The William & Mary Educational The William & Mary Educational

Review Review

Volume 2 Issue 1 Article 14

12-1-2013

How Parenting Style Influences Children: A Review of Controlling, How Parenting Style Influences Children: A Review of Controlling,

Guiding, and Permitting Parenting Styles on Children’s Behavior, Guiding, and Permitting Parenting Styles on Children’s Behavior,

Risk- Taking, Mental Health, and Academic Achievement Risk- Taking, Mental Health, and Academic Achievement

Clare Merlin College of William and Mary

Justine Rebecca Okerson College of William and Mary - School of Education

Phillip Hess The College of William & Mary

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Merlin, Clare; Okerson, Justine Rebecca; and Hess, Phillip (2013) "How Parenting Style Influences Children: A Review of Controlling, Guiding, and Permitting Parenting Styles on Children’s Behavior, Risk- Taking, Mental Health, and Academic Achievement," The William & Mary Educational Review: Vol. 2 : Iss. 1 , Article 14. Available at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/wmer/vol2/iss1/14

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Recently a renewed interest regardingparenting styles has stimulated discussion overthe best methods of parenting across allcultures (Taub, 2008). Headlines regarding“helicopter parents” (those who hover overtheir children) and “snow plow parents” (thosewho push obstacles out of their children’s way)highlight this renewed conversation on howbest to parent. What journalists and writersmay have forgotten is that more than fourdecades worth of research on parenting stylesdemonstrates the effects each style has onoutcomes for children (Baumrind, 1971; Taub,2008). At a time when parents are seeking themost effective ways to be involved in theeducation of their children, examining theirparenting styles and promoting guidingparenting is warranted.Parenting styles affect children in the areas

of behavior, risk-taking, mental health, and

How Parenting Style Influences Children: AReview of Controlling, Guiding, and PermittingParenting Styles on Children’s Behavior, Risk-

Taking, Mental Health, and AcademicAchievement

Clare MerlinJustine OkersonPhilip Hess

academic achievement (Baumrind, 1971; Chen,Dong, & Zhou, 1997; Ishak, Low, & Lau, 2012;Trinkner, Cohn, Rebellon, & Van Gundy, 2012).Baumrind (1971) introduced three parenting stylesas patterns of parental authority: authoritarian,authoritative, and permissive parenting. Theseparenting styles are differentiated from oneanother based on their levels of demandingnessand responsiveness to children (Baumrind, 1991;Martinez & Garcia, 2008; Ishak et al., 2012).Demandingness is the extent to which parentsexert control, power, and supervision over theirchildren, as well as set limits on their children(Baumrind, 1991; Martinez & Garcia, 2008).Responsiveness is the extent to which parentsshow their children affective warmth andacceptance, give support, and reason with them(Baumrind, 1991; Martinez & Garcia, 2008).For the purposes of this study, the parenting

styles will be called controlling (authoritarian),

Abstract

Across cultures, parenting styles fall into three categories based on levels of demandingness andresponsiveness. This literature review examines three categories of parenting styles and their influenceon children’s behavior, risk-taking, mental health, and academic achievement. Controlling parents arehigh on demandingness and low on responsiveness (Baumrind, 1991; Kim, in press). Guiding parentsare high on demandingness and high on responsiveness (Baumrind, 1991; Kim, in press). Permittingparents are low on demandingness and low on responsiveness (Baumrind, 1991; Kim, in press). Basedon positive and negative effects of each parenting style, this review concludes that the guidingparenting style is the most effective for children. Implications for parents include recognizing the needto provide both support and structure for children.

Keywords: authoritarianparenting, authoritative parenting,controlling parenting, guidingparenting, parenting styles, permissive parenting

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guiding (authoritative), and permitting (permissive)(Kim, in press). Controlling parents are high ondemandingness and low on responsiveness, guidingparents are high on demandingness and high onresponsiveness, and permitting parents are low ondemandingness and low on responsiveness(Baumrind, 1991; Martinez & Garcia, 2008). Thesedifferences are illustrated in Figure 1.

Although past studies have indicated theguiding parenting style is the most effectiveparenting style, research has neglected to describewhere the line is drawn between controllingparenting and guiding parenting, and betweenguiding parenting and permitting parenting(Baumrind, 1971; Baumrind, 1991; Ishak et al.,2012; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Milevsky,Schlechter, Netter, & Keehn, 2007).

Controlling ParentingControlling parenting, also known as

authoritarian parenting, is characterized by a highlevel of demandingness and a low level ofresponsiveness (Baumrind, 1991; Ishak et al., 2012;Kim, in press; Luyckx et al., 2011; Miller, Lambert,& Speirs Neumeister, 2012). Controlling parentsare strict with their children and emphasizediscipline over nurturing (Miller et al., 2012), butare detached and unreceptive to their children’sneeds (Trinkner et al., 2012). They assert highlevels of control, set rules and restrictions(Baumrind, 1971; Chen et al., 1997; Greening,Stoppelbein, & Leubbe, 2010; Miller et al., 2012),have high demands (Greening et al., 2010), and arerejecting of their children (Chen et al., 1997).Controlling parents enforce a structuredenvironment with punitive and prohibitivediscipline (Baumrind, 1971; Chen et al., 1997; Ishaket al., 2012; Kang & Moore, 2011; McKinney,Milone, & Renk, 2011) and punishment (Chan &Chan, 2005). The harsh and often unwarranted

punishments that result from controllingparenting make it potentially damaging forchildren.

Guiding ParentingGuiding parenting, also known as

authoritative parenting, is characterized by ahigh level of demandingness and a high levelof responsiveness (Baumrind, 1991; Ishak etal., 2012; Kim, in press; Luyckx et al., 2011;Miller et al., 2012). Guiding parenting uses amixture of controlling – but not restrictive –practices, with positive encouragement forautonomy and independence towards children(Baumrind, 1971). Guiding parents recognizeand nurture the uniqueness of their children(Ishak et al., 2012) and are accepting of theirchildren (Bronte-Tinkew, Moore, & Carrano,2006; Miller et al., 2012). Guiding parentsdiscourage emotional dependency and infantilebehavior (Baumrind, 1971). They providerewards for positive behaviors and usediscipline without physical punishment to curbdelinquent behavior (Hoeve et al., 2008;Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2006). Althoughcontrolling parents also assert direction overtheir children’s behavior, guiding parentsacknowledge their children’s feelings andexplain the reasons for their directingbehavior, such as setting rules andexpectations; controlling parents do not(Baumrind, 1971).

Permitting ParentingPermitting parenting, also known as

permissive parenting, is characterized by lowlevels of demandingness as well as low levelsof responsiveness (Baumrind, 1991; Ishak etal., 2012; Kim, in press; Luyckx et al., 2011;Miller et al., 2012; Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen,& Hart, 1995). Permitting parenting is non-controlling, non-demanding, and warm(Baumrind, 1971). Permitting parents areresponsive to their children but notdemanding; they behave in a non-punitive andaffirmative manner toward their children(Baumrind, 1971; McKinney et al., 2011).Although permitting parents are accepting oftheir children, they exhibit little control overtheir children’s behavior (Baumrind, 1971;Robinson, et al., 1995) and give freedom totheir children’s impulses, desires, and actions(Baumrind, 1971; Miller et al., 2012).

Influence of Parenting Styles

Figure 1. Parenting styles differentiated by level of demandingnessand responsiveness.

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Although permitting parents give considerablesupport to their children, the permittingparents’ lack of control of their childrennegates the benefits of their responsiveness.Research sometimes differentiates between

two types of permitting parenting: indulgingparenting, when parents exhibit low levels ofdemandingness with high levels ofresponsiveness, and neglecting parenting, whenparents engage in low levels of demandingnessand low levels of responsiveness (Baumrind,1991; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Milevsky et al.,2007).

Indulging ParentingIndulging parents are tolerant, warm, and

accepting; they exercise little authority, makefew demands behaviorally, and allowconsiderable self-regulation by their children(Glasgow, Dornbusch, Troyer, Steinberg, &Ritter, 1997; Maccoby & Martin, 1983).Indulging parents offer support to theirchildren with the absence of strict control(Huver, Otten, de Vries, & Engels, 2010).They avoid confrontation and regard issues asbelonging to their children’s personal domain(Jutengren & Palmerus, 2006). The indulgingparenting style, although the more positive ofthe two permitting parenting styles, is toofocused on creating an amiable rapportbetween parents and their children, and lacksthe guidelines and enforcement necessary foreffective parenting.

Neglecting ParentingIn a further extension of the Baumrind

(1971) model, Maccoby and Martin (1983)added the neglecting parenting style as asubtype of permitting parenting, sometimesreferred to as rejecting parenting (Baumrind,1971). Also known as uninvolved parenting,neglecting parenting represents a style ofparenting that is low on both control andaffiliation, with low levels of demandingnessand responsiveness (Baumrind, 1991; Glasgowet al., 1997; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Rhee etal., 2006; Speirs Neumiester & Finch, 2006).Neglecting parents let their children have theirway because they do not want to get involved(Jutengren & Palmerus, 2006), nor do theymonitor, guide, or support their children(Adalbjarnardottir & Hafsteinsson, 2001).Whereas indulging parents are committed to

their children, neglecting parents are preoccupied withtheir own problems and are disengaged from parentalresponsibilities (Glasgow et al., 1997). The neglectingparenting style disadvantages children by not offeringthem support or boundaries, while the guidingparenting style offers both.

Influence of Controlling Parents on ChildrenControlling parenting results in unfavorable

outcomes for children in the areas of behavior, risk-taking, mental health, and academic achievement.

BehaviorControlling parenting is related to less positive

adjustment for children (McKinney et al., 2011).Children of controlling parents lack independencecompared to children with parents of other styles(Baumrind, 1971). Children with controlling parentslack self-reliance and rely on authority figures to maketheir decisions for them, as children of controllingparents are accustomed to having their parents makemost of their decisions (Chan & Chan, 2005; Kang &Moore, 2011). As a result, children with controllingparents are less likely to engage in exploratorybehaviors or those that challenge them as compared tochildren with parents of other styles (Chan & Chan,2005).Controlling parenting is also negatively associated

with peer acceptance (Chan & Chan, 2005), andsociability competence in children – the ability to usesocial skills appropriately (Chen et al., 1997).Moreover, children with controlling parents areassociated with lower sociability in general (Porter et al.,2005). In situations with a controlling context (such asthe military), children with controlling parentsexperience poorer adjustment and have lower levels ofcoping ability adjusting to the controlling context(Mayseless, Scharf, & Sholt, 2003).Children with controlling parents are positively

associated with more frequent behavior problems thanchildren with parents of other styles (Chen et al., 1997;Greening et al., 2010; Tan, Camras, Deng, Zhang, &Lu, 2012). Controlling parenting is associated withincreasing both externalizing and internalizingproblems in children compared to other parentingstyles (Gunnoe, Hetherington, & Reiss, 2006; Luyckx etal., 2011; Rinaldi & Howe, 2012). Externalizingbehaviors are those dealing with aggression, attentionproblems, and hyperactivity, whereas internalizingbehaviors concern depression, withdrawal, and anxiety(Kang & Moore, 2011; Rinaldi & Howe, 2012). Thisincreased aggression, decreased self-esteem, anddecreased sociability found in children of controlling

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parents provides conclusive evidence of theharmfulness of the controlling parenting style.

Risk-takingThe controlling parenting style also has negative

effects on the level of risk-taking found inchildren. Children with controlling parents are lesslikely to view their parents as legitimate sources ofauthority and are more likely to resist their parents’attempts at socializing with them (Trinkner et al.,2012). Children with controlling parents arepositively associated with delinquency, behaviorviolating public laws (Trinkner et al., 2012), andwith increased substance use (Greening et al.,2010). Controlling parenting also predicts lowerlevels of social responsibility in children(Baumrind, 1971; Gunnoe et al., 2006).

Mental healthControlling parenting has been correlated

detrimentally with several dimensions of mentalhealth in children (Greening et al., 2010; Gunnoeet al., 2006; McKinney et al., 2011; Nguyen, 2008).Psychopathology is one of the dimensionspositively correlated with controlling parenting(Gunnoe et al., 2006). Children with controllingparents are also associated with lower self-esteemthan children with parents of other styles(Martinez & Garcia, 2008; Nguyen, 2008).

Additionally, children with controllingparents are more likely to have depression thanchildren with guiding parents (Nguyen, 2008).Suicidal ideation and suicidal behavior is alsoincreased in children with controlling parents(Greening et al., 2010). Poorer emotionaladjustment, which includes self-esteem, depression,and anxiety, is more common in children withcontrolling parents (McKinney et al., 2011), andnegative emotionality (negative features oftemperament) is higher in children with controllingparents (Porter et al., 2005). Controlling parentingexacerbates the negative features of children’stemperaments because demanding parenting elicitsnegative emotions in children over time (Porter etal., 2005). Children with controlling parents aremore discontent, withdrawn, and distrustful thanchildren of other parenting styles (Baumrind,1971). Perfectionism – having excessively highstandards – is also positively correlated with havingcontrolling parents (Miller et al., 2012).Psychological flexibility, the ability to adapt to

situational demands, shift perspectives, balancecompeting needs, and change or maintain behavior

when appropriate, is negatively correlated withchildren with controlling parents (Williams,Ciarrochi, & Heaven, 2012). Children withcontrolling parents are less capable of regulatingtheir emotions, thoughts, and behaviors byappropriately applying regulatory strategies(Williams et al., 2012). Their self-control andself-regulation is worse than children withguiding parents, which can lead to distress andpsychopathology (Williams et al., 2012).

Academic AchievementThere is conflicting research on the

association between academic achievement andchildren with controlling parents (Chen et al.,1997; Greening et al., 2010; Ishak et al., 2012;Kang & Moore, 2011). Multiple studies foundthat children with controlling parents are morelikely to be successful in school than childrenwith parents of other styles (Chen et al., 1997;Ishak et al., 2012; Kang & Moore, 2011).Specifically, children with controlling parentsscore higher in core courses than children withparents of other parenting styles (Kang &Moore, 2011). Additionally, the controllingparenting style has been found to moderate theeffect of academic self-concept (the attributes,abilities, attitudes and values believed to defineoneself) on academic achievement in children(Ishak et al., 2012). Children with controllingparents are also more decisive when makingcareer decisions than children with parents ofother styles (Cenkseven-Önder et al., 2010).This may be because controlling parents maketheir children’s career decisions for them(Cenkseven-Önder et al., 2010).Other studies found that children of

controlling parents do less well academically(Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, &Dornbusch, 1994). Baumrind (1971) foundfemale children of controlling parents (thoughnot male children of controlling parents) are lesslikely to be achievement oriented than femalechildren of guiding parents, but are notassociated with high or low levels ofcompetence. The controlling parenting style hasalso been correlated with home environmentsless conducive to creativity because controllingparents are restrictive and reduce theindependence of children (Miller et al., 2012).Although there is conflicting research on theeffects of controlling parenting on children’sacademic achievement, the existence of research

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pointing to the negative consequences stillsuggests that controlling parenting may bedamaging to children in the context ofacademic achievement.Children with controlling parents are also

more extrinsically motivated than intrinsicallymotivated when learning, meaning they aremore motivated by external rewards thaninternal gratification (Chan & Chan, 2005;Kang & Moore, 2011). Similarly, children ofcontrolling parents are associated with a focuson performance goals (demonstrating theirabilities by outperforming others) more thanlearning goals (developing competence on atask) (Chan & Chan, 2005). When children ofguiding parents are extrinsically motivated,they are less likely to be successful and driventhroughout their lives than students who areintrinsically motivated (Ghazi, Ali, Shahzad, &Khan, 2010).

Influence of Guiding Parents on ChildrenGuiding parenting results in more positive

outcomes than other parenting styles(Baumrind, 1971; Trinkner et al., 2012). Thesepositive outcomes are evident in behavior,risk-taking, mental health, and academicachievement.BehaviorGuiding parenting has the most

advantageous effect on children’s behavior,compared to other parenting styles. Guidingparenting is negatively correlated withbehavioral problems in children (Kaufmann etal., 2000). In particular, guiding parents’children are negatively correlated withexternalizing problems, such as aggression,attention problems, and hyperactivity (Rinaldi& Howe, 2012; Tan et al., 2012). Children ofguiding parents are self-reliant and self-controlled, which helps them avoid makingimpulsive decisions resulting in negativebehaviors (Baumrind, 1971; Trinkner et al.,2012). Children with guiding parents are alsodescribed as more adventurous than childrenfrom other parenting styles (Baumrind, 1971;Chan & Chan, 2005).Chen et al. (1997) found that guiding

parenting is related to social adjustment ofchildren, such as a positive association betweenguiding parenting and children’s peeracceptance and social competence, and anegative association between guiding parenting

and social difficulties (Chen et al., 1997). Guidingparents’ warmth and encouragement are linked tochildren’s confidence and positive world outlook,which lead to positive behaviors with their peersand positive peer interactions (Chen et al., 1997).Children of guiding parents also have moreadaptive behaviors than children of controllingparents, such as better social skills and adaptabilityto situations (Rinaldi & Howe, 2012).

Risk-takingChildren with guiding parents are less likely to

participate in risky behaviors than children withparents from other parenting styles (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2006). Children with guiding parentsare also less likely to engage in substance abusethan children with controlling parents (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2006). Specifically, research showeda connection between children’s first timesubstance abuse and fathers’ monitoring andawareness (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2006). Father’smonitoring and supervision are examples of thetypes of strict behaviors associated with those ofguiding parenting and contribute to the low levelsof risk-taking behavior found in children withguiding parents (Baumrind, 1971; Bronte-Tinkewet al., 2006). This monitoring of children’sbehavior is one example of why children ofguiding parents engage in less risk-taking than thechildren of other parenting styles.Mental HealthNguyen (2008) found that children with guiding

parents demonstrate high levels of self-esteem,sense of self, independence, and confidence.Additionally, guiding parenting is not associatedwith children’s suicidal ideation or behavior(Greening et al., 2010). The more parents invest inbeing involved with their children, grantingautonomy and creating structure, the morepositively children perceive their own mental healthand psychological development (Gray & Steinberg,1999). Children who are accepting of their parentsand psychologically mature are more receptive totheir parents’ expectations (Gray & Steinberg,1999). Children of guiding parents demonstratemore positive mental health behaviors thanchildren of other parenting styles.

Academic AchievementDespite conflicting research regarding the

effects of controlling parents on academicachievement, research conclusively demonstratesthe positive effects of guiding parents on academic

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achievement. Children with guiding parentsperform better academically than children ofother parenting styles (Dornbusch, Ritter,Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987;Steinberg, Emen, & Mounts, 1989; Steinberget al., 1994; Walker, 2008). Guiding parentshave a more positive impact on children’sacademic achievement than permitting orcontrolling parents (Dornbusch et al., 1987;Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989; Steinberg& Lamborn, 1992; Walker, 2008). Guidingparenting improves academic self-concept,which influences academic achievement inchildren (Ishak et al., 2012).Steinberg et al. (1989) found children with

guiding parents are more successfulacademically due to guiding parents’acceptance, psychological autonomy, andbehavioral control. These students are moreengaged and, consequently, more successful inschool as a result of their parents’ involvementin their education (Steinberg & Lamborn,1992). Guiding parents maintain a balance ofinvolvement and granting autonomy in theirchildren’s lives, which creates an environmentwhere children with guiding parents developstrong self-image and perform betteracademically than children of other parentingstyles (Gray & Steinberg, 1999).Lastly, children with guiding parents are

more intrinsically motivated than extrinsicallymotivated (Chan & Chan, 2005; Kang &Moore, 2011). Children with guiding parentsare more motivated by internal gratificationthan external rewards (Chan & Chan, 2005).When children of guiding parents areinternally motivated, these children see goals asattainable and as a result are more likely to besuccessful and driven throughout their livesthan students who are only extrinsicallymotivated (Ghazi et al., 2010).

Influence of Permitting Parenting onChildren

Although permitting parents are not asdetrimental to children as controlling parents,permitting parents are not as beneficial asguiding parents (Trinkner et al., 2012).Positive and negative effects result frompermitting parents’ influence on children inbehavior, risk-taking, mental health, andacademic achievement (Baumrind, 1971; Rheeet al., 2006; Rinaldi & Howe, 2012).

BehaviorMale children with permitting parents score

high on behavioral tendencies including hostility,resistance, and dominance (Baumrind, 1971). Malechildren with permitting parents lack socialresponsibility and independence relative to malechildren of controlling parents (Baumrind, 1971).Female children with permitting parents are moreresistive and less independent than female childrenof guiding parents (Baumrind, 1971).In addition, children of permitting parents

exhibit negative behavioral outcomes includinginternalizing, externalizing, and attention problemsand disorders (Rinaldi & Howe, 2012). Childrenof permitting parents are twice as likely to beoverweight compared with children of guidingparents (Rhee et al., 2006). The permittingparenting style has negative effects on the behaviorof children, including resistance, hostility, and lackof social responsibility, that is not found with theguiding parenting style (Baumrind, 1971; Rhee etal., 2006; Rinaldi & Howe, 2012).

Risk-takingHaving a parent with an uninvolved or

permissive parenting style is associated with therisk of initial delinquent activity across a variety ofdelinquent behaviors (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2006).Children with permitting parents are more likely toengage in risk-taking behaviors including sexualrisk-taking and alcohol or drug experimentation(Adalbjarnardottir & Hafsteinsson, 2001; Huebner& Howell, 2003; Patock-Peckham, & Morgan-Lopez, 2006). The permitting parenting styleincreases impulsiveness, decreases personal control,and increases both alcohol use and alcohol-relatedproblems for children, which is not found in theguiding parenting style (Patock-Peckham, &Morgan-Lopez, 2006).

Mental HealthThe permitting parenting style also has negative

effects on the mental health of children ofpermitting parents compared to children of otherparenting styles. Children with permitting parentsare self-confident but show lower levels of self-control, high aggression, and independence(McClun & Merrell, 1998; Rhee et al., 2006).Although there is limited research investigatinglinks between suicidal behavior and the permittingparenting style, because the children of permittingparents struggle with self-control and poor impulsecontrol, children of permitting parents are more at

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risk for self-destructive behavior (Greening etal., 2010).

Academic AchievementBaumrind (1971) found that children with

permitting parents are less achievement-oriented than children of other parentingstyles. According to reports from permittingparents and their children, those children scorelower on their core courses than the childrenof guiding parents (Kang & Moore, 2011). Inaddition, children of permitting parents tendto score low in social and cognitivecompetence and score high on measures thatdemonstrate immaturity, lack of impulsecontrol, and self-reliance (Dornbusch et al.,1987; Jutengren & Palmerus, 2006). Childrenwith permitting parents may have loweracademic performances than children withparents of other styles, as children withpermitting parents struggle with highfrustration and low persistence with difficulttasks (Kang & Moore, 2011).Miller et al. (2012), however, found that

children with permitting parents tend to have ahigh connection with creativity, becauseparents who utilize the permitting parentingstyle demonstrate higher creativity levels thanguiding or controlling parents. It may be thatthe high degree of responsiveness found inpermitting parenting is what is most importantfor nurturing creativity (Baumrind, 1991;Miller et al., 2012).

Influence of Indulging Parents onChildrenChildren of indulging parents differ slightly

from children of permitting parents, aschildren with indulging parents are disengagedfrom school and show a higher frequency ofinvolvement in deviant behaviors (McClun &Merrell, 1998; Rhee et al., 2006). Childrenwho describe their parents as indulging scorehigher than those whose parents are neglectingon the measures of perceived competence andwork orientation and lower on the index ofpsychological symptoms (Lamborn et al.,1991). Children from indulging and neglectinghomes do not differ with respect to problembehaviors and school performance (Lambornet al., 1991). Although children from indulgingfamilies report higher levels ofexperimentation with drinking and smoking

than their peers with controlling and guidingparents, it appears children from indulging parentsare more protected from experimentation withsubstances than their peers with neglecting parents(Adalbjarnardottir & Hafsteinsson, 2001).Children from indulging families score higher thanchildren from controlling parents on measures ofsocial competence and self-reliance, but lower thanchildren of guiding parents in work orientation andself-perception of academic ability (Glasgow et al.,1997).

Influence of Neglecting Parents on ChildrenNeglecting parenting is associated with

unfavorable outcomes, such as high rates ofdepression, high rates of smoking, poor schoolachievement, and low psychosocial development(Rhee et al., 2006). Neglecting children are twiceas likely to be overweight compared with childrenwith parents of other styles (Rhee et al., 2006).Children who characterize their parents asneglecting are more likely to have tried smoking,experimented with underage drinking, andexperimented with illicit drug use than childrenfrom indulging parents (Adalbjarnardottir &Hafsteinsson, 2001).In a study on sexual risk-taking, respondents

who reported their parents never or rarelymonitored their whereabouts were more likely toengage in risk-taking behaviors (Huebner &Howell, 2003). Although parenting style did notcorrelate directly with sexual risk-taking, childrenwho are not closely monitored by their parents aremore likely than their peers who are well-monitored by their parents to demonstrate highsexual risk-taking behaviors (Huebner & Howell,2003). Compared to children with parents ofother styles, children with neglecting parents showthe lowest level of psychological and socialadjustment, with low levels of self-regulation andcognitive competence (Glasgow et al., 1997). Thedeleterious effects of neglecting parenting continueto accumulate over time (Glasgow et al., 1997) incomparison with the continued positive effects ofthe guiding parenting style on children.

SummaryBy analyzing similarities and differences in the

parenting styles, conclusions can be madeidentifying which parenting practices are the mosteffective. Guiding parenting is more beneficial tochildren’s behavior, risk-taking, mental health, andacademic achievement than controlling or

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permitting parenting (Baumrind, 1971; Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2006; Chan & Chan 2005; Gray& Steinberg, 1999; Kaufmann et al., 2000;Nguyen, 2008; Trinkner et al., 2012).Both controlling and guiding parents

exhibit high levels of demandingness incontrast to permitting parents who have lowlevels of demandingness (Baumrind, 1991).When controlling parents establish rules, theyexpect their children to follow the ruleswithout explanation (Baumrind, 1971; Chen etal., 1997; Greening et al., 2010; Ishak et al.,2012; Kang & Moore, 2011; Trinkner et al.,2012). Guiding parents also set rules andlimits on their children; however guidingparents differ from controlling parents bytaking children’s feelings into considerationand engaging in conversations with theirchildren explaining why rules are important(Baumrind, 1971). Permitting parents alsoconsult with their children about rules andexpectations; however permitting parents exertlittle control over their children’s behavior anddo not encourage their children to follow rules(Baumrind 1971; Miller et al., 2012). Neitherindulging nor neglecting parents create orenforce rules for their children (Glasgow et al.,1997).Guiding parents exhibit a high level of

responsiveness in contrast to both controllingand permitting parents, who exhibit low levelsof responsiveness (Baumrind, 1991). Guidingparents show warmth in recognizing theirchildren’s uniqueness and are accepting whileshowing support and offering encouragement(Baumrind, 1971; Ishak et al., 2012; Miller etal., 2012). Controlling parents are detachedand unreceptive to their children’s needs,emphasizing discipline instead (Chen et al.,1997; Ishak et al., 2012; Trinkner et al., 2012).Like guiding parents, permitting parents areaccepting of their children; however,permitting parents show no attempts to reasonwith their children and instead give excessivefreedom to their children’s impulses, desires,and actions (Baumrind, 1971; McKinney et al.,2011; Miller et al., 2012). Indulging parents aresupportive of their children, but oftenoverlook their children’s needs; neglectingparents, on the other hand are disengaged withtheir children’s lives (Glasgow et al., 1997). Asa result of guiding parents’ warmth,acceptance, and encouragement, children of

guiding parents have better outcomes in the areasof behavior, risk-taking, mental health, andacademic achievement than children of otherparenting styles (Baumrind, 1971; Bronte-Tinkewet al., 2006, Chan & Chan 2005; Gray & Steinberg,1999; Kaufmann et al., 2000; Nguyen, 2008;Trinkner et al., 2012).Despite some similarities between how parents

from different parenting styles are characterized interms of demandingness and responsiveness,examining how guiding parents interact with theirchildren explains why their children demonstratemore positive behaviors, participate in less risk-taking, have better mental health, and achievehigher academically than children from otherparenting styles (Baumrind, 1991; Bronte-Tinkewet al., 2006; Chan & Chan 2005; Gray & Steinberg,1999; Kaufmann et al., 2000; Nguyen, 2008;Trinkner et al., 2012).

ConclusionThe main finding of this literature review is that

the guiding parenting style produces betteroutcomes for children than the controlling orpermitting parenting styles. By reviewing theevidence in previous literature, it is evident that theguiding parenting style produces better outcomesfor children in the areas of behavior, risk-taking,mental health, and academic achievement.Another finding in this literature review is that

the line between guiding parents and controllingparents is drawn between high responsiveness andlow responsiveness. When a parent has a high levelof demandingness and low level of responsiveness,a parent becomes controlling. However, if aparent can maintain high responsiveness and highdemandingness the parent will embody thequalities of a guiding parent. Similarly, the linebetween guiding parents and permitting parents isdrawn between high demandingness and lowdemandingness. When a parent has a high level ofresponsiveness and low demandingness a parentbecomes permitting; however, if a parent canmaintain high demandingness and highresponsiveness, the parent will embody thequalities of a guiding parent. If a guiding parentveers from high responsiveness or highdemandingness he or she risks becoming acontrolling or permitting parent and producingdetrimental effects on children.

ImplicationsThe findings of this literature review have

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implications for parents regarding modelingthe ideal parenting style. Controlling andpermitting parenting styles have both harmfuland beneficial effects on children, whereas theguiding parenting style has only benefits forchildren. Parents must heed this researchknowledge, examine their own parenting styles,and possibly change their parenting styles toensure the best outcomes for their children.To do so, parents must know how each

parenting style looks. Controlling parents lacknurturing qualities towards their children anduse physical punishment to enforce their rules.Controlling parents expect their children toobey them without explanation and have noconsideration for their children’s wishes.Permitting parents, in contrast, have excessivenurturing qualities and appease their children’swishes by not setting boundaries. Permittingparents operate without rules and cansometimes enforce harsh punishment afterbecoming frustrated with their lack of controlof their children. Guiding parents, the idealmodel for parents to emulate, provide an equalbalance between controlling and permittingparents. Guiding parents set clear rules,provide structure, have reasonableexpectations, and offer adequate support fortheir children, while encouraging theirindependence.Teachers are in a key position to support

parents by informing them about the parentingstyles and best practices utilized by guidingparents. They can discuss parenting stylesduring information sessions and parent-teacher conferences. Teachers can alsodistribute literature and brochures highlightingthe specific behaviors found in each parentingstyles.School counselors, school psychologists,

and school administrators can serve asresources for parents to consult with regardingappropriate parenting styles. These educatorscan collaborate to hold parent workshops onparenting styles, host guest speakers onparenting practices, and pool resources for aparent information library at their schoolincluding information on best parenting styles.By providing this information in an accessibleand well-publicized manner, educators caninform parents about crucial material that theymay not otherwise have been exposed to.Researchers should continue to examine

the influences parenting styles have on children.The influence parenting styles have on areas suchas college matriculation, children’s future parentingstyles, and children’s life satisfaction as adults stillneeds to be explored. Lastly, as technology,education, and social norms continue to evolve,researchers must investigate how parenting stylesshould change to best meet the needs of children.

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About the authors

Clare Merlin is a doctoral student in the School Psychology& Counselor Education program, focusing on CounselorEducation.

Justine Okerson is a doctoral student in the EducationalPolicy, Planning, and Leadership program, focusing onHigher Education.

Philip Hess is a doctoral student in the Educational Policy,Planning, and Leadership program, focusing on CurriculumLeadership.

Influence of Parenting Styles