hoyt forces of urban centralization and decentralizationb

8/9/2019 Hoyt Forces of Urban Centralization and Decentralizationb

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Forces of Urban Centralization and DecentralizationAuthor(s): Homer HoytSource: The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 46, No. 6 (May, 1941), pp. 843-852Published by: The University of Chicago PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2769393

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FORCES OF URBAN CENTRALIZATION ANDDECENTRALIZATIONHOMER HOYT

ABSTRACTUrban concentralization ay signify ither he settlement f a largepercentage fnation's population n metropolitan reas or the concentration f the dwellers f anycity nto a compact mass with highpopulationdensityper acre. The term s used inthis rticle nboth enses. The urbanfunctions hat once contributed o urbancentrali-zation,namely,i) centralized overnmentalower,2) defense, 3) religion,4) amuse-ment, 5) trade, (6) industry, 7) transportation,8) finance nd banking, nd (9)utilities, re nowpromoting rban decentralizationn the form f the exodusof the

residential opulationfrom entral reas to the periphery f cities.A historical eviewofurbandevelopment hows hat the original mall nations n theMediterranean asinwerefinallymerged ntotheRoman Empire,with theapex of ancienturban civiliza-tion at Rome itself. The disintegration f the Roman Empire caused urbandecen-tralization n the sense of the breaking-upf argecities. The small feudal statesofthe early Middle Ages could supportonly villages or small towns n Europe. The riseof modern rban communities egan with the growth f commerce nd the discover-ies of the Portuguese nd Spanish navigators.England becamethefirst reat ommer-cial manufacturing ation and became highlyurbanized by the middle of the nine-teenth entury.The United States and Germanymade rapid progressn industrializa-tion and urbanization rom 851 to I89I. The competition etweenrival industrial-urban nationswas one of the chief auses ofWorld War I. After 920, Russia, Italy,and Japan endeavoredto develop self-sufficingndustrial-militaryystems, herebyincreasing he populationof theirgreatcities but also heightening he tension eadingto WorldWar II. The prospects or ontinued rban centralizationnall thesepowersarenotfavorable, or hevictory fonegroupofnationswilltendto nhibit hegrowthofurbanismn the defeated tates.

The term urbancentralization" ayhave a twofoldmeaning. irst,itmay ignifyhe oncentrationf considerableroportionfthepopu-lationofa nation ntogreat ities. Second, t may mean thatthework-shops nd residences fany givenurban ommunityreconcentratedna compactmassrather hanspreadthinly ver tsmetropolitanegion.Conversely,he hrase urban ecentralization"ay ignifyhebreaking-upof arge ities ntowidely eparatedmall owns,r tmaydenotemove-mentofthe ndustriesnd theresidential opulation rom hecenterotheperipheryf thesameurbanmass. It is proposedn this rticle odiscuss hefunctionsffectingrban entralizationnd decentralizationin both thesesenses. First,what are thesecentripetalnd centrifugalurbanforces?Thefollowingunctions, hichmaybe regarded s theprimaryausesof theassociation fpeople n cities nd which erve o explainwhy hecity s possible nd desirable,maybe enumerated:i) centralizedov-843


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844 THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGYernmentalower,2) defense,3) religion,4) amusement,5) trade, 6)industry,7) transportation,8) finance nd banking, nd (9) utilities.Citiescan come ntoexistence nlywhen here s an agriculturalur-pluswhich an be transportedo a populationwhichdoes not raise tsfooddirectly. t is true hat arge griculturalillagesmay be simplycluster ffarmhouses,rouped ogether or ommunityiving, ut thegreatcity,with tsgovernmentfficials, erchants,ndustrialists,tc.,is a communityependingpontheexchange f tsservices or heprod-uctsof thesoil. Hence theremustbe a basisfor xchange etween hecityand its tributary ural rea,whethert be exchange fgoods andservices ra levybythecityfor axes or tribute. heremustbemeansoftransportationorbringingood othe city, nd theremustbe a gov-ernmentaluthority apableof protectinghesupply inesfrom eizureby hostile ations rrobbers.

I. CENTRALIZED POWERWhen ncient mpiresxtendedheir wayoverrivalterritoriess inthecase ofancient ersia orRome,they ncreased hetributaryrea ofthecapital ity nd enabled tto become greatmetropolis. onversely,a series f smallfeudal tateswillhave hinterlandsf imited cope andwillconsequentlye characterizedy a villageorsmall-townconomy.In thegreat itythepalace of thekingoremperors thecenter fau-thoritynd the apexofsocialdesirability. ear by is thegold hoardorthetreasury,hepalaces ofnobles, nd the temples fthegods.In theUnited tates oday hegrowthfthefederalowerhas acceler-atedthe xpansionfWashington,.C., anditsenvirons.A factoridingthedecentralizationf cities, n the otherhand, s themaintenance fnumerousndependentolitical ubdivisions,owns ndcities n the amemetropolitanrea withdifferencesn tax rates, oning, nd municipalregulations. he central ityin themetropolitanommunitymaybethechiefworkshopf theregion nd maybearthechief osts ofwatersupply, ortfacilities,chools, tc.,but itsworkersmayseek to escapefrom hemunicipal ostsof thehighly ntegratedenters y taking ptheir esidencen suburban ownsor country istricts hosetax ratesare ower ecause hey onothavetobearthecosts fthecomplex unc-tionsofthe central ity. n thiscase centralizationfmunicipal owerby incorporatingll thesatellite owns nd suburban ommunitiesntoonemetropolitanommunityould implifyhegovernmentalrocedureandresult na more quitable istributionfthetax burdenmong hosewhoshare n thebenefitf themetropolitanegion.Oneof thecausesof


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URBAN CENTRALIZATIONAND DECENTRALIZATION 845urbandecentralization ithin he metropolitanommunitys themove-mentof people workingn the cityto communities ith ower axes onthefringefthe metropolitanegion.

II. DEFENSEThepattern fthe ncient itywas compact ecause t wassurroundedby a wall. Protectionf ife nd property as oncethemostvital reasonforurban entralization.n earlyAmerica hesettlers athered ehindthewallsofa stockade r fort uring ndian raids.Ancient itieswerebuilt round hill iketheAcropolis fAthens r theCapitolineHill of

Rome,whichwere heir hief tronghold.Walls nclosed n areaof andaround his itadel arge nough o house hepopulation f thetributaryareaincaseof nvasion ndeven toprovide or mergencyardens.Thewallsofcitieson a flatplainwere ometimes ery mposing,eputedlybeing 2 feethigh n thecase ofancientBabylon.Thecity opulationived na very ompactrea nthese ncientwalledcities.The streets f Romewere nly -IO feetwide;tenaments eacheda height f o stories;nd a population f ,ooo,ooO at the ime fAugus-tus was compressed ithin or7 squaremiles.When nationmaintainedrmies n tsfrontiersnd establishedeaceand order vera widearea,walls nclosinghecitieswereunimportant,even nancient imes.Cnossus nCrete vidently epended or ecurityon a navy ndwasnotwalled. In ancient gypt hecitieswere rotectedby the desert nd their omparativesolationnthe NileValley.WhenAugustus stablished rder n theancientworld, uburbs rewbeyondthewallsofRomeandCarthage.The internal tructurefthecity ouldthen how xpansion fvillas on theperiphery.Marco Polo likewise e-ports hatthemaincity fKubla Khanhad twelve uburbs eyond achof theprincipal ates,becausetheKhanmaintained ost roads ndmili-tarypowerover a vast territory. evertheless, walled city ikeCon-stantinople as a strongholdn an emergency,nd thesoldiers f theByzantine mpirewereforced o retreatmanytimesbehind he fortifi-cations ftheir rincipal ity.Modernartillery nd airplanes,however, ave made the compactwalled ity n easy target or ong-rangehells ndbombs.Modernmili-tarydefensenstead fbeing centralizings a decentralizingrban orce.Airplane actoriesre more ecure rom ostile ttackwhendecentralizedordivided nto mallbranches rotected y a screen f trees.People resafestwhen catterednruralhomes.Thus the function fdefense ow


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846 THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGYtends o cause dispersion f theurbanmass nstead f ts increased on-centration.

III. RELIGIONReligionwas at first centralizingorce.The temple f the god wastheseat ofauthority r a sanctuary rom nemies.Conquering ationsof theancientworldnotonlyoverthrewhekingsofsmall states butalso their ocalgodsand established neparamount eity or heempire,with hetemplenthecapitalcity.Thus Bel wasenshrinedn Babylon,Assur n Nineveh,Ammon n Thebes. Whenworshipers f numerouslocaldeitiesmet n a commonenter, s at Mecca, theway was preparedforuniting rabia underonegod withMohammed s his prophet.Theprestigef ancientRome as an imperial ity ed to its emergence s thedominatingeat ofpapalauthority. hecathedral asthemostmposingedifice n the medieval town.With the rise of the numerous ects ofProtestantismnd thedeclinen the mphasis pon hephysical emple rcathedral s the center freligious uthority, eligion as declined s afactor nurban entralization.

IV. AMUSEMENTThe theater f PericleanAthens r ofElizabethanEngland, hepag-eantryf heretinue f greatord assing hroughhe treetsfLondon,the religious estivalswith paradefrom heprincipal ate ofthecityto thetemple fthegod-all these ttract eopleas theflame ttractsmoths. t is inthecapital itywhere hegreatestmphitheater,hemostelaborate ladiatorial ames, nd thebestperformersrefound.Cham-pionship rizefights, ajor-leagueaseball, remagnets or hemodernurbancrowd.The sights fthemetropolis,hethert be theAcropolisofAthens, heHangingGardens fBabylon, he ForumofRome,St.Paul's inLondon,NotreDame ortheEiffel ower nParis,theWashing-tonMonumentr theEmpire tateBuilding,re marvels othecountrybumpkin. hecity rightights, ight lubs, ndthe heater raw eopleto a central rea in themetropolis here hemostfamousperformersappear.In thecentral usiness istrictsfourgreat ities hestageformerlyexerted centralizingrban nfluence. ow theadventofthe motionpicturendtheradiohaveproved owerfulecentralizingactors ecausethebestmotion icture an be seen t theoutlying eighborhoodheaterand thePresidentftheUnited tatescanbeheard na firesidehat atevery arm ome.


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URBAN CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION 847V. TRADEThenecessity fmeeting t a common lacefor heexchange fgoods

at someport or crossroadss a centripetal rbanforce.The ForumofRomewas the centralmarket fthe Empire. n medieval imes radewas sporadicwithfairs nd markets t stated ntervals,ut inmoderntimes t has become regular nd systematicccurrence. aily crowdmovementslongcertain treets ave created hopping abits.The de-partmenttore, ffering any pecialties nder neroof,was a central-izing nfluencen theretail rades.HencebuildingsiketheMerchandiseMart inChicago ikewise oncentratedconsiderable artof thewhole-sale tradeofthe cityunder single oof.Themail-orderouse, he chain tore, nd the specialtyhops n out-lying enters ave beendecentralizingetail actors, owever.Difficultyin findingarking laces for utomobiles as accelerated hegrowthfsatelliteoopswithbranches fthecentral epartmenttores.Similarly,direct uying rom actories as decentralized holesale rading.VI. INDUSTRYThemodernndustrialitywasusherednbythe team ngine.Con-centrationfworkersnfactories as necessitatedythefact hat teampowerhadtobe used near tspointofgeneration.n daysofslowtrans-portationhat ikewisemeant oncentrationf homesnearthe factories.Electric owersdecentralizingecause lectricurrentan bedistributedover a wide area. Automobiles ave likewisencreased hemobility ftheworker.Whilefactoriesre stillpredominantlyocated ngreatmet-ropolitanreas, they renow at thefringef those reas rather hanatthecenter, ecause theadvantageofcheapland,permittingne-storyfactoriesndcontinuityf ndustrialperations,ailroad reight-carerv-ice to thefactory,nd low taxes, an best be served n theperipheryfthecity,where heouter ailroad elt ines, he uto truck,ndthe uto-mobile urnishransportationor oods nd for abor.

VII. FINANCE AND BANKINGBrokersnecessarilymeet n a central lace to constitute commonmarket or ecuritiesndcommodities. able lines, elegraph ires, ele-phone ines, ome o a focus t a common oint nd relay heminute-to-minute hangesnprices o all partsoftheworld.Stockexchanges ndcommodityxchangesrecentripetalorces.Yet the decline n securitytradingntheUnited tateshas lessened he mportancefthistypeoffinancial entralization.Branchbanking lso disperses oncentratedbanking-powero some xtent.


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848 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGYVIII. TRANSPORTATIONTransportationermits reat ities o come ntoexistence y tapping

a sufficientlyideagriculturalrea to supply hemwithfood. t like-wisepermits largepopulation o work nd trade n a central itybyexpanding he radius withinwhich heycan live and commute o themetropolis. et swiftransportationyautomobile asbeena greatde-centralizingactor n the internal attern f cities,for t permits heurbanpopulation ospreadout n a pattern fdiffuseettlement atherthantogather n a concentrated ass.IX. UTILITIES

Utilities,uch as paved streets nd sewerage,re centralizingorcesand onceconstituted ne ofthechief ttractionsf thecity. Prior toI900, after he city ine was passed, a quagmire f mudor a cloud ofdustwasencountered. ity onveniencesnd modern athtubswerenotto be found.First the telephone, henelectric ights, he concrete ighway ndautomobile,heseptictank, nd theradiogave theadvantages fthecity otherural-urbanringe. he citydweller an nowhavehisgardenin thecountry,n a communityf curvingtreets nd cul-de-sacs,ndstillretain hecomfortsf thecity n hishome. Thus utilitiesikewisehave become centrifugalrbanforce.Such has been theseparate ffectfeach ofthe functionsffectingurban entralizationrdecentralization. ow havethese orces peratedto produce he riseand fall ofgreatcitiesover theperiodofrecordedhistory? complete nalysisofurbanismwould,ofcourse, equire nencyclopedia,ut a brief eview f someof thesignificanturning-pointsmay direct hewayto furthertudies.In ancient gypt nthevalley f heNileoneof hefirst rban iviliza-tionsdeveloped.At firstn theperiod rior o4000 B.C., theNileValleywasdividednto pproximatelywentyeudal tates rnomes, ach withsmallvillages.The consolidationfEgypt nto wokingdomsndfinallyinto ne,with hetriumphfoneking ndonegod, edtoa centralizationofauthoritynonegreatmetropolis-Memphis,nthe deltaof theNile.The advantages funified dministrationfthe rrigationystem ftheNilefacilitatedheriseofthis entral ower.The surplus ood ftheNileValley upportedhepharoah ndpriests,theriverNile wasthemediumftransportation,hedesertsn both idesof theNileprotectedhecountryromxternalnvasion,nda powerfulrulermaintainednternal rder.The structurefthese itieswas in theform f ong nd narrow ettled reasalongthemargin etween he n-


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URBANCENTRALIZATIONAND DECENTRALIZATION 849undated rea and thedesert.Compactcircularwalled citieswere notnecessary ecauseof Egypt'srelativesolation.

In Mesopotamia, n theotherhand,greatwalledcities ikeBabylonarose becauseof theproximityfmarauding ribes.Cities ntheTigris-EuphratesValley struggled ithoneanother ormastery, nd Babylonwas themetropolisftheconquering ing nd god. Similarly, inevehbecame great apitalwhen he constantwarsof theAssyrians ad re-duced hundreds fpettykingdoms ith maller owns nto submission.Thus, as a result f nnumerablelitzkriegsy ancientmilitary tates,theNear East was consolidatedntofourgreatkingdoms-Egypt,As-syria,Babylon, nd Lydia. The Persiansblotted ut Assyria nd con-quered ydia,Babylon, ndEgypt.Consequently,hePersiankings c-quired neconsolidatedmpirembracingll these ncient ingdoms,ndthe tribute fthis ncientworldwas sent othenewcapitalswhich heirkings stablished.Alexanderhe Great nturnwon thePersianEmpireand theaccumulated oldhoardof theancientworld n a fewdecisivebattles.Meanwhile n thewesternMediterranean,hecityof Romewas con-tending irst ith ther mall ities n talyand finally ithCarthage orthesupremacy fthewesternMediterranean. pain andGaul were henin a tribal tage. WhenRome had finallyrushedCarthage, he pettytribal tates fSpain hadlikewise eenbroken ownbysuperiormilitarypower. Caesar ater mashed hetribal ederationsnGaul. ThusRomepulverized he tribaleconomyn theWest and prepared heway forurbancentralization.nto the lap of thedisciplinedegionsofRome,without serious truggle,ell heEast, where gyptians, abylonians,Assyrians, ersians, nd Macedonianshad previously roken p localautonomyndestablishedentralizeduthority. hus,Romebythe imeofAugustus ecame heheir fthe ncientMediterranean orld.At thebeginningftheChristian ra peace and order ad beenestablishedvertheentire orders f thisgreat nland ea. Urbanism eached ts peakup to thattime.The population fRome reached million, nd itwassupported y mportsfgrain rom icily, gypt, rNorthAfricaeviedas taxes.Hundreds fother ities onnected yhard-surfacedoads flourishedin theRomanEmpire.These cities wereprotected otby theirwallsbutbythe Roman egions tationed n thefrontiers.encetheoriginalcompactwalledcitycouldexpand ntothesuburbs.RichRomanshadtheir illas nthe ountry.Outside frebuilt arthagewerehortirlargeestateswithgardens.ThesegreatcitiesoftheRomanEmpiredid not existprimarilye-


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850 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGYcause of manufacturing r even because of trade. Centralized govern-mental authority with power to collect a surplus from the country dis-tricts o support a city population made great Roman cities possible, andamusements in the formof gladiatorial games, circuses, theaters, andbaths made these urban centersattractive and desirable.The internal decay of the Roman Empire in the third centuryA.D.and itsfinaldisintegrationn theWest by the fifthnd sixth enturiesof our era destroyed he basis of thisgreat urban civilization. raderouteswerebroken p byinvading ribes o thatfood ouldno onger eshipped othecities, nd theauthority as acking ocollect he urplusproducts f the provinces. he population fRomedeclined rom hemillion f thetime fAugustus o 5o,ooo bythe ixth entury .D. OnlyConstantinopleemaineds thegreat ortifiedity f this ncientworld.Urbandecentralizationnthe sensethat therewere housands f vil-lages and fewgreat ities eachedtspeakintheDarkAgesortheninthor tenthcenturies .D. At that time therewere ninehundred eudalstates nFrancealone, nd constantwarfarewas waged between hou-sandsofpettybarons.The sizeoftownswas limited y the agriculturalarea near by which ould be protected y thepowerof the ocal lord.Graduallyonsolidationfthe uthorityftheking rthecentral owerbegan nFrance, nd itwas achievednEnglandquickly yWilliam heConquerornA.D. io66.The cities hatbegantorise ntheMiddleAgeswerebasedontrade,whichwas at first mall nvolume nd limited o a fewnecessitiesuchas salt, iron,or wool. These citiesprotected heir ommerce y force,and,whennational tateswere mall and thepower fthekingorem-perorweak, city ould holda relativelytrong osition.By meansof tsnavy,Venice, cting s intermediarynthetradebe-tweenEurope and the Orient n spicesand silk, roseto prominence.Portuguese avigatorsncircled frica nd tappedtherich picetradeat itssource,making isbon for he time hecenter fworld-commerce.Spain,with hebest rmynEurope nda great rmada,discoveredndtookover henewworldwith tsgold nd silver.Hollandconquered hePortuguesend became heheirs fthe East Indies.It was England,however, hofinally mergeds thechief rading a-tion, eginning ith he onquest f he panishArmada n 588. Layingthebasisbycolonizationf heAmericas, y conqueringndia,by settlingin Africa nd Australia, y acquiring ey positionsn Gibralter, uez,Singapore, ong Kong,etc., ndbythe upremacyfhernavy,Englandestablished reeworld-commerce.his tradeengendered demandforEnglishmanufacturedoods,which ed to the nventionfthespinning


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URBAN CENTRALIZATIONAND DECENTRALIZATION 851jenny, he team ngine,nd all theothermechanical evicesformakinggoodscheaper ndfaster.

The tremendousxpansion furbanismnthepast century as madepossibleby steampower ppliedto manufacturing,or t permittednindustrial ationto draw foodand materials rom ll theagriculturalrawmaterial-producingations o keepitsfactories oing nd to sup-portconcentratedopulationnitscities.England irst ada monopolynthenewmanufacturingrocesses,ndthenurbanismmademost apid trides.Evenby i8oi, I7 percentof tspopulationived ncities f 0,000 orover, ndby I85I over halfof tspopulation ivedin suchcities. n I85I theUnitedStatesand Prussiawere ntheirndustrialnfancy,ndonly6 percentofthepopulation fthe UnitedStates,3 percentofthepopulation fPrussia, nd i.6 percentof thepopulation f Russia ived ncities f oo,oooor over.After heCivilWar ntheUnited tates nd after heFranco-PrussianWar boththe United tatesand Germany orgedhead as industriala-tions nd competed ith ngland or hemarketsf heworld.Urbanismgrewwith ndustrialisms thepercentage fpeople living n cities ofI00,000 andover ncreasedrom to 5.5 per entntheUnitedtates,and from to I3 percent nPrussiafrom85I to I89I. The industrialrivalry etweenGreatBritain nd Germany as one oftheoutstandingcausesofWorldWar .In I914, Russia, Italy, and Japanwererelatively ackward ndus-trially; ut, ince hefirst orldwar demonstratedhat ndustrializationand consequentlyrbanization as a prerequisiteomilitaryower, llthesenations astened obuildup self-sufficingactory ystems.Conse-quently, heproportionfpersons iving n citiesof ioo,ooo and overbetween89I and 93I increasedromper ent o 7 per entn talyand from percentto 22 percent nJapan.Russia,under tsfive-yearplans,hastened o expand ts basic industries,nd from 926 to I939itsurban opulation ncreased rom7 percent o33 per centof ts totalpopulation.Thus, as a resultof competition etweengreat ndustrialnations, heproportionfthepopulation ivingngreat ities nthepastcenturynda halfgreatlyncreased irstnEngland, hen ntheUnitedStates nd Germany,ndfinallynItaly,Russia, ndJapan.Urbaniza-tion lsoproceeded apidlynAustralia nd inthegreat eaport radingcities f BuenosAires,Rio deJaneiro, hanghai, alcutta, ndBombay.In theperiod rom8oo to 940, thirty-eightities ained ,ooo,ooo opu-lationfor hefirst ime.Notwithstandingheserapidstrides furbanism,heOrient emainspredominatelyn the tageofvillage conomy. ive-sixthsftheworld's


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852 THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGYpopulation till ive in severalmillion griculturalillages.This villagesociety s thematrix ut ofwhich hegreat ity ose n thepast and intowhich t will disintegratefour highly nterrelatedrban civilizationshould vercollapse.Great itieshave thus xpandedwith heriseof competingndustrialnations, ach of whichhas sufficient anufacturingapacity o supplymost of theworld. n the secondworldwar two groupsof industrialpowers re na life-and-deathtruggle ith achother.Bothcannotwin.To maintain hepresent opulation fLondon,Liverpool, nd Birming-ham, Englandmusthave a world-widerade. f England'straderoutesaredisrupted,ergreat itieswilldecline.On theother and,by seizingVienna,Warsaw, rague,Copenhagen, slo,Brussels,Amsterdam,nt-werp, ndParis, Germany as subordinatedhese ities ohereconomy.IfGerman ities xpand s a result fdominationf theEuropean onti-nent, hese ther ontinentalitieswillprobable windle. f the Germanpower s smashed,Berlin nd Hamburgwill shrink. he cities n theUnited States, ike New York,whichweredependent orpartoftheirsupport ponthegreatflow f commerce etweenNorthAmerica ndEurope,may ikewise e adverselyffected y theclosing f marketsnEurope,Africa,ndAsiabyhostile owers.

It thusappearsthatthespectacular rowth furbanism f thepastcenturynd a halfhas cometo at leasta temporaryalt. The world-population,which ncreased rom oo,ooo,ooo to over 2,000,000,ooo inthatperiod, annot ontinueogainat the ame rate. The declinenthebirth ate ntheUnited tates and westernurope, hedamming-upfthe stream fimmigration,hedisruptionftraderoutesbywars andgovernmentontrol,nd thebombing fgreat itiesfrom he air arealltendingorestricthe ourcesfgrowthfgreat ggregationsf opulation.The breakup f the argemetropolitanrea has notyetcometo passwithinheUnited tates.Thepopulation f ight four argest ities idfailtogainfrom930 to I940, whichwas the first ecade nourhistoryinwhich he argest itiesdidnot ncrease heir umbers.However, hesuburbs f these ight ities re stillgrowing.nnerdecayat thecity'scenters taking lace,becauseofthedecentralizingrendsnmanufac-turing, rade,religion,musements,ransportation,nd utilitieswhichhave alreadybeen noted.A greater angerurks head,thatthewholesupportingasesof ourgreatmetropolitanreas willbe so weakened ywar,high axes, nd classconflictshat thestructurefourhighlype-cializedurban ociety ftodaywillbegin ocrack ndwillfinallyollapseas didthe urban ivilizationfthe RomanEmpire.

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