How Did Teacher Recruitment and Teacher Career Paths Change as School Provision

became Centralized? The Case of Victorian and Edwardian England, 1841-1971—some possible perspectives from longitudinal record linkage.

David MitchDepartment of Economics

University of Maryland, Baltimore County

a)Period 1841 to 1911 saw the advent of centralized government funding and management of schools. Beginning in 1862, parliamentary funding to schools depended on examination results. b)this resulted in the establishment of centralized provision of teacher training colleges and procedures for teacher certification.

Historical Context

c)this also resulted in a substantial expansion of teaching occupations relative to the male and female

labor force as a whole :

1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891 1901 1911

Male 0.5% 0.5% 0.67% 0.5% 0.66% 0.7% 0.58% 0.6%

Female 2.0% 2.8% 3.0% 3.1% 3.9% 4.1% 4.1% 3.8%

Teachers, school masters, school mistresses as percentage of total male and female labor force in England and Wales 1841 to 1891

Most teachers were female

1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891

59.4% 70.5% 71.7% 73.4% 71.9% 71.1%

Percentage of teachers who were female

d)Census data for the end of the period indicate that most female teachers were unmarried:

• In the 1901 census, 92.3% of females in teaching related occupations were unmarried

• And in the 1911 census, 91.7 % were single, 6.3 % married, and 2% were widows.

Research questions to address with longitudinal data

a. What were the social origins of teachers in the early Victorian period?

Were teachers primarily recruited from those with skilled manual and lower middle class parents?

b. Did the social origins of teachers change over the 19th century with the relative expansion of the teaching workforce?

i)Did the expansion of the teaching workforce provide more opportunities for upward social mobility?

ii)Alternatively, did rising standards for teacher certification decrease recruitment from those with working class parents

Research Questions (continued):

c)What were the trends in teacher turnover and tenure with increasing centralized regulation of teacher certification and the implementation of funding and pay for performance policies?

d)how did length of duration and spells of interruption in teaching, and occupational career patterns differ between males, single females and females who married?

e)What changes occurred over time in the length of duration, spells of interruption and occupational career patters in teaching between 1841 and 1911?

Some perspectives from trends in age structure of the teaching workforce

MaleSchool master

MaleTeacher

FemaleSchoolMistress

Female School mistress married

Female Teacher

Female Governess

1851 21% 32.5% 21.7% 39.4%1871 17.9% 60.1% 22.35% 53.7%1881 48.8% 19.5% 53.3% 42.1%1891 36.3% 53.1%1901 28.8% 53.7%

Unmarried1.93%

Percentage of various categories of teachers under the age of 25---the use of categories changes across censuses

Procedures for constructing longitudinal data bases of teachers between 1841 and 1911:

1.Use a)1851 and 1881 Census CDs from Family History Resource File b)ancestry.com, c)Findmypast.com to generate names of those with teaching related occupational key words (teacher, school mistress, school master) from the 1851 and 1881 census.

2.Enter Birmingham, Warwickshire, Norfolk locations---seems required to search on the occupational field.

2A: Issue of sampling strategy by location.: i)cluster sampling ii)construct samples from contrasting census districts—rural/urban etc. iii)construct nationally representative sample?

3)link names of those listing teaching related occupations in 1851 and 1881 to earlier and later censuses (1841 through 1911) using ancestry.com and findmypast.com.

• 4)to construct career paths for women who married, employ marriage registers to identify females reporting a teaching related occupation at marriage. This identifies of occupation of father at marriage. Link the bride’s maiden name to census records prior to marriage, using name of father as well. Link the bride’s married name to subsequent census records.

Some VERY preliminary results

A.1881 data base of about 70 Warwickshire teachers.

Name Year Age Location (Parish) Condition Occupation Mother's

OccupationFather's

Occupation

Agnes Hobson

1861 7Goldington Unmarried Scholar None Gentleman1881 28Warwick St

NicholasUnmarried Teacher

1891 37Brighton Unmarried Governess

1901 48Easingwood Unmarried Governess Tanner and Tithe Agent

Tanner and Currier

1911 58Easingwood Unmarried None

Alice E Schofield

1871 9St Giles Unmarried Scholar None --1881 18Aston Unmarried School

MistressSchool Mistress

Coal Agent

1891 30Handsworth Unmarried Governess None Living on Own Means

Alice O'dwyer

1851 13Clayton Le Woods

Unmarried Daily Attending School

Teacher of Music

Teacher

1881 43Birmingham Unmarried Teacher

1891 53North Meols Unmarried Certificated Teacher

1901 63Glossop Unmarried School Teacher

Social origins of 1881 Warwickshire teachers

Father’s Occupational Category n %

Teacher 3 4.20%

Skilled 42 58.30%

Agricultural Labourer 5 6.90%

Commercial/Professional 22 30.50%

Total 72

B.Data Base for Norfolk teachers, 1851 and 1881

i.social origins 1851 N = 52

Percent with fathers Agricultural Labourer 17.35% School Master 5.80% Farmer 9.60% Commercial/Professional 25% Skilled 42.40%

Percent with mothers who were school mistresses 4/27 = 14.8%

Social origins Norfolk teachers

1881Father’s occupation: Mother’s occupationSurgeon School Mistress (3)Farm Steward Fund HolderCollier ManSchool MasterPainterRailway PorterWatermanCabinet MakerPorter

ii.Tenure patterns of females who were teachers in Norfolk

1851: Occupational title in 1851 Teacher:Listing across Multiple census of a teaching occupation: 16 Single listing of a teaching occupation: 21

Occupational title in 1851 School Mistress: listing across multiple censuses of teaching related occupation: 24 Single listing of teaching occupation: 19

1881:Occupational title in 1881 School Mistress:Listing in multiple census of teaching related occupation: 12 Single listing of Teaching related occupation: 6