PROJECT ___________ HISTORY Submitted by AKASHDEEP SRIVASTAVA ROLL NO.:2013011 SEMESTER I__________________________________________________ DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY Visakhapatnam OCTOBER 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe a great many thanks to agreat many people who helped and supported me during the writing of this project .My deepest thanks to Lecturer MR VISHWACHANDRAN NATH MADHASU the Guide of theproject for guiding and correcting various documents of mine with attention and care. He has taken pain to gothrough the project and make necessary correction as and when needed.I express my thanks to the vice chancellor of, [DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, VIZAG], forextending his support. Thanks and appreciation to the helpful people at [DSNLU Library ] for their support. I would also thank my Institution and my faculty members without whom this project would have been a distant reality. I also extend my heartfelt thanks to my family and well wishers

Table of Contents

Introduction4Hoysala Empire5history5Culture11Chola dynasty16Government and society18Pallava dynasty24Rastrakuta dynasty26BIBLOGRAPHY32

Introduction other then big dynasties like gupta and morya ,small dynasties like hosyala,chola,rastrakuta and pallava and many other dynasties also have effect the society.theses dynasty didnt rule for so long and so much area but their artitecture, social values has a great impact.where hosyala dynasty consider as one of liberal dynasty.even few administrator were women. Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion, and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas.,palllavas has great artitecture.their art is excellent.Rastrakuta is one of the developed society of that time.they created so many schools to teach their society.these dynasties impact in current india is still present.in current Indian society ,hosyala allowed women to administrate. Though each dynasty is different from each other but all have their importance in culture.

Hoysala Empire Hoysala EmpireThe Hoysala empire was a prominent Southern Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the modern day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was later moved to Halebidu. The Hoysala rulers were originally from Malnad Karnataka, an elevated region in the Western Ghats range. In the 12th century, taking advantage of the internecine warfare between the then ruling Western Chalukyas and Kalachuri kingdoms, they annexed areas of present day Karnataka and the fertile areas north of the Kaveri River delta in present day Tamil Nadu. By the 13th century, they governed most of present-day Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh in Deccan India.[footnoteRef:2] [2: Ayyar, P. V. Jagadisa (1993) [1993]. South Indian Shrines. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0151-3]

The Hoysala era was an important period in the development of art, architecture, and religion in South India. The empire is remembered today primarily for its temple architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka, including the well known Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The Hoysala rulers also patronised the fine arts, encouraging literature to flourish in Kannada and Sanskrit.[footnoteRef:3] [3: Fritz, John M. and George Michell (editors) (2001). New Light on Hampi : Recent Research at Vijayanagar. Mumbai: MARG.ISBN 81-85026-53-X.]

history HistoryKannada folklore tells a tale of a young man Sala, who saved his Jain guru Sudatta by striking dead a Lion he encountered near the temple of the Goddess Vasantika at Sosevur. The word "strike" literally translates to "hoy" in Hale Kannada (Old Kannada), hence the name "Hoy-sala". This legend first appeared in the Belur inscription of Vishnuvardhana , but owing to several inconsistencies in the Sala story it remains in the realm of folklore. The legend may have come into existence or gained popularity after King Vishnuvardhana's victory over the Cholas at Talakad as the Hoysala emblem depicts the fight between the mythical Sala and a tiger, the emblem of the Cholas] Early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that the Hoysalas were descendants of the Yadava by referring to the Yadava vamsa (clan) as Hoysala vamsa. But there are no early records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas of North India.Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas).[ This title in the Kannada language was proudly used bythe Hoysala kings as their royal signature in their inscriptions. Literary sources from that time in Kannada (Jatakatilaka) and Sanskrit (Gadyakarnamrita) have also helped confirm they were natives of the region known today as Karnataka.The first Hoysala family record is dated 950 and names Arekalla as the chieftain, followed by Maruga and Nripa Kama I (976). The next ruler, Munda (10061026), was succeeded by Nripa Kama II who held such titles as Permanadi that show an early alliance with the Western Ganga dynasty. From these modest beginnings, the Hoysala dynasty began its transformation into a strong subordinate of the Western Chalukyas. Through Vishnuvardhana's expansive military conquests, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a real kingdom for the first time.[19][20] He wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas in 1116 and movedthe capital from Belur to Halebidu.Vishnuvardhana's ambition of creating an independent empire was fulfilled by his grandson Veera Ballala II, who freed the Hoysalas from subordination in 11871193. Thus the Hoysalas began as subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gradually established their own empire in Karnataka with such strong Hoysala kings as Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II and later Veera Ballala III. During this time, peninsular India saw a four way struggle for hegemony Pandya, Kakatiya and Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri being the other kingdoms. Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom. He assumed the title "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and "Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala Chakravarthi). He founded the city of Bangalore according to Kannada folklore.The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital and giving them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan. Vira Narasimha II's son Vira Someshwara earned the honorific "uncle" (Mamadi) from the Pandyas and Cholas. The Hoysala influence spread over Pandya kingdom also. Toward the end of 13th century, Veera Ballala III recaptured territory in the Tamil country which had been lost to the Pandya uprising, thus uniting the northern and southern portions of the kingdom.Major political changes were taking place in the Deccan region in the early 14th century when significant areas of northern India were under Muslim rule. Alla-ud-din Khilji, the Sultan of Delhi, was determined to bring isolated South India under his domain and sent his commander,Malik Kafur, on a southern expedition to plunder the Seuna capital Devagiri in 1311.The Seuna empire was subjugated by 1318 and the Hoysala capital Halebidu (also called Dorasamudra or Dwarasamudra) was sacked twice,[footnoteRef:4] in 1311 and 1327. By 1336, the Sultan had conquered the Pandyas of Madurai, the Kakatiyas of Warangal and the tiny kingdom of Kampili. The Hoysalas were the only remaining Hindu empire who resisted the invading armies. Veera Ballala III stationed himself at Tiruvannamalai and offered stiff resistance to invasions from the north and the Sultanate of Madurai to the south. Then, after nearly three decades of resistance, Veera Ballala III was killed at the battle of Madurai in 1343, and the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire were merged with the areas administered by Harihara I in the Tungabhadra region.This new Hindu kingdom resisted the northern invasions and would later prosper and come to be known as the Vijayanagara Empire. [4: Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003]. The Penguin History of Early India]

EconomyThe Hoysala administration supported itself through revenues from an agrarian economy. The kings gave grants of land as rewards for service to beneficiaries who then became landlords to tenants producing agricultural goods and forest products. There were two types of landlords (gavunda); gavunda of people (praja gavunda) was lower in status than the wealthy lord of gavundas (prabhu gavunda). The highlands (malnad regions) with its temperate climate was suitable for raising cattle and the planting of orchards and spices. Paddy and corn were staple crops in the tropical plains (Bailnad). The Hoysalas collected taxes on irrigation systems including tanks, reservoirs with sluices, canals and wells which were built and maintained at the expense of local villagers. Irrigation tanks such as Vishnusagara, Shantisagara, Ballalarayasagara were created at the expense of the state.[footnoteRef:5] [5: Moraes, George M. (1990) [1931]. The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka]

Importing horses for use as general transportation and in army cavalries of Indian kingdoms was a flourishing business on the western seaboard. The forests were harvested for rich woods such as teak which was exported through ports located in the area of present day Kerala. Song dynasty records from China mention the presence of Indian merchants in ports of South China, indicating active trade with overseas kingdoms. South India exported textiles, spices, medicinal plants, precious stones, pottery, salt made from salt pans, jewels, gold, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood, camphor and condiments to China, Dhofar, Aden, and Siraf (the entryport to Egypt, Arabia and Persia). Architects (Vishwakarmas), sculptors, quarry workers, goldsmiths and other skilled craftsmen whose trade directly or indirectly related to temple construction were also prosperous due to the vigorous temple building activities.The village assembly was responsible for collecting government land taxes. Land revenue was called Siddhaya and included the original assessment (Kula) plus various cesses. Taxes were levied on professions, marriages, goods in transit on chariots or carriages, and domesticated animals. Taxes on commodities (gold, precious stones, perfumes, sandalwood, ropes, yarn, housing, hearths, shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses) as well as produce (black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts, sugar) are noted in village records. The village assembly could levy a tax for a specific purpose such as construction of a water tank.AdministrationIn its administrative practices, the Hoysala Empire followed some of the well-established and proven methods of its predecessors covering administrative functions such as cabinet organisation and command, the structure of local governing bodies and the division of territory. Records show the names of many high ranking positions reporting directly to the king. Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas, ministers responsible for foreign affairs were designated Sandhivigrahi and the chief treasurer was Mahabhandari or Hiranyabhandari. Dandanayakas were in charge of armies and the chief justice of the Hoysala court was the Dharmadhikari.The kingdom was divided into provinces named Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana and Desha, listed in descending order of geographical size. Each province had a local governing body consisting of a minister (Mahapradhana) and a treasurer (Bhandari) that reported to the ruler of that province (Dandanayaka). Under this local ruler were officials called Heggaddes and Gavundas who hired and supervised the local farmers and labourers recruited to till the land. Subordinate ruling clans such as Alupas continued to govern their respective territories while following the policies set by the empire. An elite and well trained force of bodyguards known as Garudas protected the members of the royal family at all times. These servants moved closely yet inconspicuously by the side of their master, their loyalty being so complete that they committed suicide after his death. Hero stones (virgal) erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars. The Garuda pillar at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu was erected in honor of Kuvara Lakshma, a minister and bodyguard of King Veera Ballala II. King Vishnuvardhana's coins had the legends "victor at Nolambavadi" (Nolambavadigonda), "victor at Talakad" (Talakadugonda), "chief of the Malepas" (Maleparolganda), "Brave of Malepa" (malapavira) in Hoysala style Kannada script. Their gold coin was called Honnu or Gadyana and weighed 62 grains of gold. Pana or Hana was a tenth of the Honnu, Haga was a fourth of the Pana and Visa was fourth of Haga. There were other coins called Bele and Kani.

Culture CultureReligionThe defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnavism and Lingayatism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of AdiShankara's Advaita philosophy.The only places of Buddhist worship during the Hoysala time were at Dambal and Balligavi. Shantala Devi, queen of Vishnuvardhana, was a Jain but nevertheless commissioned the Hindu Kappe Chennigaraya temple in Belur, evidence that the royal family was tolerant of all religions.During the rule of the Hoysalas, three important religious developments took place in present day Karnataka inspired by three philosophers, Basava, Madhvacharya and Ramanuja. While the origin of Lingayatism is debated, the movement grew through its association with Basava in the 12the century. Madhvacharya was critical of the teachings of Adi Shankara and argued the world is real and not an illusion. His philosophy gained popularity enabling him to establish eight mathas in Udupi. Ramanuja, head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam, preached the way of devotion (bhakti marga) and wrote Sribhashya, a critique on the Advaita Vedanta philosophy of Adi Shankara. The impact of these religious developments on culture, literature, poetry and architecture in South India was profound. Important works of literature and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written during the coming centuries. The Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of Vijayanagar empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanuja exists in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara. Scholars in the later Kingdom of Mysore wrote Vaishnavite works upholding the teachings of Ramanuja. King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism. The later saints of Madhvacharya's order, Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraja, Vadirajatirtha and devotees (dasa) such as Vijaya Dasa, Gopaladasa and others from the Karnataka region spread his teachings far and wide. His teachings inspired later day philosophers like Vallabha Acharya in Gujarat and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in Bengal.Another wave of devotion (bhakti) in the 17th century18th century found inspiration in his teachings.

Twin temples at mosale(1200 ce)SocietyHoysala society in many ways reflected the emerging religious, political and cultural developments of those times. During this period, the society became increasingly sophisticated. The status of women was varied. Some royal women were involved in administrative matters as shown in contemporary records describing Queen Umadevi's administration of Halebidu in the absence of Veera Ballala II during his long military campaigns in northern territories. She also fought and defeated some antagonistic feudal rebels.Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Queen Shantala Devi's skill in dance and music,and the 12th century Vachana poet and Lingayatism mystic Akka Mahadevi's devotion to the bhakti movement is well known[footnoteRef:6].Temple dancers (Devadasi) were common and some were well educated and accomplished in the arts. These qualifications gave them more freedom than other urban and rural women who were restricted to daily mundane tasks.The practice of sati in a voluntary form was prevalent and prostitution was socially acceptable. As in most of India, the Indian caste system was conspicuously present. [6: Ayyar, P. V. Jagadisa (1993) [1993]. South Indian Shrines. Asian Educational Services.]

Trade on the west coast brought many foreigners to India including Arabs, Jews, Persians, Chinese and people from the Malay Peninsula. Migration of people within Southern India as a result of the expansion of the empire produced an influx of new cultures and skills. In South India, towns were called Pattana or Pattanam and the marketplace, Nagara or Nagaram, the marketplace serving as the nuclei of a city. Some towns such as Shravanabelagola developed from a religious settlement in the 7th century to an important trading center by the 12th century with the arrival of rich traders, while towns like Belur attained the atmosphere of a regal city when King Vishnuvardhana built the Chennakesava Temple there. Large temples supported by royal patronage served religious, social, and judiciary purposes, elevating the king to the level of "God on earth". Temple building served a commercial as well as a religious function and was not limited to any particular sect of Hinduism. Shaiva merchants of Halebidu financed the construction of the Hoysaleswara temple to compete with the Chennakesava temple built at Belur, elevating Halebidu to an important city as well. Hoysala temples however were secular and encouraged pilgrims of all Hindu sects, the Kesava temple at Somanathapura being an exception with strictly Vaishnava sculptural depictions. Temples built by rich landlords in rural areas fulfilled fiscal, political, cultural and religious needs of the agrarian communities. Irrespective of patronage, large temples served as establishments that provided employment to hundreds of people of various guilds and professions sustaining local communities as Hindu temples began to take on the shape of wealthy Buddhist monasteries.LiteratureAlthough Sanskrit literature remained popular during the Hoysala rule, royal patronage of local Kannada scholars increased. In the 12th century some works were written in the Champu style, but distinctive Kannada metres became more widely accepted. The Sangatya metre used in compositions,Shatpadi (seven line), Tripadi (three line) metres in verses and Ragale (lyrical poems) became fashionable. Jain works continued to extol the virtues of Tirthankaras (Jain ascetics).The Hoysala court supported scholars such as Janna, Rudrabhatta, Harihara and his nephew Raghavanka, whose works are enduring masterpieces in Kannada. In 1209, the Jain scholar Janna wrote Yashodharacharite, the story of a king who intends to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to a local deity, Mariamma. Taking pity on the boys, the king releases them and gives up the practice of human sacrifice. In honur of this work, Janna received the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavichakravarthi) from King Veera Ballala II. Rudrabhatta, a Smartist Brahmin, was the earliest well-known Brahminical writer whose patron was Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II. Based on the earlier work of Vishnu Purana, he wrote Jagannatha Vijaya in the Champu style relating the life of Lord Krishna leading up to his fight with the demon Banasura. Harihara, (also known as Harisvara) a Lingayati writer and the patron of King Narasimha I, wrote the Girijakalyana in the old Jain Champu style which describes the marriage of Lord Shiva and Parvati in ten sections. He was one of the earliest Virashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana literary tradition. He came from a family of accountants (Karanikas) from Halebidu and spent many years in Hampi writing more than one hundred Ragales (poems in blank verse) in praise of Lord Virupaksha (a form of Lord Shiva). Raghavanka was the first to introduce the Shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his Harishchandra kavya which is considered a classic even though it occasionally violates strict rules of Kannada grammar. In Sanskrit, the philosopher Madhvacharya wrote Rigbhshya on Brahmasutras (a logical explanation of Hindu scriptures, the Vedas) as well as many polemical works rebutting the doctrines of other schools of Vedas. He relied more on the Puranic literature than the Vedas for logical proof of his philosophy. Another famous writing was Rudraprshnabhashya by Vidyatirtha.ArchitectureThe modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, shows distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida, and is considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features. A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to exquisite detail and skilled craftsmanship. The tower over the temple shrine (vimana) is delicately finished with intricate carvings, showing attention to the ornate and elaborately detailed rather than to a tower form and height. The stellate design of the base of the shrine with its rhythmic projections and recesses is carried through the tower in an orderly succession of decorated tiers. Hoysala temple sculpture replicates this emphasis on delicacy and craftsmanship in its focus on depicting feminine beauty, grace and physique. The Hoysala artists achieved this with the use of Soapstone (Chloritic schist), a soft stone as basic building and sculptural material.The Chennakesava Temple at Belur the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu the Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura (1279), the temples at Arasikere (1220), Amruthapura (1196), Belavadi (1200), Nuggehalli (1246), Hosaholalu (1250), Aralaguppe (1250), Korvangla (1173), Haranhalli (1235), Mosale and Basaralu (1234) are some of the notable examples of Hoysala art.[footnoteRef:7] While the temples at Belur and Halebidu are the best known because of the beauty of their sculptures, the Hoysala art finds more complete expression in the smaller and lesser known temples.The outer walls of all these temples contain an intricate array of stone sculptures and horizontal friezes (decorative mouldings) that depict the Hindu epics. These depictions are generally clockwise in the traditional direction of circumambulation (pradakshina). The temple of Halebidu has been described as an outstanding example of Hindu architecture and an important milestone in Indian architecture.The temples of Belur and Halebidu are a proposed UNESCO world heritage sites. [7: Mysore Gazatteer Compiled for Government-vol 1. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services]

Chola dynasty CHOLA DYNASTYThe Chola dynasty (Tamil: _) was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of the Maurya Empire. As one of the Three Crowned Kings, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century AD. The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more.Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.During the period 10101200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya.The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyas, who ultimately caused their downfall.The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. According to the Malay chronicle Sejahrah Melayu the rulers of the Malacca sultanate aimed to be descendants of the kings of the Chola Empir.OriginsThere is very little information available regarding the origin of the Chola Dynasty. The antiquity of this dynasty is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature and in inscriptions. Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage to their dynasty. Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. 150 CE)indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE. Parimelalagar, the annotator of the Tamil classic Tirukkural, mentions that this could be the name of an ancient king. The most commonly held view is that this is, like Cheras and Pandyas, the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity. The annotator Parimelazhagar writes "The charity of people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous in spite of their reduced means". Other names in common use for the Cholas are Killi (_), Valavan () and Sembiyan ().Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil (_) meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the land. This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with 'valam' () fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi a legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends and forms the subject matter of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism. In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country.Sora or Chozha in Tamil becomes Chola in Sanskrit and Chola or Choda in Telugu.On the history of the early Cholas there is very little authentic written evidence available. Historians during the past 150 years have gleaned a lot of knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. The main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period.There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei). Periplus is a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian (8196) and contains very little information of the Chola country. Writing half a century later, the geographer Ptolemy gives more detail about the Chola country, its port and its inland cities. Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text written down during the 5th century CE, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylon and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.Cholas are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 BCE232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.Government and society Chola territoryAccording to Tamil tradition, the old Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District, Tiruvarur District, Nagapattinam District, Ariyalur District, Perambalur district, Pudukkottai district, Pichavaram Taluk,Vridhachalam Taluk in cuddalore District and the Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu and Karaikal District in Karaikal. The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major hills or valleys. The river Kaveri, also known as Ponni (golden) river, had a special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took part. Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town. Ptolemy knew of this and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the most important centres of Cholas. These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism. Roman ships found their way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found nearthe Kaveri delta.The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as Kumbakonam.After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost its importance. The later Chola kings moved around their capitals frequently and made cities such as Chidambaram, Madurai and Kanchipuram their regional capitals.Chola economyLand revenue and trade tax were the main source of income.The Chola rulers issued their coins in gold, silver and copper. The Chola economy was based on a three tiered system. At the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram, which acted as redistribution centers for externally produced items bound for consumption in the local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for the international trade. At the top of this economic pyramid were the elite merchant groups,"samayam", who organized and dominated the regions international maritime trade.Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people. Besides the landowners, there were others dependent on agriculture. A fairly large class of landless laborers assisted in the operations and shared the proceeds of agriculture. In almost all villages the distinction between persons paying the land-tax(iraikudigal) and those who did not was clearly established. There was a class of hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on the estates of other people and received a daily wage. All cultivable land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure which can be distinguished as peasant proprietorship called vellan-vagai, service tenure and eleemosynary tenure resulting from charitable gifts. The vellan-vagai was the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with the government and paying a land-tax liable to revision from time to time. The vellan-vagai villages fell into two broad classes- one directly remitting a variable annual revenue to the state and the other paying dues of a more or less fixed character to the public institutions like temples to which they were assigned. The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, the Chola rulers threw mighty stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut out channels to distribute water over large tracts of land. Rajendra Chola I dug near his capital an artificial lake, which was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers. A very large number of irrigation tanks are mentioned in the records. There existed a brisk internal trade in several articles carried on by the organized mercantile corporations in various parts of the country. The metal industries and the jewellers art had reached a high degree of excellence. The manufacture of sea-salt was carried on under government supervision and control. Trade was carried on by merchants organized in guilds. The guilds described sometimes by the terms nanadesis were a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants which visited different countries in the course of their trade. They had their own mercenary army for the protection of their merchandise. There were also local organizations of merchants called nagaram in big centers of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram.Nature of governmentIn the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was, for the first time ever, brought under a single government. when a serious attempt was made to face and solve the problems of public administration. The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age. However, there was little in common between the local chiefdoms of the earlier period and the imperial-like states of Rajaraja Chola and his successors.The king was the central authority assisted by his ministers and other officers. The king visited various parts of his kingdom and always prepared to provide relief to the people. The Chola kingdom was divided into several provinces called Mandalams. Each province was governed by the governors. The provinces were divided into divisions called Kottams. The divisions were further divided into district called Nadus which were further divided into Tehsil comprising a group of villages. Between 980 and c. 1150, the Chola Empire comprised the entire south Indian peninsula, extending from the east coast to the west coast and bounded to the north by an irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengi frontier. Although Vengi had a separate political existence, it was closely connected to the Chola Empire and the Chola dominion virtually extended up to the banks of the Godavari river.Thanjavur and later Gangaikonda Cholapuram were the imperial capitals. However both Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals in which occasional courts were held. The king was the supreme leader and a benevolent authoritarian. His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him. A powerful bureaucracy assisted the king in the tasks of administration and in executing his orders. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king's orders dependent on his morality and belief in Dharma. The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth. The temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting the community as a whole.Local governmentEvery village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottram, depending on the area. A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu. These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level.Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or the confiscation of property.Foreign tradeThe Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity.The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these venture. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners. Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the Chola Dynasty. The Chola Dynasty played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. In fact, the market structure and economic policies of the Chola Dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Song court. The following passage from the southern Indian kingdom, gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in the city, by affording them daily audience, presents and allowing them profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies."Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077,[126][127][128] and that the king of the Chulien at the time, Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kialo. This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices. Chinese records rarely described Tamil merchants. On the other hand, a fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country. The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period. Six other inscriptions have been found across South-East Asia and bear testimony to merchant activities as well as to the naming of trade-related places and public work in that region after members of the Tamil royal family. Probably, the motive behind Rajendra's expedition to Srivijaya was the protection of the merchants' interests.[Chola societyThere is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign. The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life. There is only one recorded instance of civil disturbance during the entire period of Chola reign. However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities. The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education in the society. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children, although there is no evidence of systematic educational system for the masses. Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses;Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning and received governmentCultural centers of the Chola DynastyChola rulers took an active interest in the development of temple centers and used the temples to widen the sphere of their royal authority. They established educational institutions and hospitals around the temple, enhanced the beneficial aspects of the role of the temple, and projected the royalty as a very powerful and genial presence. The record of Virarajendra Chola dated in his fifth year relates to the maintenance of a school in the Jananamandapa within the temple for the study of the Vedas, Sastras, Grammar, and Rupavatara, as well as a hostel for students. The students were provided with food, bathing oil on Saturdays, and oil for pups. A hospital named Virasolan was provided with fifteen beds for sick people. The items of expense set apart for their comforts are rice, a doctor, a surgeon, two maid servants for nursing the patients, and a general servant for the hospital.Cultural contributionsUnder the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion, and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas.ArtThe Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design.They built a number of Siva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. The template for these and future temples was formulated by Aditya I and Parantaka.Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I.The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor.Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra. The Brihadisvara Temple, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples.[ Chola literatureThe age of the Imperial Cholas (8501200) was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance ofliterature. Chola inscriptions cite many works, the majority of which have been lost.The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the construction of numerous temples andthese in turn generated Saiva and Vaishnava devotional literature. Jain and Buddhist authors flourished aswell, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries. Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar andSulamani by Tolamoli are among notable by non-Hindu authors.The art of Tirutakkatevar ismarked by all the qualities of great poetry. It is considered as the model for Kamban for his masterpiece Ramavataram.ReligionIn general, Cholas were the adherents of Hinduism. Throughout their history, they were not swayed by the riseof Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Even the early Cholas followeda version of the classical Hindu faith. There is evidence in Purananuru for Karikala Chola's faith in Saivism in the Tamil country. Kocengannan, another early Chola, was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Saiva canon as a saint. While the Cholas did build their largest and most important temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, it can be byno means concluded thateither they were staunchSaivites or followers ofSaivism only or that theywere not favourablydisposed to other faiths. This is borne out by the fact that the secondChola king Aditya I himself built quite a few temples for Siva and forLord Vishnu. In AD 890, his inscriptions speak of his contributions tothe construction of the Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapatnam (now inMandya district of Karnataka) in the country of Western Gangas whowere both his feudatories and had marital relations with him. Duringthe time of Aditya I (871903 AD) the Gangas of Kannada country had recognized his superiority which he acknowledged by marrying into that family and making grant contributions to the construction of the Sri Ranganatha temple at modern Srirangapatnam. Aditya I regularly gave many endowments to the Sri Ranganatha Temple at Srirangam around AD 896 and issued an inscriptional dictat pronouncing that the great temples of Siva and the Ranganatha temple at Srirangam 'Kuladhanam' of the Chola emperors. Pallava dynasty . Pallava dynastyPallava DynastyThe Pallava Dynasty is known to have flourished in and ruled parts of South India. Their empire flourished betweenthe early fourth and the later ninth century and Kanchipuram (or Kanchi) was their capital. This empire primarily constituted of the northern parts of present day Tamil Nadu and the southern parts of present day Andhra Pradesh. Because of the lack of historical evidences, the early history of the Pallavas is still in contrast. All concrete documentation discovered on the name of early history of the Pallavas is the three copper-plate grants written in Prakrit. These copper-plate grants belong to the period of Skandavarman-I and consequently most historians believe him to be the first ruler of the Pallava Dynasty. He is believed to have extended his kingdoms boundaries to the Krishna in the north, Pennar in the south and to the Bellary in the west.The Pallavas established their prominence in South India between 275 and 350 AD and by the start of the seventh century; they were one of the most potent empires in the southern part of India alongside the Pandyas and the Chalukyas. Initially, the Pallavas ruled as the feudatories of the Satavahanas of Andhra and later proclaimed their independence after the Satavahanas declined. They gradually expanded their empire and established Kanchipuram as their capital in fourth century AD. Under the reign of the Pallava rulers, Mahendravarman-I and Narasimhavarman-I, the empire grew wealthier and attained supremacy in South India. Mahendravarman-I ruled the empire between 571 and 630 AD while the rule of Narasimhavarman-I lasted between 630 and 668 AD. The later rulers of the Pallava Dynasty maintained this supremacy till the end of the ninth century. Though the Pallava Empire gained supremacy in South India, but peace was never on their cards. Throughout their existence, the Pallava rulers remained in steady conflicts with their neighbors including the rulers of Chalukyas .Dynasty in the north and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas and the Pandyas in the south. They brought the Chalukyas of Badami to an end and were themselves eliminated by the Chola kings in eighth century AD.Religions in Pallava DynastyThe Pallavas had their faith in Hinduism but their kingdom was secular in spirit. They were not only tolerant to other faiths but also respected them. Xuanzang, a monk from China, who visited the Pallava Empire during the reign of Narasimhavarman-I, reported the existence of about 100 Buddhist monasteries and 80 temples in the city of Kanchipuram, the capital city of the Pallavas. The Pallavas were strongly connected to the religion and many Pallava rulers are known to have performed As wamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.Pallava ArchitectureArchitecture is one aspect which distinguishes the Pallava Dynasty from all its contemporaries. The Pallava Dynasty has long been speculated for their contribution to the Dravidian architecture. The impulsive sculptures and the splendid shrines constructed by the rulers of this dynasty are known to have laid the foundation of the Dravidian architecture. Between the timeframe of 610 and 690 AD, the Pallava rulers mainly constructed the rock-cut cave temples while their focus shifted to constructing structural temples between 690 and 900 AD. Inscriptions of Mahendravarman-I and his successors can still be witnessed at a number of rock-cut cave temples build during this era.The rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram, known as rathas in Mahabalipuram, are considered as the greatest construction of the Pallavas. Other renowned constructions of the Pallavas include the Shore temple, Kailasanatha temple, Tondeswaram temple, Koneswaram temple, etc.Kanchipuram The Pallava CapitalKanchipuram, famously known as Kanchi, was a significant ancient city in India especially because of its trade associations with China since as early as second century BC. It is also the city where Manimekalai, the great Tamil epic, was set. In its entire history, Kanchipuram remained a secular place where all religions including the Hinduism, Buddhism and the Jainism co-existed in peace. The city is known to have expanded significantly after it became the Pallava capital.Kanchipuram is described as a lotus shaped city in the sangam poems and as per the Tamil text; the city outgrew its lotus shape to attain the shape of a peacock by the twelfth century. Varadharaja temple is known to be the head of this peacock while the vicinity around the Ekambaranatha temple was the plumage. Kanchipuram is famously known for its architecture. Amongst the famous constructions of Kanchipuram, the Kalisanatha temples is known for its architectural virtues while the Vaikuntaperumal temple is acknowledged for the sculptures illustrating the history of the Pallava Rastrakuta dynasty Rashtrakuta DynastyThe Rashtrakuta Dynasty was a prominent ancient power flourished in India between the sixth and the tenth century AD. During this timeframe, the Rashtrakuta Empire was spread across a large part of the Indian Subcontinent. The earliest inscription of Rashtrakutas, found till date, is a copper plate grant which determine that the territories of the empire were spread from Manpur situated in the Malwa region of the present days state of Madhya Pradesh. Rashtrakuta inscriptions determining the rule of other Rashtrakuta clans, at approximately the same time, in Achalpur, now known as Elichpur and situated in present dayss Maharashtra, and Kannauj in the northern India have also been found. Though, many historical evidences have been found on the Rashtrakutas, but their origin, native home and official language still remains a mystery. The Rashtrakuta clan which ruled from the city of Achalpur, now known as Elichpur, was essentially a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas. Under the reign of ruler Dantidurga, this clan was successful in overthrowing Kirtivarman-II of the Badami Chalukyas and proclaimed its territory as an independent state. After that, under the leadership of Dantidurga, this Rashtrakuta Empire began to expand its boundaries with the Gulbarga region, situated in present days Karnataka, as its base. In 753, this clan was able to achieve prominence in the whole of South India and was famously known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta. At about the same timeframe in which the Rashtrakutas were gaining prominence, the Pratihara Dynasty of Malwa and the Pala Dynasty of Bengal were also gaining supremacy in the north-western and eastern regions of India respectively. According to an Arabic writing, known as the Silsilatuttavarikh, the Rashtrakuta Empire was one amongst the four principle empires of the world in its time.Between the timeframe of the eighth and the tenth century AD, there existed a continuous struggle between the rulers of the Pratihara Dynasty, the Pala Dynasty and the Rashtrakuta Dynasty to gain prominence and exploit the rich resources in the Gagaetic plains of North India. Also, all the three empires were successful in establishing their rule at Kannauj for a short-lived period of time. At its peak, the Rashtrakuta Empire stretched from the doab of river Ganga and river Yamuna in the north to the Cape Comorin in the south. The reign of this dynasty was marked by political expansion, some famous literary contributions and architectural achievements. The early Rashtrakuta rulers had faith in Hinduism but the later rulers got inclined towards Jainism.In the reign of Rashtrakutas, Jain scholars and mathematicians contributed some of the great ancient works in two languages, Sanskrit and Kannada. Also, under their rule, the Dravidian style of architecture reached new heights, the finest example of which would be the Kailasnath temple of Ellora. Some other important architectural contributions of Rashtrakutas include the Kashivishvanath temple and the Jain Narayana temple, both situated at Pattadakal in the state of Karnataka, and the sculptures found at the Elephanta Caves, situated in Maharastra. Administration Inscriptions and other literary records show the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were considered more important than age and chronology of birth, as exemplified by the crowning of Govinda III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha. The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister (Mahasandhivigrahi) whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical instruments called Panchamahashabdas. Under him was the commander (Dandanayaka), the foreign minister (Mahakshapataladhikrita) and a prime minister (Mahamatya or Purnamathya), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier. A Mahasamantha was a feudatory or higher ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science (Rajneeti) and possessed military training. There were cases where woman supervised significant areas as when Revakanimaddi, daughter of Amoghavarsha I, administered Edathore Vishaya. The kingdom was divided into Mandala or Rashtras (provinces). A Rashtra was ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha I's empire had sixteen Rashtras. Under a Rashtra was a Vishaya (district) overseen by a Vishayapathi. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than a Rashtra. For example, Bankesha, a commander of Amoghavarsha I headed Banavasi-12000, Belvola-300, Puligere-300, Kunduru-500 and Kundarge-70, the suffix designating the number of villages in that territory. Below the Vishaya was the Nadu looked after by the Nadugowda or Nadugavunda; sometimes there were two such officials, one assuming the position through heredity and another appointed centrally. The lowest division was a Grama or village administered by a Gramapathi or Prabhu Gavunda.ECONOMICThe Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat, Khandesh and Berar. Minnagar, Gujarat, Ujjain, Paithan and Tagara were important centres of textile industry. Muslin cloth were manufactured in Paithan and Warangal. The cotton yarn and cloth was exported from Bharoch. White calicos were manufactured in Burhanpur and Berar and exported to Persia, Turkey, Poland, Arabia and Egypt.The Konkan region, ruled by the feudatory Silharas, produced large quantities of betel leaves,coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore, ruled by the feudatory Gangas, produced such woods assandal, timber, teak and ebony. Incense and perfumes were exported from the ports of Thana and Saimur. The Deccan was rich in minerals, though its soil was not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains. The copper mines of Cudappah, Bellary, Chanda, Buldhana, Narsingpur, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Dharwar were an important source of income and played an important role in the economy. Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary, Kurnool and Golconda; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and jewellery trading centres. The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some regions of northern Maharashtra. Mysore with its vast elephant herds was important for the ivory industry. The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories. An emergency tax was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming war's ravages. Income tax included taxes on crown land, wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to the economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors. Additionally, customary presents were give to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions as marriage or the birth of a son.[CultureReligionthe Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions, Jainism, Vaishnavaism and Shaivism. Buddhism too found support and was popular in places such as Dambal and Balligavi, although it had declined significantly by this time. The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara's Advaita philosophy. Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta by the 10th century and many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts, specifically in towns such as Kayalpattanam and Nagore. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappilas (Moplahs) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleetsSocietyChronicles mention more castes than the four commonly known castes inthe Hindu social system, some asmany as seven castes. One traveller's account mentions sixteen castes including the four basic castes of Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya andSudras. The Zakaya or Lahud caste consisted of communities specialising in dance andacrobatics.People in the professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobblery, basket making and fishing belongedto specific castes or subcastes. The Antyajas caste provided many menial services to the wealthy. Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in the Sat- Kshatriya sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status.The Jains enjoyed a very high status during this period. The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts. Also Brahmins increasingly practiced non-Brahminical professions (agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts).Capital punishment, although widespread, was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes (as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime). As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled. By the 9th century, kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India. Admitting Kshatriyas to Vedic schools along with Brahmins was customary, but the children of the Vaishya and Shudra castes were not allowed. Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions Intercaste marriages in the higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys,but was relatively frequent among other castes. Intercaste functions were rare and dining together between people of various castes was avoided.Literature Kannada became more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its script and literature showing remarkable growth, dignity and productivity. This period effectively marked the end of the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era. Court poets and royalty created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose, poetry, rhetoric, Hindu epics and life history of Jain tirthankaras. Bilingual writers such as Asaga gained fame, and famous scholars such as the Mahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics in the court of King Amoghavarsha I.Kavirajamarga (850) by King Amoghavarsha I is the earliest available book on rhetoric and poetics in Kannada, though it is evident from this book that other styles of Kannada literature and poetry had already existed in previous centuries. Kavirajamarga is a guide to poets (Kavishiksha) that aims to standardize these various styles. The book refers to early Kannada prose and poetry writers such as Durvinita, perhaps the 6th-century monarch of Western Ganga Dynasty.The Jain writer Adikavi Pampa, widely regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers, became famous for Adipurana (941). Written in champu (mixed prose-verse style) style, it is the life history of the first Jain tirthankara Rishabhadeva. Pampa's other notable work was Vikramarjuna Vijaya (941), the author's version of the Hindu epic, Mahabharata, with Arjuna as the hero. Also called Pampa Bharata, it praises the writer's patron, King Chalukya Arikeseri of Vemulavada (a Rashtrakuta feudatory), comparing the king's virtues favorably to those of Arjuna. Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his workArchitectureThe Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into three schools: Ellora, around Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga.The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, areas also occupied by Jain monks, located in present day Maharashtra. The Ellora site was originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the 6th century whose structural details show Pandyan influence. Cave temples occupied by Hindus are from later periods.The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora ascribed to his period. The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakuta works at Ellora is their creation of the monolithic Kailasanath Temple, a splendid achievement confirming the "Balhara" status as "one among the four principal Kings of the world". The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana, Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings. The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used is Karnata Dravida according to Adam Hardy. It does not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka. According to art historian Vincent Smith, the achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural consummation of the monolithic rock-cut temple and deserves be considered one of the wonders of the world.According to art historian Percy Brown, as an accomplishment of art, the Kailasanath temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument that has always excited and astonished travellers. While some scholars have claimed the architecture at Elephanta is attributable to the Kalachuri, others claim that it was built during the Rashtrakuta period.Some of the sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel in beauty and craftmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures. Famous sculptures at Elephanta include Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurthy. The latter, a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is 25 feet (8 m) tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. It is said that, in the world of sculpture, few works of art depicting a divinity are as balanced. Other famous rock-cut temples in the Maharashtra region are the Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave temples in Ellora (famous or its sculptures of Vishnu and site Shivaleela) and the Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai.In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage site. BIBLOGRAPHYBIBLOGRAPHY1-Ayyar, P. V. Jagadisa (1993) [1993]. South Indian Shrines. Asian Educational Services2- Chopra, P.N.; Ravindran, T.K.; Subrahmanian, N (2003) [2003]. History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part 1.3- Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003]. The Penguin History of Early India.5