How to write effective and convincing proposalsAs an engineer you will at one point be required to write proposals. These documents might be RFPs, contract negotiation or request for financing for a project. Whichever one you might be tasked with writing, you should be concise and cover all the pertinent details. This guide provides several tips on how you should approach any proposal writing task.

1. Be clear of the outcomes

Before you start writing a proposal, ask yourself several times what you intend the results will be. Most of the proposals sound like statements rather than conveying what is being offered. The results should be very objective and should be quantifiable. Writing an effective proposal will become easier once you are able to quantify the results and make it sound like a selling point.

2. Have a central theme for your proposal

From the results that you have envisaged, the strongest result will be the theme of the proposal. Think from the perspective of the organization or the recipient of the proposal and find out what will be the most beneficial result for them. Once the recipient sees the benefit, you will have no problems in getting the proposal through. Most proposals get rejected because you think more about benefits to you rather than for the recipient.

3. Be concise

No one has the time to read through hundreds of pages. An effective proposal should be brief and concise. Come to your point quickly, maybe after a brief introduction. Most studies have shown that business managers read only the introduction and the conclusion. Make both strong and use effective words to make the impact. The conclusion should very subtly point to the benefits the recipient will enjoy accepting the proposal.

4. Give it a life

Give examples while writing the proposal. If the same proposal has improved another organization, quantify the results and present it in your proposal. Business managers are impressed with figures and give them figures to calculate wherever possible. An effective proposal will be liven up with lot of benefits. Count the benefits before you send out the proposal.

5. Rewrite

As you write, you will feel like you have written the most effective proposal. Let the proposal sit for at least 24 hours and then read it again. You will notice areas, which are not as effective. Rewrite these specific areas. You may to continue this exercise a number of times until you are satisfied that it is as effective as it can get. It is also a good idea to periodically have fresh sets of eyes looking at the proposal to give you additional insights.

6. Cost figures

You need to keep the financials simple and easy to understand. Not all recipients will have a thorough knowledge of the financial terms and will be only looking at how much they will have to shell out and what benefit they will derive. If you give too many ratios and figures, it is very unlikely that the recipient will get interested in the proposal. The pricing should only convey what is the total cost of the solution you are providing.

By spending some time in research and prioritizing the points to be put in the proposal, you can generate an effective proposal. Using clean and simple language in a brief and concise report will help you in writing effective proposals.

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Depending upon how much you enjoy writing, writing sales proposals can be a joy, purgatory, or something in between. However, if you sell a complex product or one that involves the delivery of professional services, learning how to write effective selling proposals can be critical to your success.

Some proposals are written in response to an RFP (Request for Proposal) or RFI (Request for Information).

Organizations that go to the trouble of writing RFP's want to receive highly structured proposals, as this makes it easier for them to compare responses from various bidders.

Some proposals are "Boilerplate Bombs." These proposals tend to be long, boring, and tedious to read. Often these proposals are written under the assumption that "bounce factor" (how high objects on a desk bounce when the proposal is dropped on the desk) is what makes a proposal effective.

The proposal category that is the focus of this article is EFFECTIVE SELLING PROPOSALS. These proposals are lean, highly focused, customer-specific documents that are written to sell anyone that reads them. How can a written document accomplish this feat? Through text that invokes EMOTION and provides COMPELLING REASONS that support a buying decision.

Before we go any further, let's review the single biggest mistake in proposal generation - lack of proper opportunity qualification. Companies waste incredible amounts of time and resources preparing proposals for poorly qualified opportunities. These proposals have little chance of producing sales.

When you are armed with the necessary opportunity qualification information and you have made a conscious decision that the opportunity warrants the investment of time and resources required to generate a quality proposal, you are ready to write an effective selling proposal. To aid you in this undertaking, here are brief descriptions of nine suggested proposal sections:

1. Opening

This is usually a single paragraph where you thank the people that provided the opportunity qualification information and set the stage for the proposal. The last sentence of the paragraph should list the primary value the prospect will receive by making the proposed investment.

2. Background

Your prospects know a lot about their own companies. They don't need you to provide them with a chronological history or a bunch of unnecessary facts. The bulk of this section should focus on selected facts concerning the SPECIFIC business functions or departments that your solution will impact.

3. Current Situation

This is where you really start selling. In this section you lay out the prospect's business problems and the impact of the problems...in painful detail. Your goal should be to invoke your prospect's NEGATIVE emotions (fear, frustration, pain, etc.).

4. Desired Results

Your goal for this section should be to invoke your prospect's POSITIVE emotions (relief, joy, satisfaction, etc.) by helping your prospect visualize the "desired state" for their business.

5. Business Impact

This is where you justify the acquisition. What impact will your solution have on your prospect's business? How will their operations and financial results change for the better?

6. Decision Criteria

If you don't have a comprehensive list of the criteria that your prospect will use to make their decision, you probably shouldn't be writing a proposal. List all of their decision criteria here.

7. Decision Process, Time Frame, and Budget

The purpose of including this information in the proposal is to make sure you and your prospect share the same expectations.

8. Next Steps

There should be specific next steps (and related time frames) that are expected to take place after you submit your proposal. List them here to make sure you and your prospect are "on the same page."

9. Closing

Close with a final paragraph that summarizes why your product or service is the best solution for your prospect, plus a positive statement of expectation.

Do you see the power of this type of proposal? Do you see the benefit of eliminating volumes of boilerplate that do not address your prospect's SPECIFIC and IMMEDIATE needs and concerns? Do you see how an effective selling proposal can influence the thinking of decision makers and influencers, even if you have had limited (or no) personal contact with them?

If you construct your proposals in this manner, you will maximize your return on proposal writing time and resource investments.

Alan Rigg is the author of How to Beat the 80/20 Rule in Selling: Why Most Salespeople Don't Perform and What to Do About It. His company, 80/20 Performance Inc., supplies specialized sales assessment tests and consulting to help organizations build top-performing sales teams. For more sales and sales management tips, visit: http://www.8020performance.com.

General Suggestions

Starting well is half the job.

-- Korean proverb

An application, plan, or proposal (plan) should not be written in isolation. Begin by seeking cooperation from people who understand the needs of students, teachers, and others for whom the program is proposed. They can help you create a realistic plan that can be implemented if funded.

Planning Together

A high-quality plan reflects the ideas of students, parents, educators, community members, and other service providers. Consider forming a team of interested individuals to develop the plan. Team members should be committed to designing and implementing improvements. If several people do the writing, one should serve as the editor who creates a unified document with consistent tone and style.

Reviewing Requirements

Review thoroughly any legal statutes, regulations, and guidelines related to the plan and refer to them frequently as you write and design the project. Make sure that the proposed program is consistent with the requirements.

Do not simply restate the plan requirements such as, "We will involve parents in important decisions." Instead, give examples of promising strategies you have chosen from your experience or research. Present illustrations of how you will implement the program. If a requirement or regulation does not seem applicable to your plan or local situation, explain why you do not address it.

Committing to Equity and Excellence

Most educational plans are focused on improving equity and excellence for each student in the program. Therefore, all major provisions of the plan should be directed at improving student performance and conditions at school and at home.

Use the team's planning efforts to develop a consensus about the focus of the plan and your commitment to implement it. You may think you have good ideas, but your plan should persuade the reader that the ideas are well researched, thoughtfully designed, and supported by committed staff, students, parents, and members of the community. Further, the plan should demonstrate that the proposed improvements have a realistic chance of success.

Integrating Elements

Remember that any successful educational program contains interdependent parts such as instruction, assessment, professional development, and family involvement. You should propose a program that addresses the elements of effective education. Consider organizing your plan with sections such as:

Curriculum

What are the needs of students and other participants? How does your plan help students attain the content standards adopted by the California State Board of Education? What research-based teaching strategies will you use?

Assessment

What standardized and alternative assessments do you plan to use? What actions will you take if outcomes do not meet expectations?

Professional Development

How does your plan support teachers, paraprofessionals, and administrators? How does professional development address the needs of students?

Family and School Support

How will you strengthen partnerships between educators and families? How does the plan address the health and safety needs of students and their families?

Funding

How will funds be coordinated to support the plan?

The content of one section of your plan should reinforce the content in other sections. For example, your assessment approaches should be based on the standards and curriculum. Similarly, the funding section should show how professional development is supported.

Following Instructions

Pay attention to the guidelines for the plan in the applicable statute, regulations, and official guidance: e.g., page limit, double-spacing, and average size of grant awards for the categories. The more you deviate from requirements set by the funding agency, the more you need to justify your decisions. Otherwise, your plan may be rejected.

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Effective Technical Writing

All our words from loose using have lost their edge.

-- Ernest Hemingway

The quality of your plan and your competence to implement it will be judged largely on how well it is written. Some reminders:

Audience

Write for the people who will read your plan for the state or federal program. Because you cannot be sure about the readers' backgrounds, assume that they do not have in-depth knowledge about your agency, students, or community. Do not write for specialists like yourself. Instead, write as though you were explaining your program to a friend or relative who is not an educator.

Organization/Format

Organize your plan according to the requirements contained in the statute, regulations, or instructions from the funding agency. Headings and subheadings break up the narrative, identify important content, and make your plan easy to read and understand. Choose font sizes and types that enhance the text, but try to avoid excessive variety. Be sure to include a table of contents with page numbers.

Style/Usage

Style and usage affect the credibility of your plan. Here are some suggestions for making your writing clear and correct.

Consult a dictionary and a style manual (e.g., The Chicago Manual of Style) to help you with spelling, punctuation, and grammar. Choosing a common style helps establish consistency in the document, especially when there is more than one writer.

Use shorter sentences. Sentences of more than fifteen words are difficult to read.

Avoid passive voice. "Teachers will visit parents at home" is more direct and informative than "Parents will be visited."

Rely on simple language. Use is simpler than utilization, because more direct than due to the fact that. Don't make your document unnecessarily complex with long words and wordy phrases.

Delete any words, sentences, or phrases that do not add to the meaning. Make every word fight for its life.

Break lengthy paragraphs into smaller sections. Try to limit paragraphs to four or five sentences.

Use specific and concrete terms, rather than jargon like conceptualize, empowerment, restructuring, interface, and articulate.

Develop summaries at the beginning or end of sections. Help the reader navigate your document.

Insert headings and subheadings in the text to reflect the main ideas. Use facts and statistics to prove your case. Unless directed to do so by the funding agency, avoid hardcover bindings,

tabbed dividers, and other fancy touches. Keep the presentation simple and the content strong and meaningful.

Length

Find the balance between making your plan too long or too short. It should address all requirements with some redundancy without providing unnecessary information. Redundancy exists in the plan because of the interdependency of its sections. Strictly follow any page limits set by the plan requirements.

Accuracy

Check and recheck the facts and figures in the plan. Incorrect information, outdated statistics, or irrelevant research will undermine your credibility.

Consistency

Be sure that facts and figures in one section of the plan are consistent with what you present in other sections.

Acronyms

Use acronyms and abbreviations sparingly because they may be unfamiliar to many readers. Be sure to spell them out the first time they are used; e. g., California uses the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program for assessment and accountability.

Visuals

Use illustrations such as charts, tables, and graphs to highlight key points. Be sure to introduce the graphic and explain how it supports the information in the narrative. Don't make the reader figure out what the chart or table means.

Proofreading

Read and reread each draft of your plan before you submit it. Readers judge your credibility based on the quality of your writing. Ask colleagues to review and comment on drafts. Include as reviewers people who do not have a strong background in education or in the particular program you are designing. They will help you avoid jargon and complex writing.

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Narrative of the Plan

Yes, there is a Nirvana; it is leading your sheep to a green pasture, and putting your child to sleep, and writing the last line of your poem.

-- Kahlil Gibran

Writing the last line of the narrative of your plan is the completion of the collaborative planning described at the beginning of this document. The following will help make your plan complete and readable.

Note: Be sure to respond to the statute, regulations, and guidelines that are related to the plan you are developing. Use the wording contained in the requirements and follow any sequence implied in the instructions. Make it easy for readers to find information in your plan. Check the requirements of the plan you are developing and follow the instructions. Here are possible sections and a sequence for presenting them.

Abstract

Most plans are improved by an abstract at the beginning of the narrative. Generally it should be limited to two 1.5-spaced pages. Describe each major section of the plan. Focus on goals of the plan, number and type of project participants, staff members, and key parts of the program. Remember that first impressions are important, so make the abstract informative, well written, and readable.

Needs Assessment

Explain the needs of your agency and people who will benefit from the proposed project. Present needs for each objective and each major part of the Implementation section. For example, if you are proposing to use computer-assisted instruction, explain the needs of the agency that led you to select this approach.

Describe the needs of all the groups who may be considered project participants (e.g., students, staff, and parents). Indicate how services will be delivered to students and families most in need of assistance and schools in need of improvement.

State the needs of your agency and participants in positive terms. If your situation sounds too bleak, you may appear to lack even the basic conditions for building a new project. For example, assessment results may indicate that students are achieving at low levels in English, but have high levels of proficiency in their native language. Present the needs according to effective parts of the existing programs, changes that will lead to improvements, and potential obstacles to reform.

Present evidence of having had direct contact with people who know the prospective participants. Include suggestions from some participants themselves as well as other parents, students, teachers, administrators, and members of the community.

Explain how needs of the participants have been analyzed to determine what you have written in the Implementation section. For example, if family education activities are proposed, why did you select this component? How did you identify the project participants? What did you learn from prospective parent participants and other people knowledgeable about families to help you design this component? Identify methods to assess needs (e.g., surveys, interviews, standardized tests, and meetings).

Program Description

Describe the nature of the project and its consistency with provisions of the applicable statute or regulations. Show how the project will lead to improving student performance and conditions at school and at home (e.g., a more challenging curriculum based on content standards). Remember to keep the focus of the project limited so that it can be implemented effectively within the time and budget constraints of the project.

Include goals and objectives. Goals are general statements of what you expect to achieve after some specified time. Your objectives should be clear statements of what seems possible to achieve during the project. Objectives represent your definition of a successful project and provide the framework for the evaluation.

Keep the number of objectives small. For example, write one or two objectives for each major part of the project. The objectives should be based on the content standards. Ensure that the objectives include important specifications:

Learners and other participants in the project Measurable outcomes Tests and other assessment measures Expected timeline for attainment Staff members responsible for the objectives

You should reference these objectives in other sections of the plan, especially in the Implementation and the Evaluation sections. Be sure to describe how the proposed project is consistent with statutory requirements.

Give the reader a clear understanding of the kind of program you are currently implementing and funding sources that support it. Next, present the proposed project and explain how it will improve, upgrade, or reform services you are already offering. Describe what you think the project will look like at the end of the funding period.

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Implementation

Explain how you will refine and implement the goals and objectives throughout the project. This section illustrates the project design: i.e., the objectives, activities, instructional methods, materials, and assessments that are essential for the implementation and evaluation of the project. Be sure that you reference the objectives as they appear in other sections of the plan.

Describe the sources of information used to design the instructional program, such as staff experience, proven instructional models, and theory and research related to the proposed program. Explain how you will assess the effectiveness of instruction. For example, state-required tests may be only part of your evaluation. What other assessments might be used to measure student progress?

Illustrate how the proposed parts of the project will be integrated and made mutually supportive. For example, if there are components on science education, technology, and family education, explain how science instruction in the classroom will be linked with parent-child activities at home and how the students' use of technology will be enhanced by family education and science instruction.

Indicate how the instructional program will meet the participants' needs throughout the project. For example, what is proposed for the first year, second year, and so on? How will the instructional program be adjusted as participants' needs change? How will you ensure that services will continue to focus on students most in need?

Describe strategies that you will use to build the capacity of your agency to continue project services after the funding period. Some examples include gradually assuming costs for budget items originally supported by the project; establishing a task force to seek funding for the future; training project staff members who will continue to deliver services; and improving your agency's policies for promoting equity and excellence for each student. Demonstrate that you will employ these strategies throughout the funding period.

Describe the staffing plan for the project. What staff will be assigned to the components of the project? How will the project facilitate coordination between project staff and those staff members who work with the participants but are not funded by the program?

Identify the needs of project staff members and describe the plan for professional development of staff. Explain how the plan addresses the needs of staff, derived from the students' needs identified in the Needs Assessment section.

Key Personnel

Identify the duties and responsibilities of not only staff funded by the proposed project but of all staff who will implement the plan. Indicate the amount of time that staff members devote to the project.

Describe the qualifications of the key staff members. Create a match between the abilities required to implement the instructional program and the qualifications of the staff. If the match is weak, explain how professional development will give staff members the knowledge and experience they need to implement the project successfully.

Demonstrate that the collective capacity of the staff includes ability to respond positively to the project participants. For example, explain how the staff will be able to identify and meet the linguistic and cultural needs of English learners.

Budget and Justification

If your plan requires a budget, remember to display clearly the proposed expenditures for the project and justify the items in each line of the budget. For example, for the item "Supplies: $10,000," include the calculation that led to this figure and explain how the supplies are linked to activities in the Implementation section.

Ensure that the Implementation and the Budget sections are mutually supportive. If parent education activities are proposed, the budget should include costs associated with working with parents (e.g., presenters' fees and costs for child care and facilities) and evaluating the success of the activities. Similarly, if there are budget items for purchasing computers, the Implementation section should describe how the computers will support instruction.

Explain how components of the project are supported by an integration of project funds and other federal and state funds. Innovative programs are usually strengthened by coordinating funds for the proposed project with other funding sources. Usually needs of students, families, and staff members will not be met by the proposed program alone. Explain how you will allocate new resources and re-allocate existing resources to students and families most in need of services.

A decreasing budget over the life of the project is usually a good indicator of building capacity for long-term implementation of the project. Explain how your agency will contribute to the project from the outset; e.g., identify ways in which the agency will

manage state and federal funds, staff members, materials, and facilities to enhance implementation. Also, demonstrate how the agency plans to assume the costs supported by funds from the proposed project. Be sure to justify a budget that goes above or below the average amount suggested for the program.

Evaluation

Describe the methods and measurement tools you will use to determine your progress in attaining the project objectives. It is very important to connect the content of this section to other sections of the plan. The elements of the evaluation design should refer to the instructional program, staff members, and budget items described in other parts of the plan. Weak evaluation designs are those that could be written for any set of implementation activities, rather than are addressed to the unique characteristics of the proposed project. Do not simply restate the evaluation requirements of the funding agency. Describe how your project will be evaluated according to the applicable requirements.

The evaluation section should illustrate strategies to determine the extent to which you are attaining the objectives of the project. Be sure that you reference the objectives as they appear in other sections of the plan. Each objective should include these specifications:

Data to be collected Assessment measures to be used Timeline for collecting data Methods for analyzing data Strategies for compiling and reporting evaluation results Methods for using the results to improve the project during the funding period Persons responsible for implementing and monitoring the evaluation

The evaluation design may include formal, standardized tests or informal surveys and interviews. Describe how you will use state-required assessments as well as other tests to measure the success of the project.

Delineate responsibilities of the evaluator, staff members, and participants in implementing the evaluation design. Focus on how they will collaborate to ensure that the evaluation meets the needs of the project.

Members of the team that began planning the project should actively participate in all phases, including the evaluation. Their ongoing participation will ensure consistency and coherence as the project evolves. What they learn should be used to improve the current project and plan new programs for the future.

How to Write Effective Proposals

Writing Effective Grant Proposals for Individual Fellowshipsin the Humanities and Social Sciences

Susan Stanford FriedmanUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison

The Big Picture

It's important to "think big," "paint the big picture," emphasize "the forest, not just the trees" for a grant proposal. To do so effectively requires stepping back from your project, seeing it as a whole in relation to a larger field, abstracting at a conceptual level what you are doing, how you are doing it, and why it is significant. Grant writing, like any other kind of writing, involves a set of conventions that vary considerably by discipline and by division of knowledge (humanities, qualitative or quantitative social sciences, natural sciences, and the arts). In the humanities and some of the social sciences (especially qualitative social sciences), grant proposals usually face strict page limitations-anywhere from about two to ten pages. This requirement means that effective grant proposals typically "stand back from" or "hover above" the project, abstract or distill its larger themes and methodologies, and avoid getting immersed in the details. At the same time, proposals need to demonstrate the specificity and richness of your material, your knowledge of relevant fields, and your capacity for conceptual and evidential precision. Usually, extensive literature reviews are not required or even effective. Your project needs to maintain a strong focus, although skillful proposals weave references to major publications throughout and brief bibliographies are sometimes required or allowed.

Granting agencies often want to see evidence that your research project is well established, that you already know the larger field to which your work contributes, and that you know quite specifically what you will be doing before, during, and after the grant period. Most individual fellowships--e.g., NEH, ACLS, Guggenheim, etc.--expect a publication to result from the grant, most likely a book, not an edited collection, and not an article unless your field typically publishes research in the form of refereed articles.

The Big Three Questions

Your grant proposal should make crystal clear three main things: (1) What you are doing; (2) How you are doing it; (3) Why it is significant. It's even a good idea to open the proposal with a lively summary paragraph that answers all three of these questions directly. Projects that facilitate direct presentation of this vital information are often organized around a clear, overarching research question. Rather than explain your project in terms of a topic or even a thesis, you can focus your presentation around the major research questions you are asking, how you plan to answer them, and what contribution your project will make to fields of knowledge. You do not need to know what you will argue in the final product before you get the grant. Indeed, some committees will worry that research is too "thesis-driven" if the researcher knows what he or she wants to argue before the research is completed. Thus, avoid language such as "I will argue"; instead, write "I will explore," or "I will test the proposition that." (If your project is nearing completion, assertions of your thesis are more acceptable.) Your statements on the significance of your project are very important. Don't depend on your recommenders to do this for you. Explain what

interventions your project makes in ongoing debates in your immediate field, and then what larger contributions it will make to scholarly and/or humanistic knowledge. Here is where it helps to think big. Communicate in a lively and interesting way what's at stake in your research. Why should anyone care about your project'? Can it pass the "so what?" test" What difference will it make? Don't assume the self-evident importance of your research. Even though we might all believe as scholars that knowledge as an end in itself should be justification enough, not all knowledge gets research funding. Therefore, you need to explain why your project deserves the grant.

Audience for the Proposal

Who is the audience for your grant proposal? Will it be a panel of specialists in your field? Panelists in your discipline? An interdisciplinary or Multidisciplinary panel? Does the granting agency have a multi-tiered process for approval involving outside experts and in-house program officers? How controversial is your research--in its research questions, methodologies, findings, etc.? Will it tap into divisive debates in your field? Into the "culture wars" of postmodernity? The answers to these questions can have a huge impact on how your proposal will be read. The more specialized the panels, the more specialized your proposal can be. The wider the disciplinary reach of the panel, the more you have to make sure you provide sufficient context for your project and that you describe it in language that is clear to people outside your immediate field. Since program officers within a granting agency often weigh in on proposals in conjunction with outside faculty expertise your proposal may well need to be understandable and persuasive to a range of evaluators.

On the whole, avoid jargon. The issue of "jargon" is a tough one: what appears to be jargon to someone outside your field may well be ordinary or even expected discourse within your immediate field. But one thing is certain: if you cannot communicate what your research is about, your chances of getting funded plummet. Worry less about appearing too simple than being obscure. However, don't write a "thin" proposal. You need to communicate your conceptual framework and ideas with precision and specificity, and you need to communicate some of the particularities of the material you will draw upon or work with.

How can you determine who the audience is and what the decision-making process is your proposal? This can often be difficult, but not totally impossible. The NEH uses panelists of faculty specialists whose comments must be written (copies are available upon request), but the in-house program officers and staff make the final decisions, based on but not absolutely determined by faculty rankings. The ACLS uses a multidisciplinary panel. You can call the agency and speak directly with the program officer, who will often provide considerable information about the nature of the process and the constitution of panels. Some officers will also work with you on the development of the proposal (especially in the case of collaborative grants). You can also check out an agency's Web site for information. Different agencies are often interested in different kinds of projects; some even sponsor theme-oriented competitions that change annually. You certainly maximize your chances of getting funded by finding out whatever you can about the interests, needs, and processes of the agencies to which you apply.

Even when you can't get much information about your likely reviewers, clarity and directness go a long way, particularly since panelists often have huge numbers of files to evaluate and rank. It does not help your case to make the panelists dig for coherence through a mass of detail or a discourse that seems

impenetrable. As to the minefields of debate and political alignments, you should assess these issues as they relate to your project and sub-field; you can try to avoid inflammatory discourse or trigger words. But in my view, it won't help your proposal if you "go bland," try to be "safe," to hide what it is you are doing. You want to communicate your excitement about your project, your belief in its importance and significance. If you try too hard to please everybody and avoid all controversy, your project runs the risk of sounding just boring.

Parts of a Grant Proposal

Different granting agencies often state explicitly what aspects of your project you should address in the proposal and/or what special emphases, topics, or themes they are looking for. Read and follow all specific instructions carefully. Avoid multiple submission of the same proposal to agencies that are looking for different kinds of things. Develop a basic proposal for your project and then adjust carefully as necessary. Address the specifics of the particular grant especially in introductory or concluding remarks. In addition, some agencies require supplementary statements, such as a narrative autobiography, an annotated bibliography, etc.

There is no standard format or organization for proposals. Different ways of presenting your project can be equally effective. Sub-headings (e.g., description; rationale or significance; methodology; chapter outline; schedule of research) can offer effective "signposts" and facilitate rapid comprehension. Clear, strong, direct topics sentences for all paragraphs can be equally effective. A summary introduction of the whole project--including such specifics as authors, texts, archives, and necessary contexts--makes an effective beginning. Quick and to the point is better, in most cases, than elaborately long introductions based on a narrative, details for a text, and so forth. After the introduction, the order of parts often varies, but proposals tend to include a description of the project, a statement about its necessity or contribution, a chapter outline; and a schedule of research. These sections need to be specific, indicating, for example, what primary and secondary materials you are working with, archives or special collections you need to consult, related scholarly literature (often cited in parenthetical style), and so forth.

If the project is a revision of a dissertation, explain what substantive new research and/or conceptual reorientation is planned. (Granting agencies are frequently reluctant to fund stylistic revisions of dissertations.) If the project is an outgrowth of earlier work or a stepping stone in a multi-stage research program, such connections should be outlined briefly. Your proposal should inform the panelists in some way why you are qualified to do this project and what function it is likely to play in your professional development.

Schedule of Research

This section, which often serves as the proposal's conclusion, is a good place to communicate how you are particularly qualified to do this project, and that your "track record" on this and related projects offers good evidence that you will complete a final manuscript in a timely fashion. The section does not have to be long, but it should succinctly state the status of the project, your plans for use of the grant period, and your estimated completion date for the final manuscript. Include reference to material in draft form, related conference papers and articles, and so forth. Break up the period of the grant into stages and indicate what you hope to complete in each phase. (E.g., in the first two months, I will complete the archival research and draft chapter one- in the next two months, I will etc.). Avoid sounding

preliminary or indecisive. A proposal that asks for money to read around on a variety of topics has very little chance of funding. Even though you may of course change a project as you do it, your proposal will be more effective if written in the declarative mode (e.g., "I will ....." "I plan... " rather than "Maybe I will...," or "Perhaps...") Panelists who suspect what is often called "a fishing expedition" are not likely to support funding, however interesting the project. Instead, demonstrate that when the grant period begins, you will "hit the ground running" and use the time efficiently.

Letters of Recommendation

Your choice of referees is a major factor in putting together a successful application. Most letters tend to be inflated; consequently, committees often view them with a grain of salt, becoming adept at reading between the lines and assessing the weight to be given to the letters' praise. Graduate students and people whose degrees are recent frequently get letters from their dissertation director and committee members. Although letter writers often have a stake in seeing students and former students succeed, their letters can contain valuable assessments of an applicant's achievement and future promise. For people out of graduate school for longer periods of time, particularly if they have established some sort of research record, letters from former teachers and colleagues frequently carry less weight. A useful rule of thumb is that the more advanced an applicant, the more letters should come from people with recognized standing in one or more of the fields related to the proposed research.

In selecting a group of people to write letters, think in terms of the whole package. Not every letter has to accomplish the same thing; different letters make distinct contributions to your case. Thus, you might pick one person not so well known who will write a highly detailed letter based on thorough knowledge of your project and another person with national visibility who does not know your work as well or who tends to write very short letters. Or, one letter might attest to your knowledge of a particular field necessary for your project, while another letter might discuss in details the significance of your prior research. Particularly in the United States, lukewarm letters often hurt a proposal; a negative sentence or two in a letter often kills a proposal on the spot. Thus, it really pays to be as certain as you can be that your recommenders will be enthusiastic. Be aware that the conventions of letter writing (and letter reading) can vary significantly from country to country (in Britain, for example, letters tend to understate praise and to include some criticism or qualification, as a way of building credibility, whereas letters in the U.S. with qualifications tend to signal significant concerns). Do what you can reasonably do to acquaint your referees with the conventions most likely at work where the grant is awarded. For U.S. agencies, ask your referees to write their letters in English or arrange for translations.

To develop a list of possible letter writers, think about who knows your past work and has indicated in some fashion admiration for it. Such people might include journal editors or referees of your work, editors of collections, convenors of conference panels, and so forth. Use your full professional network. You should ask people if they would be willing to write a supportive letter well in advance of the deadline. Provide them with an up-to-date vita and the proposal (a draft version if necessary). Many granting agencies ask letter writers to comment specifically on the cogency of the proposal itself and the feasibility of your schedule. Consequently, send your referees your most recent information and plans. Letters that are out of sync with the proposal and vita seen by the committee often lose influence.

The Russian Roulette Factor

Getting a grant sometimes feels like a crapshoot, the luck of the draw. Not getting a grant can feel like a terrible judgment on your worth as a scholar, so discouraging that you might well be reluctant to try again. Many people (if not all) who get a grant deserve it, but many who do not succeed deserve it just as much. You can never know what actually happened in the discussion of and voting on your proposal, let alone the institutional constraints that can come into play. In the end, the decision on your proposal may have had little to do with the merits of your case. While the system may well aim toward being a genuine merit system the realities are seldom so rosy. Consequently, it's important (but very difficult) to avoid internalizing a negative decision. It's important to try to learn from the experience and try again-on the same proposal or a new one. It's important as well if you succeed in getting a grant to celebrate your good fortune, get your work done, avoid getting a swelled head, and help others in the future succeed as you have in the roulette of grantsmanship.

Note: These guidelines were initially prepared for a panel on grant proposals at the Modern Language Association Convention, Chicago IL, December, 1999 1 am grateful for the remarks of my co-panelists--Sander Gilman, Elizabeth McKinsey and Mark Rose- their collective wisdom and advice on proposal writing as well as the audience discussion, helped me revise my preliminary formulation.

Feel free to distribute a copy of these guidelines.

Susan Stanford FriedmanEnglish Department600 N. Park StreetUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI 53706Ssfriedm@facstaff.wisc.edu