by sea pollution. For the transportation questions, itseems that, to go to the city centre, 72% of drivers pre-fer using side roads instead of the main ones in order toavoid heavy traffic on the main roads. As a result ofinsufficient public transportation opportunities, privatecars contribute to the environmental pollution to a greatextent. 4% of the population prefers riding bikes and theinhabitants of this area criticize the poor infrastructure toallow using bicycle paths. The major solution to the envi-ronmental pollution and problems that come along withit may include raising public awareness to be able tofight with it, however, 96% of the participants’ answersreflect no action plan is in place in order to raise publicawareness. The fast developing area hosts many con-struction sites and ongoing projects and in relation tothis, the interaction between the newly built high rise andexisting old buildings has already started. Although 60%of the responses show that the buildings receive sufficientsunlight, 40% complain about not being able to makeuse of sunlight/solarpower at a desirable level again dueto the height and position of the neighbouring buildings.(See Fig.9)
Considering LEED ND standards once again, itseems that the inhabitants of the area socialize well asthe area is close to the main roads. The pavements withtrees on them encourage pedestrians to get involved inactivities in their walking distance comfortably. However,the people in that area suffer from the lack of designat-ed parking places in this highly populated section of thecity with many main roads. The lack of a bicycle path insuch a developed main street, on the other hand, is
another issue that causes congestions in traffic.
ZONE A2 The social housing this area of the city consists of 20-year-old buildings which are detached twin houses posi-tioned in one plot. In this area of two-storey houses,some new construction has emerged after the agenda ofchanges in the new zoning law has been discussed. Highrise buildings rising from the bare plots have nowbecome apparently disturbant.
A survey has been carried out in this area and 13female amd 12 male participants 44% being in the agerange of 41-50 have answered some questions. 24% ofthe participants have been living in the area for 10-15years and 68% over 15 years which indicates that this isa long-established area. 4% of the participants havebeen living there for 5-10 years which indicates thenewly developed settlements. An average family consistsof 3 members and their income can be considered asaverage and 64% earn between 3000-4000 TL/month.
As for the questions about green areas and envi-ronment, it has been observed that 44% people whohave participated in the survey like to spend their freetime at cafes and restaurants as these places are close tothe main roads and the city centre. While 12% prefersspending their free time in green areas and parks, 44%prefers staying at home; this preference is high due to thefact that the 20% of the participants were housewives.The majority of participants prefer spending time in thegreen areas once a month or every fortnight. 36% pre-fer that for leisure and recreational purposes and 32%prefer it for a change. The nearby parks are consideredto be well-kept and the area has not got garbage prob-lems which pleases the local community living there. Inthis area, 72% of the sewage facilities belong to themunicipality and from time to time the inhabitants gen-erally complain about smell and sometimes about over-flow. Among the questions regarding the zoning andenvironmental pollution, 68% are disturbed by environ-mental pollution, 32% by noise pollution and 12% bysea pollution. The paricipants suggest that the mostimportant causes of the pollution in the area are themotor vehicles, pollution caused by residences andworkshops and the irresponsible behavior of people whodamp rubbish due to their lack of awareness of how toprotect the environment. For the transportation ques-
Figure 9. A1 Region.Figure 10. A2 Region.
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tions, it seems that, to go to the city centre, 80% of dri-vers prefer using side roads instead of the main ones inorder to avoid heavy traffic on the main roads. As aresult of insufficient public transportation opportunities,private cars contribute to the environmental pollution toa great extent. Where 4% of the population prefers rid-ing bikes and 16% motorcycle, the inhabitants complainabout the poor infrastructure to allow bicycle paths. (SeeFig.10)
When LEED ND standards are considered, theold residential area has started to develop by theincrease in the high rise buildings; this contributes to theproblems which occur in the area and marks the areaaway from being sustainable. Although the area allowseasy access to places where people may socialize, dueto the rise of the issues related to the increase in popu-lation, it is disadvantaged. The existing trees plantedalongside with the pavements help enriching the envi-ronment and supply oxygen.
However, the evaluation carried out consideringthe LEED ND standards shows that there is no strategicplan in place to meet those criteria; the unplanned on-going development and construction, the lack of recy-cling or energy and resource saving facilities continue toharm the nature of the residential area.
ZONE A3Zone A3 is situated within the borders of the white zoneand is at the heart of Kyrenia. The two fronts of this areaface the streets and is a newly developing area becauseof the increase in population. There are multi-storeybuildings, corporate housing accommodations andstores in this area. According to the analysis of the areasuffers from congestion of traffic and the evaluationshows the following:
A survey has been carried out in this area involv-ing 25 participants, 15 female and 10 male, 44% beingin the age range 41-50. 40% of the participants havebeen living in the area for 5-10 years and 12% over 15years which indicates that this is a long-established area.The area has a newly developing part which impacts onthe increasing number of population. An average familyconsists of 4 members and their income is above aver-age as 60% earn between 4000 TL/month and over.
As for the questions about green infrastructureand environment, it has been observed that 44% peoplewho have participated the survey like to spend their free
time at cafes and restaurants as these places are closeto the main roads and the city centre. While 40% prefersspending their free time in green areas and parks, 12%prefers staying at home. 52% of the participants workduring the day and therefore time spent outside of thehouse is longer. The majority of participants preferspending time in the green areas once or twice a weekor every fortnight. 20% prefer that for leisure and restpurposes and 44% prefer it for a change. In this area,80% of the sewage facilities belong to the municipalityand from time to time the inhabitants generally complainabout the smell and sometimes about the overflow in thisarea.(See Fig.11)
Among the questions regarding the zoning andenvironmental pollution, 24% are disturbed by environ-mental pollution, 48% by noise pollution and 28% bysea pollution. For the transportation questions, it seemsthat, to go to the city centre, 88% of drivers prefer usingthe main roads; the reason for this is because stores andshops are on the main streets and participants find itpractical to cater their daily needs as they drive along themain road. As a result of insufficient public transporta-tion opportunities, private cars contribute to the environ-mental pollution to a great extent. The major solution tothe environmental pollution and problems that comealong with it may include raising public awareness to beable to fight with them, however, according the partici-pants’ comment nothing is being done in order to raisepublic awareness.
When LEED ND standards are considered, thearea which is called A3 hosts an increasing number ofhigh rise buildings; this greatly contributes to the prob-lems which occur in there and cause some environmen-tal issues to arise in the existing residential streets as aresult of the new developments.
However, the evaluation carried out consideringthe LEED ND standards shows that there is no strategicplan in place to meet those criteria and the unplanneddevelopment and construction and the lack of recyclingor energy and resource saving facilities continue to harmthe nature of the residential area.
ZONE B AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AREAB zone as part of the protection program consists of 20-year-old buildings which are mostly two-storey buildings.It is one of the oldest residential areas in the city whichhosts historically valuable structures, therefore it is pro-tected. The area is one of the tourist attraction venueswhere some private residents have been turned intostores and hotels.
A survey has been carried out in this area involv-ing 17 female and 8 male participants, 44% being in theage range of 41-50 have answered questions. 40% ofthe participants have been living in the area for 10-15years and 24% for 15 years and over which indicatesthat this is a long-established area. 20% has been livingin the area for between 5-10 years which indicates thatthe area has a newly developing part which impacts onthe increasing number of population. An average familyconsists of 3 members and their income is above aver-age as 64% earn 4000 TL/month and over.
As for the questions about green areas and envi-ronment, it has been observed that 48% of the partici-pants who have taken part in the survey like to spend
Figure 11. A3 Region
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their free time at cafes and restaurants as these placesare close to the main roads and the city centre. While20% prefers spending their free time in green areas andparks, 20% prefers spending time by the seaside. Theevaluation shows that the majority of participants preferspending time in the green areas once or twice a monthor every fortnight. 36% prefer that for leisure and restpurposes and 64% prefer it for a change. The nearbyparks are well-kept therefore the participants are pleasedabout the conditions of the designated green areas. Inthis area, 88% of the sewage facilities belong to themunicipality and from time to time the inhabitants gen-erally complain about the smell and sometimes aboutthe overflow in this area.
Among the questions regarding the zoning andenvironmental pollution, 52% are disturbed by environ-mental pollution, 24% by noise pollution and 24% bysea pollution.. For the transportation questions, it seemsthat, to go to the city centre, 72% of drivers prefer usingthe side roads in order to avoid the congested traffic onthe main roads. As a result of insufficient public trans-portation opportunities, private cars contribute to theenvironmental pollution to a great extent. In the areawhere there are no bicycle paths, 4% rides bikes and20% motorcycles. The major solution to the environ-mental pollution and problems that come along with itmay include raising public awareness to be able to fightwith them, however, according to 92% participants’comments no action plan is in place and nothing isbeing done in order to raise public awareness. (12)
When LEED ND standards are considered, thearea is considered to be the oldest residential area witha number of historic buildings under protection. The newdevelopments and buildings in the area contribute to theproblems which occur in the area and cause some envi-ronmental issues to arise in the existing residential streetsas a consequent.
However, the evaluation carried out consideringthe LEED ND standards shows that there is no strategicplan in place to meet those criteria and the unplanneddevelopment and construction and the lack of recyclingor energy and resource saving facilities continue to harmthe nature of the residential area.
ZONE C A survey has been carried out in this area involving atotal number of 25 people, 17 female and 8 male par-ticipants, 32% being in the age range of 41-50. 16% of
the participants have been living in the area for 10-15years and 28% for 15 years and over which indicatesthat this is a long-established area. 28% has been livingin the area between 5-10 years which indicates that thearea has a newly developing part which impacts on theincreasing number of population. An average familyconsists of 4 members and their income is average with60% earning between 3000-4000 TL/month.
As for the questions about green infrastructure andenvironment, it has been observed that 32% of the par-ticipants who have taken part in the survey like to spendtheir free time at cafes and restaurants as these placesare located close to the main roads and the city centre.While 40% prefers spending their free time in greenareas and parks, 28% prefers spending time at home.The evaluation shows that the majority of participantsprefer spending time in the green areas once or twice amonth. 20% prefer that for leisure and rest purposes and36% prefer it for a change. Due to the high density ofpopulation, the area has garbage problems which dis-turb the local community. In this area, 72% of thesewage facilities belong to the municipality and theinhabitants are generally pleased with its function, how-ever from time to time they complain about the smell inthis area. (See Fig.13)
When LEED ND standards are considered, thearea which hosts many residents also has an increasingnumber of high rise buildings; however, this area whichdoes not sufer from environmental problems in the exist-ing residential streets has turned the existence of newdevelopments into an advantage of having varioussocial facilities. The pavements, where there are treesplanted on them, adds posibility in the visual expressionof the area as well as providing oxygen.
However, the evaluation carried out consideringthe LEED ND standards shows that there is no strategicplan in place to meet those criteria and the unplanneddevelopment and construction and the lack of recyclingor energy resource saving facilities continue to harm thenature of the residential area.
GENERAL EVALUATIONIn the analysis regarding the 5 separate areas, commonproblems have been observed. Environmental problemsand problems in traffic are the most general commonissues. There is almost no difference between the areaswhich are close to the city centre and the ones which arefar from it, however, more environmental problemsoccur in the city. The general evaluation of the survey
Figure 12. B Region and Environmental Protection Area.Figure 13. C Region
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provides the following results: (See Fig.14)
CONCLUSIONThe uninhibited growth of the city brings various compli-cations along with it and is unable to cater the needs ofthe individuals and/or the society. In order to ensure abetter future, sustainability carries an important role insetting action-based planning goals.
Better solutions should be provided to the com-munity in order to encourage close human contact,reduce automobile dependency to the minimum level,inspire walking and biking, reduce air pollution andenergy expenses, establish a reliable and improved pub-lic transportation network in order to enable comfortableand easy travel, produce solutions in order to connectresidential areas, offices and other workplace with therecreational and educational centres together (VanGeenhuisa, Nijkamp ,1994). When decisions are maderegarding the relevance of the urbanization, nature andgreenery should be prioritized. Uniting with nature is themost important component of ecologic sustainability(Ceritli, 2000).
While planning a sustainable urban development,archeaologic sites and historic buildings, natural envi-ronmental areas and streams or other water resourcesshould be marked and protected. At the same time, areliable environmental friendly transportation should bedevised according to the density of the population allthrough the city (Yıldızcı, 1986). The planning of the sus-tainable cities should contemplate the sensitivity towardsenvironment and develop a strategy to create moregreen areas, pedestrian walkways and bicycle paths. Thefuture plans of urbanization should include the use ofinnovative, renewable energy and technology, trustwor-thy construction materials, more solar-operated systemsand buildings commonly which would allow the maxi-mum use of sunlight in order to help create more sus-tainable living environments.
As a result of this analysis, it is recommended thatnew zoning laws should be passed to replace the exist-ing, old-fashioned ones, by considering the historic, eco-logic and economic state for a sustainable city which willpass on to the future generations for this is the only man-ner urbanization is carried out accurately. In addition,new standards should be formed in order to highlight theoriginal landmarks and maintain the distinctive identityof the city during its growth.
REFERANCES
ATAÖV A. and OSMAY S. 2007, Türkiye’de Kentsel Dönüşüme Yöntemsel BirYaklaşım, METU JFA , Ankara, 2007:2, 57-82.
BLOWERS, A. 1992, Planning for A Sustainable Society, Streetwise, C:10, 3-10.
CERITLI, I. 2000, Sürdürülebilir Kentsel Kalkınma Sürecinde Optimum KentÖlçeğinin Önemi ve Türkiye Örneği, Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, MarmaraÜniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kamu Yönetimi Anabilim Dalı, Mahalliİdareler ve Yerel Yönetimler Bilim Dalı, İstanbul, 31-32.
ÇAHANTIMUR, A. 2007, Sürdürülebilir Kentsel Gelişmeye Sosyo – Kültürel BirYaklaşım, Bursa Örneği, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, İstanbul ÜniversitesiFen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
ERTEN D., HENDERSON KOBAS B. 2009, Uluslararası Yeşil BinaSertifikalarına Bir Bakış: Türkiye için bir Yeşil Bina Sertifikası Oluşturmak için YolHaritası, 5. International Conference on Construction in the 21st Century,Istanbul.
ERTÜRK, H. 1996, Sürdürülebilir Kentler, Yeni Türkiye Habitat II Özel Sayısı,Ankara.
EWING R. and CERVERO R. 2010, Travel and the Built Environment, Journalof the American Planning Association, 76.
GİRNE BEYAZ BÖLGE EMİRNAMESİ, 2011, RG Sayı : 73, Tarih:09.05.2011 , EK III , AE :247
HANDY, S. 1996, Understanding the Link Between Urban Form and NonworkTravel Behavior, Journal of Planning Education and Research 15, 183–98.
KARA, C. 2015, Girne Belediyesi, İmar Bölümü, Girne.
KARAGÜLER, S. 1993, Yapılaşma Sonucu Yeşil Alan AzalmasındakiSakıncaların Giderilmesi İçin Binalarda Bitki Kullanımı, Doktora Tezi, İ.T.Ü. FenBilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
KARAKURT TOSUN, E. 2007, Küreselleşme Sürecinde Kentlerde Mekânsal,Sosyal ve Kültürel Değişim, Bursa Örneği, Yayınlanmamış DoktoraTezi, Uludağ Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Bursa.
LOURES L., SANTOS R. and THOMAS P. 2007, Urban Parks and SustainableDevelopment: The case study of Partimao city, Portugal, Conference onEnergy, Environment, Ecosystem and Sustainable Development, AgiosNikolaos, Greece.
RODERICK Y., MCEWAN D., WHEATLEY C., and ALONSO C.2009, Comparison of Energy Performance Assessment Between LEED,BREEAM and GREEN STAR, 11. International IBPSA Conference, Glasgow.
SEV A. and CANBAY N. 2009, Dünya Genelinde Uygulanan Yeşil BinaDeğerlendirme Ve Sertifika Sistemleri, Yapı Dergisi, Türkiye.
Author(s):
Cemil Atakara,Cyprus International University, Haspolat/LefkoşaEmail: [email protected]
Gizlem Akyay,Candemir Sokak NO:17 Dumlupınar /LefkoşaEmail: [email protected]
Figure 14. Evaluation of the all region, according to theLEED ND Checklist.
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INTRODUCTION
Vietnam is experiencing rapid urbanisation with about3% urbanisation rate adding 1 million people annuallyto the urban population. It is expected that 40-45% ofthe national population exceeding 40 million people willlive in Vietnamese cities by 2020 (Gattoni, 2003;Nguyen, 2008; UN-Habitat, 2008). Since the introduc-tion of open-market economic reform policies in the late1980s, known as Doi Moi, private and foreign invest-ment has been encouraged by the government mainly inor near the large cities, namely Hanoi and Ho Chi MinhCity (HCMC). This has attracted large numbers ofmigrants seeking employment in the cities, a significantcontributor to rapid urbanisation (Anh, 2007; Sang,2008).
Doi Moi has resulted in economic growth, butbeing concentrated in and around the main cities hasalso led to rural-urban disparity (Anh, 2005). Althoughthere has been reduction in national poverty (WorldBank, 2012), there is evidence that the rich-poor gap isincreasing (Anh, 2007; Evertsz, 2000; Gattoni, 2003;Republique Francaise, 2003; Vinh and Leaf, 1996). Astudy in 2010 found more than 20% of Vietnam’s pop-ulation was poor and 8% was extremely poor; the grow-ing disparity is reflected in more than 90% of the poorliving in rural areas (World Bank, 2012). While povertyis more widespread in rural areas, the urban poor areimpacted by other factors not captured in income assess-ments, such as inadequate housing accompanied bypoor services and sanitation, inadequate social insur-ance or safety nets, vulnerability to hazards aggravatedby climate change and unplanned urban development(Haughton et al, 2010; Thanh et al, 2013).
“Popular” or informal housing built by person-al private funds has become widespread to cater to theincreasing demand for shelter of the urban poor
(Douglass et al, 2002); Doi Moi led to a somewhatrelaxed attitude on migration (Evertsz, 2000) to allow theflow of workforce to fuel economic growth. Indeed it hasbeen argued that the growth of informal settlements islinked directly to the Doi Moi investments for economicgrowth (Vinh and Leaf, 1996) that spurred extensivemigration and the consequent need for affordable hous-ing – which is met by informal and slum housing. Thushousing demand has increased, but the formal sector isnot geared to provide the vast supply of affordable andserviced housing that is required, resulting in the growthof inadequate buildings and urban poor settlements inhazardous, marginal and unserviced areas (Gattoni,2003) that nonetheless provide an affordable housingsupply to the urban poor.
The literature relating to urban poor housing in Vietnamincludes three broad thematic aspects:
Housing as part of a wider urban development process(such as Geertman, 2007; Lachance, 1997; Phan,2008; Storch and Downes, 2011);Project proposals or hypothetical projects (for exampleGattoni, 2003; Giang, 2008; Girard, 1995; JBIC, 1999;Ha, 2002); City specific studies of housing (for example, Evertsz,2000; Ludovic and Laurent, 2003).
The first strand (a) is useful in that as it allows under-standing the position of urban poor housing within theurban system and the variety of inter-linkages; the sec-ond strand (b) brings up questions of the viability of mostsuch projects, given the very limited institutional interestand funds available for urban poor housing. Howeverneither of these two strands provides fine-grain insightsat the level of the community and household; even thecity-specific studies (c) lack such detail. There is scanty lit-
Iftekhar Ahmed
Abstract
This paper presents concepts important for understanding urban poor housing in Vietnam, with a focus on key envi-
ronmental, socio-economic, and cultural dimensions that bear on the housing sector. The paper draws on extensive
field studies and presents a diagnosis of the context of and prospects for housing of the urban poor in Vietnam’s two
main cities: Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. While the literature on this theme is scanty, it points to the market-orientated
economic reforms initiated in the 1980s as a key factor in creating imbalance in the housing supply. Recognising the
current challenges in balancing affordability and sustainability, the study explores Vietnam’s lack of adequate and
affordable housing and the problems faced by the urban poor in accessing adequate housing.
Keywords: Vietnam, Urban Housing, Urban Poor, Housing Diagnosis.
A DIAGNOSIS OF URBAN POOR HOUSING IN VIETNAM
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erature on urban poor housing in Vietnam, perhaps dueto the politically sensitive nature of the issue which limitsopportunities for research. There are very few studiesdone at the urban poor household level and there isinsufficient documentation on how the urban poor live,a gap addressed in this paper.
The major urban changes set in motion sinceDoi Moi in terms of imbalance of housing supply anddemand have severe implications for the urban poor.Understanding the urban poor housing situation is anecessary step to prepare for future policy and practicedemands for addressing the living conditions of theurban poor. In the rapidly urbanising context of Vietnamwith major ongoing demographic and other changes,understanding how a significant, but marginalised,urban stakeholder group manages and copes with thechallenges of shelter may offer answers for the future ofVietnam’s cities. With this in mind, an exploratory ‘diag-nosis’ of urban poor housing based primarily on the per-spectives of poor households was carried out in the twolargest cities of Vietnam, Hanoi and HCMC, key findingsof which are presented in this paper.
RESEARCH APPROACHFirstly a review was carried out of relevant publicationsand reports on urban poor housing in Vietnam and pub-lished as a collaborative paper by researchers at RMITUniversity and VGBC (Vietnam Green Building Council)(Ahmed et al, 2010). Secondly government officials atthe district, ward and neighbourhood levels in Hanoiwho were involved in the delivery/management of urbanhousing were interviewed and a report produced on offi-cial perspectives (RMIT and VGBC, 2009), whichallowed understanding the institutional context withinwhich urban poor housing was positioned. Finally, toobtain an understanding at the level of urban poorhouseholds, in-depth interviews of urban poor house-holds, together with on-site observations and documen-tation, was carried out in Hanoi and HCMC. Insightsfrom and comparisons between the narratives, view-points and experiences of various types of urban poorhouseholds enabled gaining a unique understanding ofurban poor housing principally from the perspective of itskey stakeholder and user group. This paper is derivedfrom the final output and presents the findings of thefield-based diagnosis at the urban poor household level.
In Hanoi, 10 urban poor households wereinterviewed in a variety of living conditions and circum-stances. Because of the involvement of government offi-cials at an earlier stage, they tried to influence the sam-ple selection process and steered the research teamtowards households that did not necessarily meet the cri-teria of ‘urban poor’. Mitigating this to some extent, theexperience of the research team proved adequate forqualitatively assessing the condition of a house by on-siteobservations and judging if it met the criteria of ‘poorhousing’. The selection of an appropriate householdsample was thus ensured and the selected householdswere genuinely poor; however they all had some form oftenure security and not one of them suffered fromextreme poverty. It appeared that the research team werenot accessing extreme poor households through the offi-cial channel. Urban poverty is a politically sensitive issue
in Vietnam, which is why there are so few studies on thesubject, and access to extreme poor households can bedifficult because of institutional restrictions. Nonethelessincluding at least a few such households in the samplewas crucial if the study was to represent an in-depthdiagnosis of urban poor housing. Thus in HCMC,through the connections of local organisations, it waseventually possible to include some extreme poor house-holds among the 8 household interviews undertakenthere.
Based on the initial literature review and thereport on official interviews, a diagnostic research frame-work was developed along two main aspects of urbanpoor housing that encompasses the overall substance ofthe field: (i) Context relating to the current situation; and(ii) Prospects for the future. Within these two aspects, fivekey questions were framed that guided the diagnosis ofurban poor housing at the household level, as shownbelow in Table 1.
KEY FINDINGS OF THE URBAN POOR DIAGNOSIS18 urban poor households, 10 in Hanoi and 8 inHCMC, were interviewed and their houses were docu-mented. See Table 2 for the housing profile of the casestudy households including basic characteristics of each
Table 1. Research framework for diagnosis of urban poor
housing.
Table 2. Housing profile of the case study households
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household and its dwelling. The households in Hanoiwere largely suggested by ward officials; most of themwere not extremely poor, but nonetheless living in inad-equate housing. In HCMC, interview respondents wereselected in consultation with a local Non-GovernmentalOrganisation (NGO) and a research institute and there-by some extremely poor households were interviewed. Tounderstand diverse perspectives on the two mainsaspects of urban poor housing - context and prospects -a range of issues were discussed with a variety of poorhouseholds living in different circumstances. Five key the-matic strands – three for context and two for prospects -served as a skeleton for the inquiry, based on which thehousehold narratives and on-site observations on urbanpoor housing in Hanoi and HCMC are discussed below.
CONTEXT: Characteristics of living conditions in urbanpoor housingTogether with the on-site observation of many neigh-bouring households, the sample of 18 householdsallowed capturing some key characteristics of urbanpoor housing in Vietnam. The bulk, 11 out of the 18households or 61% of the sample, was found living insubstandard housing considered either as ‘Very Poor’ or‘Poor’ (see Chart 1). Even those living in ‘Good’ houseswithin the sample were poor in the sense that they expe-rienced a range of social and economic deprivationssuch as variable and informal income and institutionalsafety nets for basic services such as health and educa-tion. The urban poor were found to be living in threemain types of housing according to broad forms of own-ership1, the characteristics of which are discussed below.
Family/Personal property: To be able to live in tenuresecurity is almost a best-case scenario for the urbanpoor, as it was for some of the case study householdsthat lived in housing shared with or inherited from fami-ly. Such houses are built informally and generally do notreceive any professional inputs. In most cases, however,
the poor are able to own very small property and gener-ally do not have the resources for its maintenance; hous-es tend to be in a poor condition and very cramped. Ina house in Hanoi, an extended family of 22 memberswas found to be living in 6 small dwelling units scatteredwithin a 3-storey building of 75m2. Case study house-hold 01 (HH01) consisting of a married couple and twoteenage sons lived in a 16m2 one-room unit on the 1st
floor. The space was very tight; food had to be cookedon the ground floor courtyard and then brought upstairsto be eaten in that same single room dwelling. There washardly any privacy.
State housing: A significant part of the urban poor hous-ing stock includes subsidised housing provided by thegovernment before Doi Moi. The repair and mainte-nance of this housing stock faces institutional obstaclesand has consequently fallen into disrepair. Thus, being ineffect cheap housing supply, the poor occupy such build-ings, which are often dangerous and on the verge of col-lapse. In Hanoi particularly, some of the buildings in his-toric areas, such as the old French Colonial section havebeen left to deteriorate because of the lack of agreementon jurisdiction of government bodies. Households 09and 10 (HHs 09 and 10) lived in such houses built dur-ing the 1950-60s. The houses had a form of construc-tion applied by the French: Thick brick walls with a roofstructure of intertwined bamboo and thatch plasteredwith lime cement and covered on top by clay tiles. Overthe years these materials had downgraded, and notbeing a common construction method, could not bemaintained easily. Plaster crumbled from the roof andwalls of these houses, and rain entered through cracks.In HH10, the roof had become so weak that one couldnot climb on top of it anymore in order to repair it; it wasonly possible to use a ladder and fix the sides, causingthe household to live in risk and great discomfort. Slum/Squatter settlements: Due to increasing demandfor urban land, slum/squatter settlements with residentstypically without land tenure, have mostly been evictedfrom central city areas. Ward 2, District 4, HCMC for-merly had extensive slums and squatter settlements andthere were still some existing patches. In one such areain an informal ‘illegal’ settlement, houses were built onstilts over a very dirty canal. HH13 was found to be liv-ing there for nearly than 25 years in a house made of arough mix of materials – bamboo, timber, corrugatediron (CI) sheet, cardboard, etc – on a floor of woodenplanks perched on timber and concrete stilts on the edgeof the canal. In addition to the canal’s flowing load ofdirty material, it was used for dumping all manner ofhousehold waste, and the canal and its edges werestrewn with litter. Typically as in such settlements, the areahad various forms of urban poor households. Someextreme poor households were found living in this settle-ment, such as HH14 (see Box 1), sleeping rough, whilstalso found were households with a somewhat durablehouse and running small informal businesses from there(HH15).
Chat 1. Distribution of sample households according to
house condition.
1 The communist political structure of Vietnam does not allow direct private landownership. When property ownership issues are discussed here, it refers tolong-term leaseholds, which is the prevalent use rights arrangement by way of a registered certificate from the government.
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CONTEXT: Problems experienced in urban poor housingUrban poor housing is confronted with a variety of prob-lems, foremost the poverty of its residents. Drawn outfrom a wide range of problems narrated, some of thekey ones relating to housing that were highlighted by theinterview respondents are outlined below.
Space constraints: Urban poor housing often tends to becramped and there are severe limitations of space.Within the sample houses, the average house size wasonly 30.9m2 with 7 out of 18 houses less than 20m2
(see Chart 2). The average area per person was 7.4m2
and in a number of houses it was below 5m2 (see Chart3). HHs 11 and 12 were somewhat different from therest of the sample as they benefited from an institution-ally implemented site-and-services program (see Box 2),and although poor, had relatively larger houses. Thesetwo households were selected because they providedinsights into the relationship of the urban poor to institu-tional projects. HH12 had only 4 residents, and hencehad a low person to area ratio and a few such houseswithin the sample contributed consequently to higheraverages of house size and area per person. Other thanthese two households, the remaining households clearlymet the criteria of urban poor housing in terms of smallhouse size and high occupancy ratio.
Because of the lack of space, many households cookedoutside in public or semi-public areas. Some the highlycramped dwellings were found to also lack adequatelight and ventilation, leading to terrible living conditionsin the hot season. Hung and her husband lived with theirtwo teenage sons in a 1-room dwelling unit in an extend-ed family building in Hanoi with 22 residents (HH01). “Idon’t know what we will do when the boys grow bigger.As it is, it’s too tight. It’s too noisy and there are too manypeople here and so too many fights as well,” described
Hung.
Poor housing condition: Housing condition within thesample was largely substandard with more than 60%categorised as ‘Very Poor’ or ‘Poor’ (see Chart 1). In thecase of the family/ personal type housing, the poor resi-dents could not afford to maintain or repair them andsome of these houses were also old. For example, 90year old Trieu lived with three other household members
Chat 3. Distribution of sample households according to
area (m2) per person.
Chat 2. Distribution of sample households according to
house size (m2).
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edin a small one-room dwelling of 16m2 (HH08) in Hanoi,which was built in the early 1970s. He had been livinghere since he was born, previously in a timber house.This house was built well with an RC frame and roof, andbrick walls, but he had not been able to maintain thehouse and it fell into disrepair. There were cracks at theroof and wall corners through which rainwater penetrat-ed and dripped into the room. Trieu kept a plastic bowlon the floor to collect the water, his only way of copingwith the problem. He had tried to plaster parts of thewalls, but discontinued that due to lack of funds andthere were now cracks all over the walls.
Similar conditions were also observed in HCMC, forexample Diep’s old house (HH16) built in 1945, also suf-fered from cracks in walls and rainwater penetration. Theroof is generally the most vulnerable part of the house inthis tropical country with heavy rainfall. Indeed the rain-water penetration problem, and accompanying damp-ness, was one of the main problems in urban poor hous-ing that was highlighted repeatedly; 13 out of the 18sample households underscored it as one of the majorproblems they faced in their house. Facing such conditions of extensive disrepair and risk,households are often driven to seek resources for houseimprovements. For example, Oanh (HH04) lived with herfamily in a house in Hanoi gifted to her after she got mar-ried. The house had a small wooden mezzanine floor, butthe timber had gradually decayed and the floor becamedangerous. She borrowed some money and adding it toher small savings from unstable odd jobs, removed thetimber and built a concrete floor, and in the process ren-ovated the kitchen and bathroom. Thus, although withgreat difficulty, she had managed to cope with the basicproblems in her house.
Similar observations were made in the state housing with-in the sample, with the exception that its residents did notattempt much physical improvement as they did not ownthe houses. As discussed earlier, much of this housing isof old stock and dilapidated, but due to lack of jurisdic-tional agreement between various government institu-tions, there was very little support from the government tomaintain them. Historic areas, such as the FrenchQuarter in Hanoi, had many old derelict buildings occu-pied by the poor, but there was lack of agreement ongovernment policy for their future. The typically poor res-idents of the state owned housing could not afford torepair them, and if they could, were largely unwilling tobecause of lack of future tenure security. In the currenturbanising context of great land demand, it might be amatter of time before such old buildings are demolishedto make way for new urban development; whether theirresidents would be adequately compensated and wouldbe able to access suitable future housing remains uncer-tain.
Similarly with slum/squatter housing, the rapid urbandevelopment would continue to place demand on theland they live on. In the case study slum/squatter settle-ment in District 4, HCMC there was little initiative amongthe residents for housing improvement because of uncer-
tain tenure, and while waiting for the urban developmentto catch up with their neighbourhood, their housing con-ditions continued to deteriorate. Inadequate services: A persistent problem in urban poorhousing is the lack of adequate public services and infra-structure. Many households used pirated electricity andwater, widespread in Vietnamese cities. Sewage overflowand lack of drainage was a key problem, particularly inold buildings because of the lack of maintenance ofinfrastructure there alongside the neglect of the build-ings.
Linked to the problem of overcrowding discussed above,inadequate toilet and bathing facilities in crampeddwellings with many residents was a pervasive problem.HH01 in Hanoi illustrated this to an extreme point: 22people shared one toilet on the ground floor of a 2-storey extended family house. “There is always a sewagesmell here,” said Hung, a resident.
The poor lacked adequate public services provision, butthey nevertheless used a variety of electrical and otherappliances within the house, mostly arranged informallyat high rates. For example, in a 5-member household liv-ing in an 18m2 thatch and CI sheet house in HCMC(HH18), it was found that internal appliances included atelevision, DVD player, fluorescent lamps, stand fan,mobile phone and 2-burner gas stove. The householdpaid VND100,000 per month for electricity supply;VND35,000 for water from a community well;VND100,000 per year for the mobile phone; and aboutVND100,000 per month for gas for cooking, with thegas cylinder refilled at a local store. Thus, on one handthe poor do not have access to basic public services, yeton the other hand pay significant amounts for appliancesthat they think necessary to make their houses habitable.
CONTEXT: Impacts of shocks and stressesA range of shocks and stresses confront the urban poorincluding those stemming from physical, economic,social, political, institutional and environmental factors.On their impacts specifically on housing, the physicaland environmental factors relating particularly to naturalhazards were underscored by the interview respondents.Floods: In both Hanoi and HCMC, floods are recurrent– a combination of natural and man-made factors suchas inadequate drainage. 12 out of the 18 samplehouseholds experienced some problem or other with theimpacts of flooding and rain on their houses. Typicallypoor conditions of hygiene, drainage and sewage resultin a dual impact of flooding in terms of affecting humanhealth and physical damage to housing. Related toflooding is water-logging due to inadequate drainage, acombined problem reported by a number of the respon-dent households. For example, Trung lived in a 1-roomhouse in Hanoi provided as staff housing by a govern-ment construction company where he worked as alabourer (HH05). The house was very dilapidated andleaked. In 2008 there was a major flood in Hanoi andTrung then built a piled earth barrier to try and protecthis house, but it was flooded nonetheless and even aftera lot of bailing out water, the house and was water-logged by more than 10cms of water for a few weeks.
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“The water took a lot of time to recede; seems to be get-ting worse every time,” said Trung.Flooding in HCMC is severe and frequent, and bringssuffering for the urban poor. For example, Ba’s house inDistrict 4, HCMC (HH13) is perched over a pollutedcanal, which gets flooded regularly. Luckily the canalflowed, so the water-logging did not last for more than afew hours, but then Ba had to move out with her impor-tant belongings and three children to the raised road infront. “As it is, this flimsy house is always leaking andfalling apart, and can barely stand the rain. The extraeffect of flooding is terrible,” described Ba.Storms: Windstorms can be severe particularly in HCMCbecause it is closer to the sea, but Hanoi also experi-ences severe thunderstorms. For example, Phuong’sfamily house in Thuong Dinh ward, Hanoi (HH02) washit by a hailstorm in 2008. The acrylic sheet roof wasblown off and hail entered the house. She repaired theroof, using CI sheet this time; “But now it’s become hot-ter inside,” reported Phuong.Several households in both the cities mentioned that tallbuilding around them protected their houses from wind.This was indeed a boon for dilapidated buildings whichare at risk to even minor storms, as in several case studyhouses such as Niem’s (HH10) in Hanoi. “We are luckythere was no heavy storm recently and also there are bigbuildings all around us. Otherwise this house would havecollapsed! If there is a big storm, the roof of this housewould blow off, and the house may fall as the structure isold and weak”, pointed out Niem.Heat: There is a lot of discussion on climate change inVietnam and its extensive coast is believed to be at risk(ICEM *), but it seems that the discussion has notreached to the level of urban poor households. None ofthe households interviewed had a clear conception ofclimate change, consistent with the findings of otherstudies on the urban poor in Vietnam (for exampleBriggs, 2010). Nonetheless a number of householdsboth in Hanoi and HCMC felt that it was getting hotterevery year; they however attributed it to the increasingnumbers of buildings and people in the cities, not cli-mate change. “Winter is not as cold as before, but it hasbecome erratic – suddenly extreme cold in one year,warm the other year,” mentioned Trung (HH05), withoutrealising why. It never gets very cold in HCMC, but theHanoi winter can be chilly. Phuong’s house (HH02) inHanoi only had metal shutters, but no glass panels, socold air entered the house in the winter. “We just have towear more clothes in the winter,” said Phuong.Small cramped dwellings without adequate ventilationsuch as the ones where the urban poor live can becomeunbearably hot during the summer. “I lie down on thefloor and wait for the heat to pass, or just go out,” saidDoi, who lives in an old French colonial building in Hanoi(HH09). Another interview respondent, Trieu, lived in a 1-room house in Hanoi, which had two small windows(HH08). One of the windows could not be opened fullyas the next door building was too close, and hence therewas no cross-ventilation and Trieu was compelled to livein a very hot dwelling.
Typically mechanical stand or ceiling fans are widespreadamong the poor as a way of coping with heat; air-condi-
tioning is generally unaffordable. This involves relianceon electricity, the supply of which often needed to bepirated. Nonetheless it was observed that the poor havea low comfort threshold and are able to cope with hotweather without using the fan all the time. However, com-pared to Hanoi, HCMC is much hotter and more humid,and as a respondent, Hien (HH11), said, “It gets very hothere in the dry season. It’s getting hotter day by day. Wehave to use the fan inside the house all day during thedry season.”
PROSPECTS: Relationship with housing delivery/man-agement institutionsThe Vietnamese urban administrative system consists ofseveral tiers beginning with the central government andextending to wards in inner cities (see Fig. *) (Ahmed,2009). At each tier there are People’s Committees con-ducting governance within a largely centralised decision-making process. For the urban poor, the Ward People’sCommittee is the main direct interface with the govern-ment. The ward conducts periodic surveys, based onwhich it petitions for support from the district and the city.One of its key roles is to provide funding for educationand health support to the needy, but beyond that there isvery little support for other sectors such as housing. Theward is limited in its capacity and any decision on anddesign of infrastructure or building improvement is madeat higher tiers of government and the ward then man-ages the implementation. Some of the key aspects ofinstitutional relationships relating to urban poor housingare discussed below.
Government support or lack thereof: The respondenthouseholds reported that beyond educational andhealth support they did not receive any other help suchas support for housing improvement. For those living inslums, such as Binh’s household (HH15) near a canal inHCMC, there was simply no support or public servicesprovision; “No way! We never expect anything from thegovernment” retorted Binh. There were many complaintsof the unresponsiveness of ward officials, particularlyabout promises of repairing sewage and buildings instate housing that were not followed up. Trung, a work-er at a government factory, lived in a small 1-room staffhousing unit in Hanoi (HH05). He struggled to bring uphis two sons after his wife died a few years ago afterdraining a lot of resources for her treatment. A couple ofyears ago, some ward officials came to survey the con-dition of his house and mentioned that they would sup-port him to renovate the house. But nothing transpired
Figure 1. Urban administrative system of Vietnam.
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after that. He went through a lot of back-and-forth withthe ward; he was now disappointed and did not trust theward any more. “If they are kind enough, they will comeback and give me the money,” hoped Trung.However in some cases of family/personal property, theward does help. Oahn inherited an old house in Hanoi(HH05) from her mother, which was in a very bad condi-tion. Being a widow, she received VND 8.4 million torepair her house in 2009, in addition to money for hertwo children’s schooling. Among various home improve-ments, notable were the repairs to the stairs and replace-ment of a broken wooden mezzanine floor with a con-crete floor, which made the household safer.The situation with state housing is problematic. Much ofit was built through subsidy in the pre-Doi Moi era andbeneficiaries were given use rights documents. Over thedecades, most of these documents were lost or notupgraded to land use rights certificates, and a series ofinformal transfers and occupations has created a haze.Without the certificates, there is no proof of ownershipand the government thus does not provide services ormaintenance. Most of such housing stock is dilapidated
and requires urgent repair, but this institutional knot pre-vents initiating action, and residents have to make repairsinformally at their own cost without professional support.Registration: One of the most significant problems poorhouseholds have to face is registration to obtain a landuse rights certificate. Only houses with land use rightscertificates can apply for a construction permit for exten-sions or repairs. Most poor households do not have thecertificates, causing difficulties for the government evento support the repair of extremely downgraded and dan-gerous housing. Diep lived in an old 1-room house inHCMC built in 1945 (HH16). The house was in a poorcondition with leaking walls and roof, and the local wardoffered her support for repairing the house. However,even though this was inherited family property, it did nothave registration, and Diep was therefore fearful of tak-ing any help from the ward. “I don’t have any registra-tion papers; what if they give the house to somebodyelse after repairing it?” feared Diep.
Compensation: With the rapid ongoing urbanisation inVietnam there is great demand for land for new residen-
Box 2: Site-and-Services in HCMCDistrict 2 on the east of HCMC is one of the 5 new urban districts established on peri-urban land. An unusual project of its kind imple-mented in partnership between the government and NGOs, this site-and-services scheme was initiated in the late 1990s to develop 11hectares of agricultural and vacant land (part of which was a cemetery) by building roads and subdividing plots for self-building by a tar-geted 53 poor households (Enda and Villes en Transition, 2000). Once houses were built, they were expected to be issued land use rightscertificates.
Hien (HH11) and Hue (HH12) were residents of the site-and-services scheme in District 2. According to Hien, “The governmentonly upgraded this area – removed the graves, built roads, etc. Some of the roads are to be completed, they are still dirt. The governmentonly built the main roads, now it’s up to the residents.” Hue added, “People here have to do everything by themselves, there is no helpfrom the government. I have no expectation from the government, it’s too big for me to think. We just try to manage by ourselves and takecare of the family as best as we can.”
Hien took a loan at a high interest rate from friends to build his 2-storey house in 2006. He admitted spending beyond hismeans on building such a big house, but he was planning to get a bank loan to offset his current high-interest loan. However he was stillwaiting for the government registration and land use rights certificate. This was causing him great anxiety. “I am currently in big debt; Ireally need to apply for a bank loan, but I can’t until I get the registration. It’s really taking too long [3 years]. If I don’t get the registrationsoon, I may have to sell the house and move to a cheaper one,” narrated Hien.
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tial and commercial developments. Compensation foracquired land is often controversial and a reason for dis-pute. A typical example: Lan (HH06) and Phuong(HH07) were residents of pre-Doi Moi 1-room statehousing apartments in different blocks in central Hanoi.The majority of the apartments in such buildings, beingsmall (about 15-20m2), had been extended by their res-idents. Built of lightweight materials (timber, metal, etc),large enclosed balconies on brackets were common onthe upper floors. In Phuong’s 5-storey building, the resi-dents together planned and built the extensions all theway from the ground on foundations and concretecolumns. “We had to pay bribes to the police, otherwisethey would have reported us to the ward,” said Phuong.The ward proposed a plan to rebuild the whole areaaround Phuong and Lan, but most of the residents didnot agree as compensation would have been only for thesize of the original apartment, not their large extendedversions, as the extensions were not legal. Many of themwould have been out of a home, they feared, as theywould not have been able to buy property with the com-pensation offered and their own investments would havebeen lost.
Even for those living in slums/squatter settlements, landacquisition and compensation are key issues. Significanturban developments have been taking place in District 4,HCMC and its former predominantly slum/squatter pop-ulation is being gradually replaced by new roads,bridges and buildings inspired by Doi Moi. Binh (HH15)living in a canal-side slum in District 4 explained that heknew that the urban expansion would eventually catch upwith his area, but he did not want compensation as hethought it would not be enough to buy a new house. “Ijust want support to build a better and larger house,” saidBinh. Nonetheless, there were others in the same settle-ment living in conditions worse than Binh, who were hop-ing for compensation. Ba (HH13) had stopped makingany repairs or improvements to her ramshackle dwellingperched on the canal. “What’s the point? It will all bemoney wasted once they come here to get the land. I justwant to live someplace where it’s more like a house,” shesaid.
PROSPECTS: Hopes of urban poor households for thefuture of their housingIn urban poor households the highest priority is given totheir children’s education and welfare. The hope is forthem to have a better life in the future, and also to per-haps support the parents in old age. In a way, the chil-dren offer hope of an exit from poverty. These hopes areencapsulated below. Housing priorities: In terms of housing, the long-term pri-orities of the urban poor address the three main prob-lems discussed above in the section on Problems experi-enced by urban poor housing: (a) Space constraints: Anumber of respondent households pointed out that theywould like to or were planning to build extensions astheir current housing was too small. (b) Poor housingconditions: Many respondents emphasised that repairingtheir house was of high importance because of the poorstructural conditions of buildings and risk to human safe-ty. (c) Inadequate services: Poor sewage, aggravate by
flooding, was a problem experienced by several house-holds, which strongly wanted it to be solved as a matterof priority for the future. Help from government authori-ties, particularly the local ward, to support the poorhouseholds to address these priority housing problemswas expected or desired by the households.Institutional issues: A key hope particularly of residents ofold state housing and slum/squatter settlements was afuture commercial ‘facelift’ of their area in line with therapid and large urban developments taking place inVietnam, and consequently compensation for their prop-erty. Despite the various problems and disputes associat-ed with negotiation of compensations, for poor house-holds such potential urban development offers hope forbetter housing in the future.
Poor households are nonetheless aware of the institu-tional barriers to improved housing, particularly thosewithout registration for use rights; formal compensationcan only be made if the property is registered, spurringinformal transaction processes. Niem lived in a 1-roomdwelling unit in Hanoi with five other household mem-bers (HH10), with a loft added for extra space. Hishousehold was among 13 other similar ones living in a2-storey old dilapidated building in the French Quarter;nearby there was another similar building housing 7more households. The future of these 20 households waslinked - any future urban development of this central cityarea was expected by them to benefit them as a group.However registration was a critical issue, causing divi-sions within the community, as Niem narrated: “I don’tget any support from the ward; they even refused to giveme the registration certificate. They gave me difficultywhen I was building the loft, but I built it anyway as I real-ly needed the space. But I cannot make any more repairsor extensions until I get registration. You can see thishouse is falling apart and urgently needs to be fixed.”“Three households have sold their units to a real estatecompany; there is great demand for land in this area.They didn’t have registration, so the company paid bribesto get them registered. Maybe the whole building willeventually be sold like that.” Thus such an informalprocess, with its inherent anomalies and disputes, mayshape the future of urban poor housing.
In the case of family or personal housing, poor house-holds were often found scattered within the community,unlike state housing and slum/squatter settlements wherethere was clustering of poor households as in the caseabove of Niem’s household (HH10), and consequentconnectivity of the community for future housingprospects due to its spatial clustering. For exampleQuan, a single mother of two children, owned and livedin a small shop-house in Hanoi (HH03). “The head ofour residential group has reported to the ward that myhouse urgently needs repair, but they have not respond-ed yet. I am alone here, so nobody cares.”
Aspirations: The future aspirations of urban poor house-holds for their housing are ultimately linked to the insti-tutional issues of registration, new urban developmentand compensation. Within the complex institutionalmaze, frustration can come easily: “Everything is just
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edgoing to stay like this,” said Hien (HH02), the owner ofan overcrowded dilapidated house in Hanoi. Trung,whose wife died recently, struggled with difficulty to bringup his two sons in a small 1-room house in Hanoi(HH05). He was very disappointed at the unresponsive-ness of ward officials after they promised help to repairhis house. He knew what kind of house he wanted, ifonly he could get the money for it. “I wish to build a newhouse with two floors. The ground floor should haveconcrete pillars and beams so that it is sturdy and shouldbe raised more than 30cms above the ground to avoidfloods,” described Trung.
While the future of extreme poor households are alsolinked to the above institutional issues, their aspirationscan be basic, as narrated by 50-year old Hoa (HH14),who squatted under a bridge in HCMC (see Box 1), “Iam sick, I have no long-term plans. I just need somemoney for short-term expenses like medicines. For mysons, I just want a house, so that when I die they have aplace to stay and don’t suffer like me living on the streetall my life.”
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Author(s):
Iftekhar AhmedThe University of Newcastle (UON)School of Architecture and Built EnvironmentFaculty of Engineering and Built EnvironmentUniversity Drive Callaghan NSW 2308 Australia
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