HSC Core: Parenting and CaringKatie G

1. Becoming Parents and CarersBeing a parent or carer is one of the most demanding jobs there is. Over 2.3 million Australians are providing care for family members who are frail or aged or friends with a disability, illness or chronic condition. This represents one in every 5 households. Of these, nearly 20% are primary care-givers supplying unpaid informal support. There are many reasons for people to want to become parents these may include:- Ego expansion- which means the new child gives the parents a greater sense of importance- A sense of achievement- that they have fulfilled the need to complete their relationship and give a personal sense of worth-Conformity and status needs- as the parents will fit in with others of the same age group who have become parents- Love and affection- The need for love and affection which is an important and common reason for beginning a family which confirms a bond of love between the parents and a need to share affection and love with their offspring.

- Biological parentsBiological parents are the parents who produce and provide the genetic material for a child. This parenting beings at the moment of conception, In-viro fertilisation or Artificial insemination and continues until the parent is incapable of providing it any longer.

PregnancyIs when a woman is carrying a foetus for a term of 40 weeks. This process can be aided scientifically through processes such as IVF and GIFT or occur naturally. The foetus forms when a sperm finds and fertilises the ovum in the fallopian tube. The cells are constantly dividing and changing as the zygote moves towards the uterus. Meanwhile, the lining of the uterus is thickening to accept the new group of cells. The zygote embeds itself in the uterus wall, usually 6 days after contraception. This process is called implantation. At about the 8th

week of pregnancy the embryo becomes a foetus. This is when the foetal organs such as the heart and kidneys, begin to work on their own. The delivery of the baby usually occurs between the 38th- 40th week of pregnancy. When it is time for delivery the mother experiences contractions which she feels around her back and front of her abdomen. As this occurs the cervix dilates and the foetus descends through the birth canal. Alternately the baby may be born by caesarean section. This involves an incision being made in the abdominal wall and into the uterus so that the baby can be removed.- PlannedPlanned pregnancies usually allow for better discussion and decision-making to occur between the parents. This includes the logistics of raising a child and should encompass how the physical, social and emotional needs of the child can be met. Parents with similar upbringings, cultures and values will find it easier to arrive in parenting decisions. Planned pregnancies enable the parents to prepare for the change that the baby will make to that relationship. They may spend time discussing what parenting styles they want to adopt, child-care arrangements they will make or discipline practices they will follow. In a planned pregnancy consideration can also be given to the cost of raising a child and housing arrangements. - UnplannedUnplanned pregnancies can result because of many factors including poor knowledge of contraception, contraceptive failure, and a feeling of “it won’t happen to me”. An unplanned pregnancy may be a very difficult experience. Thoughts and feelings are often confused and it may be difficult to ask for help and support. When an unplanned pregnancy occurs the mother may have to make the decision whether to keep the baby, adopt it or terminate the pregnancy.

IVF and GIFT- IVF– Stands for In-viro fertilisation. It is where the woman’s ovum is fertilised outside her body. The ovum and sperm are removed from the body and added together in a fertilisation dish in a laboratory. The zygotes are then allowed to develop for 48 hrs before implantation into the woman’s uterus. This method of conception was developed in Australia in the 1970s. It is usually performed when the woman is unable to conceive or is infertile. Reasons for use of the IVF program may also include Fallopian tubes that are diseased or absent, Endometriosis that has resisted treatment, Male infertility where the sperm count is low or there is low movement of sperm, Female produces sperm antibodies, or history or genetic disposition to miscarriages or abnormal births.

There are four steps that occur in IVF:- Stimulation of the ovary to produce several eggs for fertilisation- Removal of eggs from ovary- Fertilisation of egg in laboratory- Embryo transfer. The embryo is placed in the uterus.

-GIFT- Stands for Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer.It is another option for parents who are unable to conceive through intercourse. The egg and sperm are transferred into the fallopian tube so that conception occurs inside the body. There is as little interference as possible. This does not involve creating or subsequently destroying embryos.

-ZIFT- Stands for Zygote Intro-Fallopian Transfer. It is similar to the GIFT process however, the ovum is fertilised in the laboratory instead of the fallopian tubes. The zygote is placed in the fallopian tubes.

- Social parentsSocial parents participate in the parenting of a child or children. They are not the biological parents who created the child. They nurture a child through the formative years when for various reasons the biological parents are unable to. Social parents may be adoptive, foster, step or surrogate.

AdoptionAdoption is a legal procedure in which the natural parents' rights and obligations toward their children are terminated, and the adoptive parents assume these rights and obligations. Once a child has been adopted, the natural or birth parents are no longer responsible for their child; the obligations that they have toward their child, likewise, cease to exist.There are three types of adoption: 1. Local adoption - Children born in Australia and are adopted by another Australian couple. 2. Inter-country adoption- Children born in an overseas country are given up by their biological parents for adoption and an Australian adopts them.3. Special needs adoption- Where a child with special needs such as blindness may be adopted.Adoption can also occur when a family member has died leaving their children without parents. A blood relative may assume the role of a parent so that the children have the opportunity to stay in contact with kin or blood relative.

FosteringFoster care provides individuals from 0-16 with a safe and stable home environment. It is used when a child’s biological family is unable to provide for the care and protection of the child/ young person. In this circumstance the Department of Community Services decide to place the child/ young person with a foster family. Most children are able to return to their family, the aim is to reunite their family with the child. Children that require foster care are usually quite damaged and they will exhibit signs of aggression and violent behaviours. It is a temporary situation that can last from a few weeks to many years because the birth parents have not relinquished their parental rights.There are three types of foster care:1. Emergency crisis care – Children whose parents maybe involved in an accident and no care is available or are arrested (overnight- 2 weeks)2. Short term foster care – Child protection cases, parental breakdown, mum having a baby (up to 3 months)3. Long term care – history of neglect, breakdown child is not safe in home (1 week to 18yrs).

Step-parentingStep-parenting occurs when a new relationship is formed, and one of the partners already has children. The new partner becomes a step-parent to the other partner’s children. A blended family may have children from the new relationship as well as stepchildren. The non-custodial parent has access to the child and pays an amount of money towards the child’s upkeep.Advantages may be that the children have at least one male and female role model in their life. The parents are also more satisfied as they have a partner to contribute to the parenting decision. On the other hand, interpersonal relationship may be strained, especially in the early stages as children may not be happy to share the parent. A conflict in values may also arise if the new parent has different views on discipline ect.

SurrogacyIt is when a woman gets pregnant on behalf of someone who herself cannot carry a pregnancy and have a baby. This is may be due to a variety of factors. Some include the woman may be infertile and born without a uterus, has had a hysterectomy, a gay couple wanting to become parents, A female is unable to fall pregnant due to illness. In any of these cases, the individual who wants a child may approach others who can carry a child and request they do so for them. The person that has the child for them is known as the surrogate mother. A surrogate mother is someone who gestates and then gives birth to a child for another person, with the full intention of handing over the child over to that person after birth.There are many ways in which the child can be conceived:- The male partner of an infertile couple impregnates the surrogate mother through natural or artificial insemination. The surrogate then gives the custody of the child to the couple.- The embryo created using the sperm and ovum of the couple is implanted into the uterus of the surrogate mother, who again gives up the child at birth- vitro fertilization program (IVF)

-Examine what it means to be a parent, either biological or social, for both females and males

Biological parent

- Physically- both parents physically either produce the child or are responsible for well-being of child.- Emotionally- strong bonds formed between parent and child- Spiritually/ Social- the experience is very fulfilling for both parents - Legally- responsibility to nurture and support an individual/s for many years or raise the child through the processes of adopting, fostering, step-parenting and surrogacy

Social parents

- Legally- raise the child through the processes of adopting, fostering, step-parenting and surrogacy - Physically- parents responsible for total well-being of child (food, clothing, shelter) -Emotionally- bonding occurs overtime but can be just as strong as from biological parents- Spiritual/Social- the desire to become parents does not waken just because people cannot produce children biologically

Men & Women

There are many roles and relationships within a family unit. An important role is that of being a parent. This role is challenging in today’s changing world. A role is a pattern of social behaviour that is expected of a person in a certain situation. Roles are an obligation that a person needs to meet to fulfil a task as seen by society. What is expected within a role may be governed by tradition or a set of rules, or it may not be clearly defined and may change over time. Roles are how people develop socially acceptable behaviour that is standardised by a group such as a family. Parents adopt the role of being the economic, social and emotional provider for a child. They are expected to provide shelter, love, moral direction and socially acceptable behaviour and more. Despite these common expectations of parents in many cases the roles expected of males and females differs. The roles and relationships within families are always evolving. There will be different emphasis placed on tasks for males and females in different cultures and religions and each individual family as no two families are alike.

At the beginning of the 20th century in Australia the roles of husband and wife within the family were distinct. Traditionally women were seen as the primary care giver and nurturer in families and men were seen as the breadwinner, the decision maker and took on the disciplinary role. Although some women did work in paid employment, this was mainly reserved for single women. When a women married it was expected that they would leave work to look after the children, home and her husband. This expectation is still prevalent in some cases today. These stereotypical views of gender-roles are more prevalent in low socio-economic groups and the expectations are more strongly defined between men and women.

During the First World War, large numbers of women joined the workforce, filling the jobs vacated by the men sent overseas. Women worked outside the home regardless of their married status. Most women had to give up these jobs once the men returned and it was not until the Second world war that women were again employed in large numbers in the workforce. During the 1960s women began to be more assertive. Gradually, the role of women and attitudes towards them in the workforce changed. Instead of filling in for men, women sought their own employment opportunities. As a result of this period in time the role of each parent today is less clearly defined and differs between each family.

The expectation of women is changing even today and men are sharing the responsibility of care even more. However there are still stereotypical ideas in society that females are more natural parents than males. This idea often arises from the fact that the mother physically carries the baby and are therefore perceived to bond more closely with the children. This concept is also emphasised by the fact that men often have trouble adjusting to parenting because they often do not take an extremely active part in everyday care and nurture. This common idea can often be seen through advertisement which portray the traditional roles of men and woman in the home.

While many parents take on the traditional roles, there is more awareness of other possibilities and a move towards sharing responsibilities. The fatherhood role today includes activities, duties and responsibilities connected with sharing child rearing, as well as contributing financially to the family. Men can experience the fathering role in many ways other than being the breadwinner. As attitudes change, we can recognise that parenting and caring is something that both males and females can pursue together.

- Examine the legal and social implications of birth technologies and social parenting

Birth technologiesLegal Social

- Must be a suitable candidate eg. Status (criminal), health, financial status- Must follow legal guidelines- Check your legal rights and responsibilities concerning the process- Know your legal responsibilities concerning the process- Have legal representation- Know laws- Artificial Conception Act (1987) Donor sperm is not considered father, if the woman has no partner then the child has no father. Law only concerns sperm/ova donation. Law allows infertile couples to have children. May be argued from a religious standpoint.

Negatives-- Must look after yourself- May have to ‘prove’ yourself to your friends & peer group- May have family opposition- Stress eg. Financial situation, emotional process

Positives--People who elect these technologies are motivated to make it work-Contributing to society by becoming parents-May gain self esteem/confidence through becoming parents-May become better mangers of own lives

Social parentingLegal Social

Adoption - When the adopted child is taken from the biological parent, the parent loses all right they had with the child.- The adopted child is given two birth certificates one from the biological parents the other of the social parents details.- The Adoption Information Act 1990, requires the consent from both the biological parent and child to see or know each other.

- Adoption severs the relationship between the biological parent and their child and at times the process of adoption is surrounded by secrecy throughout their life.

Fostering - Foster parents do not have legal custody over the child. - They have the right to be given information about the dependent.

- Change of the care taking person for infants and toddlers further affects the course of their emotional development.- When infants and young children find themselves abandoned by the parent, they not only suffer separation distress and anxiety, but also setbacks in the quality of their next attachments, which will be less trustful.

Step Parenting

Step parent has no legal or financial obligations unless they adopt the child.

Surrogacy Laws vary from state to state- In most cases the surrogate mother has legal rights over the child.- NSW has no current legislation regarding surrogacy-NSW law states that the arrangement of surrogate motherhood contract is neither prohibited nor encouraged.- In NSW, it is an offence to offer money for a child under the Adoption of children Amendment Act 1992.- It is also illegal in NSW to transfer the registration of the birth to the adopted mother in surrogacy under the Births, deaths and Marriages registration Act 1995- Artificial Conception Act 1984- states that Where a married woman acting as a surrogate conceives by artificial insemination, with the consent of her husband, the law conclusively presumes the husband to be the father of the child. The biological father has no right to have his name registered as the father

- There may be conflict between the biological parents and the surrogate parents- Conflict with other peoples values in the community who believe that it demeans the status of marriage and a natural family

- Carer relationshipsA carer assists individuals who are unable to satisfy their own needs. Each carer situation is unique. Carers can be professionals, parents, partners, siblings, friends or children of any age. They may assist an individual in tasks such as feeding, dressing, bathing, toileting, transportation, organisation of finances, emotional support or administering medication. They may or may not live with the person they care for and may or may not be employed. In Australia the majority of carers are relatives. Caring can be rewarding and provide opportunities for personal growth and the development of skill. But it can also cause frustration and distress and affect relationships.

VoluntaryStatistically one in every five households provides care for family members or friends with a disability, mental illness, chronic condition or who are frail and aged. Informal or voluntary carers provide the bulk of the care in the community. Carers take on the role due to family responsibility, to provide better care than an institution and because of emotional obligations. In some cases the cost of paid care may be too high and voluntary care is necessary. 1 in 5 households provide care for family members or friends who are either disables, have a mental illness, have a chronic illness or are frail aged. Take on role due to family responsibility- emotional obligations.

PaidThere are many types of paid carers. They include foster carers who are adults, direct carers employed by a service or agency for instance nursing homes, hospitals and baby sitters. The majority of carers in the home do receive and rely on a government pension, benefit or allowance to support themselves while caring full-time. For most, this is their principle source of income. Includes foster carers, nursing homes, hospitals, hostels, respite care, home nursing, teachers, child care workers, baby sitters. Rely on government benefits/allowance to support themselves

Carer statistics 70% of primary carers are female 78% of primary carers are between 18-64 years of age 40% of primary carers have been providing care for a decade or more 69% of carers receive government allowances, this is their principal source of income.

-Discuss the variety of circumstances that might lead to an individual requiring care and assess the implications for planned and unplanned circumstances

Whilst some events are planned, others are unplanned. When planned events occur the individual can plan for assisted care and may even be able to choose who will care for them, when and what they will do. As a result the individual may feel a sense of satisfaction or contentment with the role performed by the carer. When an event is unplanned, the individual may be unable to ‘choose’. Individuals may feel they have little control over who provides the care, when the care is provided and what the care entails.

Circumstances P or U

Implications Voluntary options

Paid options available Considerations for making decisions about care

Working parents, educational commitment

P Dependents need care during working hours and school holidays.

RelativesFriends

Long and family day care Preschools, Before and after school care

Cost, Reliability, Safety availability, Hours, Location, Learning experiences, Atmosphere

Psychological problems, domestic violence or abuse

U Permanent carers may decide that they are unable to cope with dependents in the short term, or may be considered unable to cope.

Friends or relatives

Short-term, foster care, Barnardos Counsellors, SubstituteCare Programs

Safety, Accessibility & Appropriateness, Legal issues e.g. age of consent Cultural issues, Support planAccess issues

Bereavement U Dependent may no longer have a carer.

Friends or relatives

DoCS, AdoptionLong-termFostering, Refuges

Safety, Accessibility &Appropriateness, Legal issues, Cultural issues, Support plan

Acute sickness U Permanent carer may be unable to care for dependent for a shortperiod.

Friends or relatives.

Paid live-in carerShort-term placement

Safety, Accessibility tonormal" patterns of interaction, Cost

Chronic injury or illness

U Permanent carer will require long term help to care for dependent & may also require long- term care for himself or herself.

Friends or relatives

Rehabilitation servicesHome and communitycare

SafetyAccessibility & availabilitySupport for carer & dependent

Social activity or appointments

P Parent or carer is unable to care for dependent for a short period.

Friends or relatives

Baby-sitters Occasionalcare

Safety, CostAccessibility &availability

Elderly person who is unable to care for him or herself

U Suitable alternative care needs to be organised to suit the needs of the individual.

Relatives or neighbours

Alternative housingHome and community care Meals on wheels Community transport

Cost, Availability, Social contacts

Parent or carer with a dependent with special needs

P Temporary care for the dependent may be needed to give the parent or carer a break.

Relativesfriends

Carer respite, CarerResource centres

Cost, Reliability, AvailabilityLocation, Safety, Suitability

Investigate the significance of gender in carer relationships.

It often depends on the age of the child however generally speaking, gender is not/should not be an issueSometimes males need time to establish relationships/bonding with the dependent.

Females:- Culturally, women are the nurturer’s in our society. They are primary caregivers because they physically carry the baby or are perceived to be the ones who bond more closely with children. - Some have more time/ resources.- May have flexible working hours.- May not be able to deal with the male dependents caring issues such as toileting.

Males:- Often have trouble adjusting to parenting because they do not take an active enough part in everyday care and nurture. - Some still believe that it is ‘women’s work’ (culturally this may be strictly adhered to ie. Muslim families)- Have physical strength- May not be able to manage female caring issues, such as dressing, toileting.

2. Managing Parenting and Caring responsibilities

Preparations for becoming a parent or carer

Physical – prenatal considerations for parent and child healthThere are many ways individuals can prepare to become parents. Three to six months before conception both parents should begin making preparations for parenting to give the child the best possible start. Both parents should be as fit as possible, give up smoking and alcohol and both partners should also be checked for genital or urinary tract infections. Women should check their immunity to rubella as this may cause damage to the brain sight and hearing of the unborn baby and increase the risk of miscarriage and still birth.

When pregnant it is important for females to have a balanced diet with plenty of fresh fruit, vegetables, cereals, dairy products, lean meat or alternatives. Extra folic acid is necessary to build the cells DNA, deficiencies folic acid can increase the chances of spina bifida or other neural tube defects in the baby. They should not consume foods that carry the organism listeria such as raw meat and soft cheeses. They should gain knowledge about what prescriptive and non-prescriptive medicine can harm a developing embryo so they do not consume it. It is important that the parents have regular visits to the doctor so the mother’s weight, urine and blood pressure can be checked and the baby’s development and position monitored.

It is also important parents know what is involved in pregnancy, birth and life after childbirth. This will help them make informed decisions and cope with pregnancy and parenthood. They should develop an understanding of the diagnosis and treatment of childhood illness, injury or diseases. This knowledge is often gained through antenatal courses. Regular exercise, including stretching will help the body to cope with the extra demands being made on it before and during labour. While pregnant the mother should avoid contact sports and other activities with risk of falling. Parents can also consider how and where the baby is born.

Social changes parents and carers may have to makeAfter the birth of a baby, priorities change and usually an extensive social calendar is not as important as spending time together as a family. However it does not mean the end of all social outings, though child-friendly outings will take priority. More planning is usually necessary, either to organise child care or prepare the necessary equipment needed when a baby is taken out. The parent who cares for the child at home may feel isolated as they are not stimulated by people of their own intellectual capacity during the day. They will also miss the social contact with work colleagues and friends. Friends may also change with activities more likely to involve other families with children. Most couples share the parenting responsibilities to allow each other some time to go out and enjoy social, leisure and sporting activities. These should be negotiated before the birth to prevent later problems. Caring my cause frustration and distress, and affect family relationships. This Is because of the amount of time that the caring role demands. There may also be insufficient time available for social relationships associated with employment and leisure activities. It is important that carers maintain social contact with people other than the dependant or they may feel socially isolated.

Emotional preparations for the new relationshipsLife changes after the birth of a child. Family members can experience extra stress, especially if there are problems between the partners or financial issues. For a biological mother, hormone levels will impact on her ability to cope with new demands and make the expectant mother moody. Fatigue and nausea may also cause irritability and depression. For the father, having a new baby can be overwhelming. Having a partner who is struggling with her emotions will also require dedication and support on the part of the father. The father may feel neglected as the mother receives all the attention.Towards the end of a pregnancy the mother may feel large and unattractive, reducing self-esteem. Anxiety about the birth and the ability to cope and concerns about the baby’s health are al normal parts of pregnancy.

Siblings can also feel neglected, so parents need to include them in pregnancy. They may feel jealous and insecure about sharing their parents with the new baby and will need reassurance. It is important for parents to spend time with them after the birth to explain the new family situation and assist older children to adjust to the new relationships. There may also be concerns when the baby is born regarding what is wrong when he or she seems unsettled and concerned that the child’s development is not normal. Usually the pregnancy and new baby affect the extended family positively, bringing them closer together. The extended family often offer advice and support to the parent-to-be. Caring for someone can be emotionally satisfying, and provide opportunity for personal growth and development.

EconomicThe costs of a baby vary widely, depending on the child’s health and the parents wants. There will be medical expenses such as the medical checkups. Maternity clothes, essential equipment, and clothing for the new baby are necessary. Food costs remain low initially however if the baby is bottle fed this increases cost. As solid foods are introduced costs rise. As the baby gets older babysitters may be necessary. Families have to decide whether or not either parent will take extended maternity or parental leave. Assessing the financial situation and devising a budget ensures that a suitable work and care arrangement is chosen. Change may involve going from a dual income to a single income.

Factors influencing resource management in the caring relationshipResources are those things we use to achieve our goals. They may be human or non-human. Resource management describes how resources can be chosen and used in order to make the most of what we have an of course to satisfy our needs.

Dependents affected by the caring relationshipWhen a parent or carer takes on a new caring relationship this can affect other dependents. The affect on the dependents will vary according to age, skills, capabilities and special needs.

Parents- When a new baby enters a family, there may be some jealousy felt by siblings. Initially their mother may be in hospital for a period of time and this unavoidable separation changes the children’s routeings. An older child may be anxious and act aggressively towards the baby. Some children hide their feelings and suffer nightmares, or revert to immature behaviour for their age. It is important for children to feel part of the family and involved with the new arrival.

Carers- If members of a family are caring for an ill or dependent person, they may have less time available for children in their immediate family. Children may feel resentful that their parent or sibling is caring for another person. If the carer brings the dependant to stay in the family home, as is the case with foster children or an elderly person who requires constant care, the child not only has to learn to share their time with their parents, but also their home.

- Age - The age of the dependants determines the effect that caring for another will have. - There is no ideal age gap between siblings. A younger child will have an older sibling to play with, while the older child will have someone they can be partly responsible for. - No matter what the age, jealousy or resentment may occur. - When a person being cared for is living with a family, they provide more role models in the household and more opportunity to develop interpersonal relationships and love. - The age gap between the parents and the child or the dependant will affect their relationship. Older parents may have less energy when parenting and caring, while younger parents may have fewer financial resources and life skills.

- Skills - Capabilities

The skills and capabilities of the dependants depend on their age and level of development. Dependants who have developed skills to prepare meals and assist in household tasks will be of benefit to the family. Communication skills are important.

- Special needs - For example a newborn baby would require different care to a teenager, adult or individuals with a learning difficulty.- Some children have a temporary or permanent physical or mental disability, and thus special needs. - It is estimated that 1 in 5 children have special needs at some time in their childhood. This can range from severe developmental problems which could be permanent, to a minor speech difficulty that responds to treatment in a few months. - Most parents experience shock, disbelief and guilt on the diagnosis of a disability. These feelings may be short-term or long-term. They will have to seek additional support, specialist help or counselling for this dependent. This all takes time and it will be more difficult if they are already caring for a person with a disability.

ResourcesDecisions have to be made about which resources to use or allocate, and which ones to conserve or interchange with other resources.

- Time - Everyone has the same amount of time available each day. The tasks that are accomplished in that time will depend on values, goals and other resources available.- Time is likely to be limited for a carer with dependents.- A parent/carer may have to remain at home all day. This may make them feel as though they have not achieved anything significant.- The division of labour can be discussed.

- Energy - Dependants have greater demands placed on their energy. - They may feel physically drained. - Management of the carer’s energy will be necessary to prevent fatigue. - Maximum use of energy can often be obtained using a combination of human and non-human resources.

- Finances - Many government benefits are available to parents and carers (e.g. Family tax benefit, Carers Payment). - Families can receive payments such as the Family Tax Benefit, to help with the cost of raising children, as well as the Child Care benefit, which reduces the cost of child care.- Can reduce mortgage payments while parent is on maternity leave. - Strategies include saving in advance, taking out a loan, applying for benefits, budgeting.- Full time carers of an adult or child with a disability chronic illness or who is frail aged, receive a carer payment, a pharmaceutical allowance payment and health care cards.

- Housing - Housing is a basic need. - Location may need to change in proximity to school and transport. - More space may be needed during the expanding stage of the life cycle. Parents/carers and dependents need room for sleep and play. Families should consider housing location with regard to transport, parks, child-care facilities, medical facilities, distance from family and friends and location of schooling and employment.- A house may be too big or too small to meet the needs of the individual. - Housing may not be suitable for the care of individuals who have special needs. E.g if an elderly family member has a stroke and requires special care, he or she may need to move to a nursing home where there will be trained carers present 24 hrs a day. Sometimes a home needs modification to cater for the dependant. A carer may need to substitute stairs with ramps or install an inclination (chair that moves up and down stairs) to enable easy access to all areas in the home. In the bathroom handrails may be needed to help with showering or bathing.- Housing may also depend on the overall cost. The family may rent or purchase a home depending on their income and the amount they have available for a deposit. The type of accommodation determines the cost of housing for example a unit is likely to be cheaper than a single dwelling bought in a similar area. The location of the housing also determines the overall cost. Ocean views increase the cost of housing while country areas are usually less expensive than a large city.

Access to services

- Access to services will influence resources management in the caring relationship. - Individuals vary in their ability to access resources. - There are many community and government groups and services available to parents and carers. However, many families are unaware of these. - When leaving the home to access service, parents and carers have to make arrangements for the dependent. This may mean having a babysitter or relative look after the dependant while the carer visits the service, or organising strollers, car capsules, or transport with wheelchair access. - With dependants it is not simply a matter of walking out the door. Equipment such as changes of clothes, nappies and baby bottles may have to be prepared for the trip. This may impose on other resources such as time, energy and money. - Some remote areas do not have the same parenting and caring services available as do larger towns and cities. It may be necessary for some families to relocate their housing either temporarily or permanently while seeking assistance.

Examine how effective resource management impacts on parenting and caring and propose strategies for parents and carers in different situations.

Housing Age Special Needs Finances Access to services Time Energy Skills + Capabilities

3. Parenting and Caring relationships

-Roles in parenting and caringA role is a pattern of social behaviour that is expected of a person in a certain situation. Roles are an obligation that a person needs to meet to fulfil a task as seen by society. Roles are how people develop socially acceptable behaviour that is standardised by a group such as a family.

Individuals and groups who adopt rolesThere are many individuals and groups who take on responsibility for parenting and caring. In their first few months of life, babies become attached to the people who care for them. Over time, bonds develop with a carer who is not a member of the immediate family. The aged, ill or disabled may require the service of groups to assist them if they cannot look after themselves or their family is unable to support them. Those who adopt parenting and caring roles vary greatly in Australia, including parents, grandparents, relatives, teachers, paid carers, and significant others such as friends, doctors and social workers.

Parent/s including foster, adoptive, and non-custodialParents adopt the role of being the economic, social and emotional provider for a child. They are expected to provide shelter, love, moral direction, socially acceptable behaviour and much more.

Foster carers meet the needs of a child who is placed in their care. Legally, the foster carer maintain the daily responsibilities of the child, while the long-term welfare of the child remains with the state government. The child may have suffered physical, social or emotional problems and will need extra love and care. Foster parents must be dedicated, and should offer affection, flexibility and open communication.

Adoptive parents take on the legal rights and responsibilities for a child. It is a lifelong commitment to the child.

When the parents divorce, the non-custodial parent usually has to provide the maintenance and come to an arrangement regarding their access to children. The non-custodial parent often has the responsibility of the child on weekends. It is usually the father who is the non-custodial parent, but this is slowly changing.

- Investigate the impact each group may have on the individual for whom they care

- Positive Impacts: Negative Impacts: Grand- parents

- Develop bonds with children, they have flexible hours, they can teach the child about family history and cultural values , provide physical, economic and emotional support, child care alternative, have a special role in the life of the child. Parents feel safe and secure knowing the child is in the hands of someone they trust. They can trust them to discipline and pass on family values while in their care.

- Can add stress and unwanted criticism. Less energy and mobility, they may lead an independent lives with no time, stress and strain on the family relationship by perhaps offering unwelcome advice

Relatives including siblings

- Help with feeding and playing with babies. Help with child care. Extended family offers respite care, Parents get energy renewal, assists in socialisation, wider range of significant others, they act as a role model, provide meals, reinforce family values and culture, play an important role in the transmission of culture and the family’s value system.- Older brothers and sisters are role models for each successively younger child. The imitation of role models is vital in influencing the social and psychological development of children.

- Younger children may be jealous of the new baby, may give unwanted advice.- Older brothers or sisters may sometimes feel responsible for their siblings.

Teachers - Provide a stable role model, Aid in the development of children’s social skills, Promote educational values - Teachers are legally responsible for the welfare of the child whilst they are at school- Influence child’s behaviour by the consistent application of expectations of behaviour and educational standards

- Parents may have different educational values to teacher.

- Paid carers

- Child care workers take on daily responsibilities. Other carers including nurses, physiotherapists etc take are of the disabled and chronically ill.- Allow play experience, components in physical, social and psychological development.- They play a large role in the socialisation of children- Self play and directed play with other children of the same age offers the child skills in discipline and communication- It is important that when parents select a paid carer for the child that the carer has similar values and expectations of the child’s behaviour..

- Child may become attached to carer, loss of parenting roles.- Conflicting expectations can lead to confusion for the child as they strive to please the adults in their life

Significant others e.g doctors, social workers, neighbours and friends.

- Doctors care for health, social workers help with behavioural problems, marriage issues and finding jobs, neighbours and friends offer support (emotional and baby sitting). They must be trusted and respected so that in future years the child will go to them for advice.- Ensure health and wellbeing, provide safety and security, escape for the child.- Neighbours and friends, also impact on child-rearing. E.g if neighbour’s child has fewer restrictions, then the more closely supervised children will feel their parents are too harsh. This will also influence parenting decisions.- Friends will be important during adolescents as they begin to question the values and culture that has been passed on by family. Adolescents accept or reject the behaviour and standards of the peers around them.

- May step over the boundary, always there.

Role expectations of parents and carers

Society holds expectations for both men and women in the parenting and caring role. The role that each parent or carer must fulfil include:

- Providing basic needs- Establishing family goals and moral values- Providing an income and financial security- Creating a nurturing, loving and understanding home environment- Encouraging the development of skills and abilities of dependants- Recognising individuality and developing responsibility in the child- Demonstrating reasonable discipline measures upon children and dependants- Sharing duties, obligations and family management- Enjoying and sharing in children and dependants’ activities- Providing positive role models

Critically analyse expectations of males and females in parenting and caring roles in a changing society.

There are many roles and relationships within a family unit. An important role is that of being a parent. This role is challenging in today’s changing world. A role is a pattern of social behaviour that is expected of a person in a certain situation. Roles are an obligation that a person needs to meet to fulfil a task as seen by society. What is expected within a role may be governed by tradition or a set of rules, or it may not be clearly defined and may change over time. Roles are how people develop socially acceptable behaviour that is standardised by a group such as a family. Parents adopt the role of being the economic, social and emotional provider for a child. They are expected to provide shelter, love, moral direction and socially acceptable behaviour and more. Despite these common expectations of parents in many cases the roles expected of males and females differs. The roles and relationships within families are always evolving. There will be different emphasis placed on tasks for males and females in different cultures and religions and each individual family as no two families are alike.

At the beginning of the 20th century in Australia the roles of husband and wife within the family were distinct. Traditionally women were seen as the primary care giver and nurturer in families and men were seen as the breadwinner, the decision maker and took on the disciplinary role. Although some women did work in paid employment, this was mainly reserved for single women. When a women married it was expected that they would leave work to look after the children, home and her husband. This expectation is still prevalent in some cases today. These stereotypical views of gender-roles are more prevalent in low socio-economic groups and the expectations are more strongly defined between men and women.

During the First World War, large numbers of women joined the workforce, filling the jobs vacated by the men sent overseas. Women worked outside the home regardless of their married status. Most women had to give up these jobs once the men returned and it was not until the Second world war that women were again employed in large numbers in the workforce. During the 1960s women began to be more assertive. Gradually, the role of women and attitudes towards them in the workforce changed. Instead of filling in for men, women sought their own employment opportunities. As a result of this period in time the role of each parent today is less clearly defined and differs between each family.

The expectation of women is changing even today and men are sharing the responsibility of care even more. However there are still stereotypical ideas in society that females are more natural parents than males. This idea often arises from the fact that the mother physically carries the baby and are therefore perceived to bond more closely with the children. This concept is also emphasised by the fact that men often have trouble adjusting to parenting because they often do not take an extremely active part in everyday care and nurture. This common idea can often be seen through advertisement which portray the traditional roles of men and woman in the home.

While many parents take on the traditional roles, there is more awareness of other possibilities and a move towards sharing responsibilities. The fatherhood role today includes activities, duties and responsibilities connected with sharing child rearing, as well as contributing financially to the family. Men can experience the fathering role in many ways other than being the breadwinner. As attitudes change, we can recognise that parenting and caring is something that both males and females can pursue together.

- Factors influencing parenting and caring relationshipsThere are many factors that influence the decisions made by parents and carers. Being responsible for a child or dependent is a life-altering, time-consuming but rewarding experience. Parents and carers make decisions and bring up their children and dependents according to their beliefs and life experiences.

Media Relationships (the nature of) Gender Age Socioeconomic status Style of Parenting Culture and Religion Education Needs (special) Experience (previous/own)

- Examine each influence to determine its effect on parenting and caring relationships.Age This may be a determining factor as to how well the role of parenting/caring is carried out due to

experience. A teenage parent is still growing and developing and they have experienced less of a life than adults. They do not have the same knowledge and skills, career or financial security. On the other hand they may be more energetic and enthusiastic as parents to begin with. The older the parent the greater the chance of them being financially stable and they greater experience they possess. However it may mean that they are less able to deal with the noise and energy levels of active babies and toddlers. Many people may decide to have their child later as they are a long-term commitment and the couple may wish to travel, establish their home, career and relationship first before commencing the change of lifestyle a baby would bring. Some women, as they get older, feat that their fertility is diminishing and may decide to be a sole parent. However the risk of complications during pregnancy increases with age. The age of the parents may affect the types of values taught to the children

The majority of primary carers are middle-aged women. For young people their caring role can have positive effects such as developing skills and building strong relationships, but these are likely to be outweighed by the negative short-and long terms effects on their health and wellbeing. Majority of primary carers are middle aged women. Young carers receive little recognition, understanding and support from the community.

Culture and religion

There are often differences in child-rearing methods from culture to culture. In western cultures such as in Australia, the adult parents nurture children. However, in many cultures including Aboriginal, Polynesian and Jamaican, siblings have the same responsibilities for child care as do the mother and father. In other cultures the carer is expected to take on the role of caring for an elderly parent. The commitment of a family to a religious group may affect the lifestyle of the family. Religious or spiritual groups provide a set of rules and behaviours, special times for worship and festivals, they may even dictate the necessary dress and diet of the family. The principles of the family may be guided by the religion e.g attitudes towards sexual relations, gender roles and reading materials. Parenting decisions may also be influenced by religion e.g what educational institution they send their child to. However conflict can occur if the parents hold onto strict traditions and values and the child is conforming to the Australian culture. A person from one culture/religion caring for a person from another culture/religion can find it difficult as they may have different expectations and standards. Will reflect in the way parents bring up their children and carers look after others.

Education

Our families are the first people who teach us about life. The education system that a child experiences can affect his or her views on life as well as values and beliefs. Education is more than just traditional subjects it is designed to influence the child’s choices and lifestyle now and in the future. An individuals level of education may influence the type of relationship that is developed with dependents. Generally, those with higher levels of education tend to research parenting techniques. This can assist their parenting role and relationship although excessive information may serve to confuse the parent. The education of the parent may help with parental decisions such as whether or not television shows such as ‘The Simpsons’ should be censored, or suitable books to read to the child. The adults education may also influence the education they expose their child to for example if they did not attend pre-school they may not feel this is important for their children. Parents and carers with more education tend to be able to access more services, and therefore have more resources available to them. The parent’s value of education influences their goals for their children’s education and how important a child perceives

education to be. For example if the parent went to a private school they may enroll their children in the same or a similar school when the children are born.

Gender The gender of the parent or carer can significantly influence the relationship the individual ahs with the child or the person being cared for and significantly affects the way the child is raised. Traditionally, women were seen as the primary caregiver in families. However, this is changing and men are sharing the responsibility of care for the dependents. However in lower socioeconomic status gender roles are more strongly defined e.g the father as the disciplinarian and the mother as the nurturer. Similar expectations are placed on children where gender is concerned e.g rough activities boys and gentle activities for girls. Children’s concepts of gender roles develop from their own experiences and observations. Children who grow up in households where the mother and father work get a sense that both parents are capable of bringing in an income, and are most likely to share domestic duties.

Positive relationships with parents in early childhood help to establish gender identity. A father who is confident with his own masculinity will show this and play dolls and trucks with both his sons and daughters. This will show his nurturing side as well as offer a strong male identity. As attitudes change, we can recognise that parenting and caring is something that both males and females can pursue together

Previous experiences/ own upbringing

Parent and carer’s previous experiences and their own upbringing influence how they themselves parent. Parents have ideas about what parenthood involves and their own capabilities. These ideas are often based on observations of other parents and these are supplemented with other facts such as culture, the media and gender. This may lead to often unrealistic or impractical expectations. Parents must ensure that their goals in parenting are realistic to ensure success. The majority of parents who abuse their children were abused, neglected or molested in their own childhood. If a dependent’s experience is that the female has always undertaken the caring responsibility then, as they become adults, they will expect this to happen.

Every learning experience in ones life gives life meaning and direction. If an experience is pleasurable you will want to repeat it. If an experience was unpleasant you would try to avoid it. Things that you take with you from your childhood include goals, values beliefs, standards e.g if parents value education, you are likely to share this value, the manner in which discipline was enforced, creative solutions to parenting problems, parenting styles, type of relationship developed with the child.

Socioeconomic status

Family income determines the resources utilized for maintaining relationships. The more money available, the greater the variety of choices the parents have available to them such as pre-school, music lessons or home help. Families who are socioeconomically disadvantaged usually have limited choices (opportunities and resources). These activities are not essential and children may not be advantaged by a lot of material goods. These things, however can allow socialisation to develop and the parent to spend more time with the child. For parents with low incomes, there are less expensive ways for their children to develop their socialisation skills and relationship e.g community playgrounds, swimming pool and children’s parties.

Socioeconomic status is often very significant for carers as those on lower incomes usually cannot afford to pay for care and therefore have to take on the role of carer themselves. This may mean that they cannot earn an income and must rely on government payments and benefits. People’s type of occupation influences their relationship with their dependent. The no. of hours parents work, their type of work and the activity level of their job, all determine how much time and energy is available to spend with the child.

Media Parents may not wish their children to be influences by the behaviour portrayed in the media. Trying to produce images of parenting that are often shown in the media is not realistic and trying to reproduce them may cause tension in relationships. Material goods are often advertised so as to make the parent or child think they must have them. In order to meet the needs of children parents are persuaded to purchase an array of goods, ranging from nappies to soft drink. The media can be used in a positive way to enhance parenting experiences. Children can watch television with their parents and discuss the parenting

styles portrayed. There are licensing codes that ensure television shows are shown at the appropriate time of the day. Shows with adult themes or violence are shown after 8:30pm when the majority of children are not watching television. Television shows are also given ratings. The parent can then gauge if they wish their child to watch the televisions show or movie. The media can also be a barrier to communication in families e.g the television occupies the children and they do not communicate with parents.

It can be positive and negative. Positive can be valuable information obtained from documentaries current affairs etc. Media can give updates on educational material for parents. Negative- stereotypes programs portray. Programs such as Home and away portray family relationships very differently to the norm. Children have access to the internet but don’t have the maturity to cope with some of the sites. Media can be a learning tool for children e.g electronic games and computer skills but they must be monitored. What parents/carers and children view in the media can influence their value formation.

Nature of relationship

The nature of the relationship between the parent or carer and dependent influences the development of the bond that develops. While some parents fall in love with the baby straight away, some parents may suffer the baby blues and take a while to bond with the baby and a small percentage suffer from post-natal depression. This is a serious condition requiring help from a doctor and often a support group. The emotional development of the child will be affected by the extent to which infants form bonds of affection. Contact through skin, eyes, familiar smells and sounds strengthen the baby’s feelings of comfort and security. These feelings can be enhanced through breastfeeding, talking to or cuddling the baby. Love is a basic need of every individual, and parents who accept their children will truly love them. They will offer continuous and undemanding love that will assist with the child’s emotional and social development. Children who are unloved or have parents who show little interest in them may feel insecure unhappy, fail to thrive physically or have difficulty dealing with their emotions. They may be unable to love or form long-lasting bonds of affection.

The nature of the relationship is particularly important in the caring role. For example, it can be very difficult for an adult son to take on the role of caring for a father from whom he has felt distanced emotionally for most of his life. Similarly an adult son may feel awkward having to bathe, feed and toilet his elderly mother.

- Relationship between parents and children are influenced by:1. family structure e.g blended extended etc.2. The age of the children- child dependent, teenager- independent3. Age differences between the parents and child. Young parents may want to be friend not the parent.4. Parenting style used.5. The amount of bonding that occurs.

Styles of parenting& - Examine each influence to determine its effect on parenting and caring relationships

Summary Positive/advantages Negative/ disadvantages Authoritarian - Value obedience

- Either parent makes the decision without consultation with children. - If the mother controls the family it is said to be matriarchal, if the father controls the family it is said to be patriarchal.

- Parents can manage children’s behaviour - Controlled situation - Decisions can be made quickly and efficiently.- Child learns the values being taught.

- Children do not have a say on their own future- Children do not develop independence in decision making.

Democratic - All family members have a say in decision making. - Children are encouraged to participate in decision making and accept consequences and responsibility for their own behaviour.

- Children input in the family is valued -Development of values.- Everybody’s rights are considered.- Children are valued as a member of the family - Win- win situation in decision making

- There may be conflict in decisions depending on opinion. - Rules and consequences, may be difficult in crisis situations

Permissive/ indulgent

- Lack of communication between family members - Parents place few demands and limits on children - Parents allow children to do what they like - Child’s behaviour is tolerated - Parents indulge children in material possessions to keep the child placate. - Parents allow the child to make demands and respond to these. - Rarely give instruction and when they do, they are not concerned if they are not obeyed- Based on theory that freedom develops character and domineering parents produce neurotic children

- Limited stress as there are few rules

- Children may not receive resources needed - Lacks a sense of belonging and trust - When parents enforce rules children will not accept as they do not value them. - Can be inconsistent in the management of family life -Children behave incorrectly.- Because misbehaviour is often ignored children often have difficulty in social settings. - Children taught not to value conformity.

Negligent - Parents do not often meet the needs of the children socially, physically, emotionally, culturally or spiritually resulting in neglect. -Often this style is a result of experiences/own upbringing and is cyclical. - Parent may be over critical of the child and so do not meet emotional needs

- No advantages to the children except they may be placed with a family that promotes stability.

- Children are in danger or being abused or neglected. - Limited access to resource to modify the behaviour or parenting style.- Children’s well being suffers; they develop low self-esteem, poor identity and feeling of failure. - Children may be removed from family unit

Special needsAll parents hope that their child is healthy, but this is not always the case. A child with special needs is not rare and they need more attention and care. There are many conditions that may result in special needs. These include chronic conditions such as asthma, learning disorders such as dyslexia, a developmental disorder such as autism; a physical disorder such as visual impairment or the child may be advanced for their years, as in a gifted child.

Special needs may include dietary requirements, exercise regimes, dressing of wounds, administering of medications, assistance with showering, toileting or other personal hygiene procedures. For children it may mean home schooling.

The World Health Organisation defines disability as a ‘restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being. Early identification of special needs is very important. Many disabilities can be diagnosed before birth through ultrasound, nuchal translucency or amniocentesis (down syndrome). Other special needs may go unnoticed for many years.

- Examine each influence to determine its effect on parenting and caring relationships- Illness- Disability

- Will require extra time, money, effort and attention from the parent or carer. - Child or those cared for can feel dependant and can therefore be frustrated- It may cause a carer or parent to become overprotected and can cause conflict. - An parent with special needs may not be able to spend as much time with their children as they may feel sick or tired most of the time- Other children in the family without special needs may feel neglected- Caring for someone with special needs can be more demanding and can have more of a negative affect on the carer. -Gifted and talented children need special attention so that they reach their full potential. - Disabilities may affect relationships by creating barriers to communication and autonomy.- Parents and carers may need to become more organised planning, more flexible.

Multiple role expectations as a result of commitments to:

- Family Parenting and caring represents a constant struggle for them to meet their own needs and those of their dependents. After taking on a caring role most parents/carers find they have to re-prioritise their tasks to accommodate their new role as a caregiver. It may be necessary to lower standards in housekeeping, or decrease working hours to meet the growing demands of the family.

- Work Parents and carers are often trying to balance their role in the family with their role as a member of the paid workforce. The demands on the individual to work harder and longer hours in order to progress in the workplace have taken a toll on family life. Many children are placed in care so that both parents are able to earn a wage (dual career family) to improve their family’s standard of living. After having a child, many families opt to have the mother work reduced hrs or not at all to cater for the needs of the children. Paternity leave is becoming more popular. Part-time or casual work is also popular with mothers who have the opportunity to gain money and contribute financially to the household as well as improve their self-esteem.

- Sport/ leisure

Sport/leisure time is important to individuals to improve their wellbeing and increase social contacts. It is difficult to balance the multiple roles expected of parents but it is important to make time to relax and participate in something you enjoy. This will decrease stress levels and improve interaction within the family because there is time to let off steam without all the other pressing commitments. The complexity of roles can lead to conflict for example a young carer who joins a basketball team could have difficulty attending training because of commitments to a disabled parent.

- Other Commitment to community groups such as church youth groups, a group of girl guides, a learning disability group, etc may also affect the parenting and caring relationship.

Daily commitments of male and females in 1997 according to ABS

Time spent on domestic duties

Employment related activities

Caring for children

Helping, doing favours for family and friends

Free time Leisure time

Men: 2hrs 30 mins

Men 9hrs Men: 50% less than 30 min, 7% spent 2 hrs or more

Men: 1hr 36 min

Men: 5hr 28 min

Men: 3 hr 1 min

Women: 3 hrs 46min

Women: 7hrs 30 mins

Women: 27% less than 30m, 24% 2 hrs or more

Women: 1 hr, 18 min

Women 5hr 4m

Women: 2hr 39 min

According to the information in the survey from ABS men engage in more passive leisure activities such as watching television and playing video or computer games which are more time consuming, and women spent more time engaging in less passive activities such as handiwork and crafts. Because of the time it takes to set up an activity such as handiwork and crafts and the difficulty finding a space and time where the children are not touching things may make it more difficult to engage in these activities. Men can engage in passive leisure with children, therefore making it easier.

- Explore the role they play when developing a positive relationship in:- Caring for someone else- Being cared for

- Analyse a range of family weekly schedules in order to determine the extent of commitment that parenting and caring requires.

- Examine a number of case studies to determine how parents and carers manage their multiple roles. Propose strategies to assist parents and carers with this management.

- Rights and responsibilities in parenting and caring

RightsThe United Nations has developed a Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

- Parents and carers

Rights of parents/carers How can parents/carers rights be supportedDirect and control the upbringing of the children with reasonable limits. To make decisions regarding the daily care, discipline and control of their dependents.

Through parent/carer education programs, advice from children’s centres, discussion with teachers to negotiate management of children

Enhance children’s development through appropriate and effective guidance of behaviour

Parent education programs, discussion with counsellors, assistance from community organisations

Provision of suitable education Information provided in regard to the facilities available, financial assistance to provide for educational needs

Provision of social interaction Allowing parents to access social activities for children regardless of socioeconomic status, culture, gender or ability.

Other rights:- To be respected- Make medical treatment available for their children.- Take legal proceedings on their child’s behalf.- To be given recognition for their role within the family unit.- Consent to their child’s adoption. - To set limits on behaviour and initiate standards that should be met within the family- Carers specifically to receive financial assistance, be recognised and acknowledged for being a carer and to have respite.

- ChildrenChildren can be defined as those under the age of 18 yrs. There is a need to identify the rights of a child, however in most countries there are no legal or social structures specifically dedicated to children’s rights. The healthy development of children is crucial to the future of any society. Children are more vulnerable than adults they are more affected by the actions and inactions of the government. Children have no political or economical power and are thus vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.

In Australia each state and territory has agencies and legislation that protect the needs and rights of children. In New South Wales this is the Children and Young Persons (care and protection) Act 1998. There are also international legal rights that protect children. Australia has signed and is bound to uphold the United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child. The Convention is a landmark treaty which sets out the specific legal rights that all children should have. It makes the care and protection of every child a priority for everyone, especially governments.It has established new ethical principles and international norms of behaviour towards children.

Children’s rights Every child has the right to: How can parents ensure the rights of the child are supported

- Right to a safe and healthy life

- Feel safe and valued - Be nurtured in a peaceful environment. –To be protected from the elements

Providing appropriate housing, give positive encouragement, have reasonable expectations in regard to behaviour educational success, tasks performed

- Right to an education - Equality in education Ensure that the child attends regularly a suitable educational facility encourage additional learning to enhance their specific needs and interests

- Right to Protection from discrimination

Children have the right to be protected from discrimination, regardless of their race, religion, cultural beliefs, ethnic or social origin or disability.

Advocate on behalf of children’s rights, provide a voice for the child, express points of view on behalf of the child in regard to their culture, beliefs and opinions

- To an identity In the family they are given a name, nationality, and family ties, an opportunity to participate in cultural and artistic activities.

Others - To have the opportunity to make decisions about the future- To express self- To have access to information- To special protection in times of war- To special care for the disabled- To protection from abuse- To protection from harmful work - To special treatment if arrested

To be treated with dignity Realistic expectations on children’s participation within the family and community, use positive language when communicating

To a family - To know and be cared for by both parents

The right to a supportive environment

Appropriate behaviour management, reasonable tasks given to children, assistance and advice given

- Other person in carePersons in care have the same human rights as other members of Australian society. They also have the right to ensure that their specific needs are met. Their rights are irrespective of the nature, type or degree of disability. They have a right to:- Dignity - Be part of the community - Realise their development - Choose their own lifestyle- Adequate care, compassion and understanding- Participate in decisions that affect their lives- Receive services- Pursue grievances in relation to services- Be protected from abuse, neglect, exploitation and discrimination- An identity

Responsibilities- Parents and carers (duty of care, setting limits, discipline)

- Parents and carers have certain responsibilities towards those in their care. Parenting responsibility involves ‘all duties, powers, responsibilities and authority which, by law, parents have in relation to children’, as outlined in the Family Law Reform Act 1995.

- The family law reform act 1995 requires that both parents be responsible for the short and long term care of their children. The responsibility of children only ceases with a court order, adoption, when the child marries or when the child reaches 18 years of age.

Duty of care:Parents and carers have a responsibility to the child and those they care for known as duty of care. This means that all the needs of the child or person being cared for must be met. If a child is neglected or abused- physically, psychologically or emotionally- then duty of care has not been met. Duty of care is transferred. This occurs when parents place children in childcare centres or schools meaning that these groups assume duty of care and can be held accountable if there is found to be a breach.

- All the needs of the child or person being cared for mist be met- Because children aren’t matured it is necessary that the parent sets limits for their behaviour and a series of consequences- Care for an support their child- To protect their child from harm- Provide for the basic needs of their child- Financially support the child- Provide safety, medical care and education- By law parents must provide maintenance for their children and can be charged with a criminal offence if they neglect or abuse a child.

Setting limits:Because children are not fully matured and have fewer life experiences, it is necessary that parents set limits for their behaviour. The consequences should be age appropriate and reflect the seriousness of the transgression e.g a 2 year old snatches a toy from another child- the consequence may be to return the toy to the first child while explaining this action was not nice. Distract the ‘naughty’ child with another toy.

Parents define these limits initially, but children develop and become more aware of and responsible for their own actions and consequences of their actions, limits are negotiated. Setting limits begins when parents let a child cry for longer before responding. Parents set limits for toddlers by saying “no” or “don’t touch”- simple rules, usually designed to protect their safety By setting limits, parents are developing independence and the child is better able to accept the responsibility for their own decisions. For example limits may be set on bedtimes or the boundary or area around the home where the child can play.

Discipline:Just as essential is a serious of consequences for each inappropriate action that the child elects to follow. Discipline refers to guiding, teaching and leading by example. It does not mean withholding love, smacking or shouting or imposing rigid rules. When children exceed the limits, parents need to make the punishment effective and appropriate. According to the law, parents have the right to control their child’s behaviour through reasonable application of discipline. In New South Wales unreasonable force may lead to the parent being charged with assault under the Crimes Act 1990. Child-care workers are prohibited from using any type of corporal punishment against the child in their care.

- Children (towards parents, and other family members)To achieve a happy and healthy family life, all family members should be people who care about and respect others, both at home and in the community. Whatever the family structure, this can happen only if each member accepts and carries out his or her responsibilities within the family. Children have many rights. Responsibilities are inextricable to the various rights of children. Children have many responsibilities within a house-hold towards their parents as well as other members. Some responsibilities would include.

Broad categories of children’s rights

Responsibilities of children

Right to an identity To accept the responsibilities and privileges appropriate to their identity. Respecting themselves and being honest

Right to a family To respect other family members and to extend affection and courtesy to their parents and siblings. To treat their parents, other adults, siblings and friends with respect, courtesy and consideration. Fostering positive relationships with siblings. Keeping family issues within the household. Acting in a responsible manner when out in the public, because their behaviour reflects on the rest of the family

Rights to express oneself and have access to information

To respect the rights of others to have and hold an opinion and listen to them

Right to a safe and healthy life To respect their own bodies and to keep themselves safe and respect others

Right to special protection in times of war

To value other people’s lives and act in ways to keep them safe

Right to an education To attend school

Right to special care for the disabled

To acknowledge the carer and to use support services appropriately

Right to protection from discrimination

Not to discriminate against others, to be tolerant and accepting of all people in the community

Right to protection against abuse To report and seek support, not to abuse others e.g. through bullying, sexual harassment or abuse

Right to protection from harmful work

To wear protective clothing and follow safety guidelines

Right to special treatment if arrested

To follow the laws and behave in a socially acceptable manner

Legislations that protect the rights of children:

- The Children and Young persons (Care and Protection) Act 1998 (NSW)Provision of opportunities for children to express their views and opinions, particularly in relation to children in care, and protection from abuse and neglect.

- Child support (Assessment) Act 1989 (cth)Ensures that provision is made for children in case of separation or divorce, particularly in relation to financial support.

- The child support legislation amendment act 2001 (cth)Provision of economic resources for families to support children in the provision of a safe, secure and stable environment.

- Minors (Property and Contracts) Act 1970 (NSW)Protects the rights of children from being bound to a legal agreement in regard to the lease or purchase of goods or services, allows a child over 14 years to seek medical advice without parental permission.

- Family provisions Act 1982 (NSW)Children to be given equal access to provisions in the case of death of a family member

- Useful websites- www.austlii.edu.au, www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au

Laws that support and protect the legal rights of parents and carers.

- Adoption Act 2000 (NSW)Gives the adoptive parent legal rights and responsibilities of a child and takes the rights away from the natural parents - Children and Young Persons (Care and Protection) Act 1998 (NSW) In relation to fostering.Provision for foster parents, ensuring the rights of the child In their care and their rights to provide ‘out of home care’

- Status of Children Act 1996 (NSW)In surrogacy the birth mother has all legal rights for the child and the husband or de facto partner is presumed to be the father under the act

- Family Law Act 1995 (Cth)Residency and contact of the children is given to both parents in the case of separation and divorce, highlighting the rights of the child.

Sources of conflict between parents and children, carers and cared for.Conflict is a disagreement or difference in opinion. Conflict can and does often occur in a parenting and caring relationship. Conflict needs to managed effectively in order to be resolved. The cause of conflict needs to be identified and the rights and responsibilities of all need to be considered. A range of approaches can be used to negotiate and mediate in order to seek an agreement and resolution.

Sources of conflict How to resolve these- The child growing and wanting to assert independence.

There is often tension between parents and children particularly when children are developing independence and exercising their right during adolescence.

- The conflict is often short term.- Opening lines of communication are necessary to minimise theses outbursts.- The parents need to become aware that as children grow and mature, they need increased responsibility for their own actions, but also more freedom. - Children, however, need to treat parents with respect and use their advice wisely, because parents have more life experiences and are trying to minimise any harm to their child.

- Limit settingChildren and adults may have different opinions on the limits. For instance children may feel their parents methods and reasons for discipline are not appropriate.

- Strategies could include the parent discussing why the limits were set, for instance why they didn’t want the child to stay out late. - They could then come to an agreement on the behaviour management or negotiating a consequence or punishment with the child.

- Caring can be repetitive, stressful, tiring, difficult, depressing and lonely. Therefore conflict often arises from stress levels, moods and expectations. Conflict can arise if a carer doesn’t feel respected.

- Taking respite- Taking time for themselves- Accessing carer resources and support groups to discuss such problems and gain assistance.

- The dependent with disability may not be satisfied with the level of care and intervention being received.

- They can consult with the Department of Aging Disability and Home Care for advice and resolution of the conflict.

Conflict may arise from the moods or emotions relating to a disability- pain, side effects, frustration, lack of mobility, lack of social interaction, limited autonomy. The dependent may want to have some level of independence and thus does not co-operate.

- Open communication between carer and dependent. – Carer must allow the dependent to have a level of independence and let them feel self-sufficient. - The dependent must recognise that they do need help with some aspects and allow the carer to do their job. - A mediator may be used to resolve the conflict.

- Low Socioeconomic status and economic strain. - Gain access to the variety of free services available.- Conflict can arise between parents when they cannot agree on the same decision relating to the children and family’s well being.

Sometimes in a caring relationship if the conflict cannot be resolved amicably then a mediator may be consulted. An example of a conflict which may require mediation is in the separation or divorce situation where both parents find it difficult to come to an agreement about the care of children.

-When foster children and carers are in conflict - In this situation the Department of Family and Community services would act on their behalf.

- Conflict can occur when there is a difference in opinions, values, attitudes, beliefs and goals. When being cared for, points of view and behaviour may clash.

- Analyse the rights and responsibilities of parents, carers, children and other persons in care to determine areas where tension or conflict might exist.

- Investigate the implications of cultural and gender differences in setting limits.

- Recognise the differences that may exist between the rights and responsibilities of parents and those of carers in different situations.

4. Support for Parents and Carers

- Health servicesThere are many services that provide health care for the family. These include the family doctor or the local hospital. Some hospitals specialise in treatment of children such as the Children’s hospital at Westmead. Paediatricians and other specialists are available to meet the health needs of children in this type of hospitalCommunity health services provide midwives and other child professionals such as community nurse to give information to new parents and check on the child’s progress. They also provide mental health services, sexual assault services and more. Child, family, youth and community health services provide:- Early childhood health- Individual and group counselling- Speech pathology- Physiotherapy- Occupational therapy- Developmental assessments- Play gym- Women’s health- Hearing and vision screening for school children

Palliative care/ Palliative care AustraliaIs a special kind of health care for individuals and families who are living with life threatening illness, usually in an advanced stage. The focus of palliative care is to provide the best quality of life for the terminally ill by ensuring their comfort and dignity. Palliative care services may be provided in the home, in the community based settings .eg nursing homes, in palliative care units and in hospitals.Target groups: terminally ill individuals and their families and carers. How service is accessed: 1. With your permission your health care professional may refer you to a specialist or palliative care service. 2. You, or someone acting on your behalf, may access palliative care directly by contacting the community care service in your region.The cost of accessing the service: The cost of palliative care services depend on which setting you are receiving them from. They are generally free through Medicare. Medicare usually covers public hospital and hospice feed. Fees for private patients are usually covered by private health insurance. You may be asked to pay for hire of equipment for use at home such as special beds, wheelchairs or commodes. You will pay for the cost of medication and supplies at home.

Services offered by palliative care workers:- Nursing and advice- Pain and symptom relief- Physiotherapy- Loan of equipment- Dietary advice- Instructions on how to care for the ill person and how to give medications- Home support services that provide assistance with household tasks- Relief for the caregiver- Counselling and emotional support- Grief counselling- Follow- up counselling after death.

Tresillian Family CareTresillian family care aims to ‘promote the health and well-being of families with babies and young children’. Tresillian offers a 24 hr parent help line, a home visiting service, day stay clinics, emergency occasional care, residential support units, a child-care centre and a post-natal depression service.

Community nurses/ KaritaneThese centres cater for first time families with children up to children up to five years of age. Karitane is an agency that provides support, guidance and information to families experiencing parenting difficulties.

What it offers:

Volunteer home visitingThe Karitane Volunteer Program is a home visiting service which offers practical support to first time families with children under the age of three (3) years. In 2000 the organisation was selected through a tendering process, to manage the Families First Volunteer Home Visiting Program. The Karitane Volunteer Program provides home visits and telephone support to the family by specially trained volunteers many of whom have their own parenting experiences. The family may be a single parent family or a family finding it hard coping with the new baby, or they may be isolated and have no family or friends close by. Families are linked to a volunteer, on a one to one basis, and are offered group support, home or hospital visits and/or telephone support.

The Karitane Volunteer Programs cater to the linguistic and cultural boundaries of child rearing practices for the many communities in the area. It has grown across diverse cultural boundaries in South Western Sydney where over 160 languages are spoken. The majority of volunteers and families within the program are from non English speaking backgrounds. The service is not limited to families with issues of child abuse and neglect but is available to families who have been identified as needing extra support.

Volunteer workers will assist by:

Providing personal support for families Reducing the loneliness of isolation new families feel Helping manage with the new child in different situations Suggesting parenting information Explaining positive ways for parents and children to play together Involving fathers and others in activities Helping families to develop and increase their personal and community support systems Encouraging the families to develop skills to recognise and manage their problems

A 24-hour care line and email facilityThe Karitane Careline is a statewide 24 hour Telephone Information Service. Child and Family Health Nurses are available for consultation on a wide range of issues concerning infants and children from birth to five (5) years of age.

Some of the issues you may like to discuss include: Feeding problems - breast, bottle or solids Sleep and settling routines Immunisation information Weaning Toilet training

Management of gastro-oesophageal reflux Developmental milestones Toddler behaviour management Information regarding common childhood illness/problems Any other queries carers may have regarding this age group

There is also a website for parents which contains survival tips for parents. There is also family care cottages, and pre and post-natal depression care.

Whilst in the unit, parents have access to the following professionals: Child and Family Health Registered Nurses Enrolled Mothercraft and Parentcraft Nurses Lactation Consultants Paediatricians Social Workers and Psychologists Psychiatrists

How the service is accessed: local practitioner referral, if you are leaving the hospital they may arrange for a community to visit you as a part of your “continuing care” or the parent may directly contact the service through calling the local community health centre. Internet or by phone Families may be referred to the program by a nurse, the hospital, a community health worker, GP or other agencies. They can also self refer.Cost: To email and access website is free, it utilises volunteers to come and visit the home and make phone calls which all have experience in parenting.

- Welfare agencies

Welfare agencies can provide resources to help meet the needs of parents, carers and families. They aid to aid people in crisis. Because so many primary carers in Australia are under financial strain, many may seek the assistance of welfare agencies in meeting a variety of their needs. Families may be unable to earn money, provide adequate food and shelter for their children or lack appropriate parenting skills necessary to meet duty of care.

The Salvation ArmyIs one of the prominent welfare agencies in Australia. It helps people without discrimination and offers practical and spiritual help for families through emergency assistance, child sponsorship, telephone and personal counselling. The salvation army targets all people in need. It is easily accessible service. It can be accessed through their stores, website or phone.

St Vincent DePaulOperates child-care centres and family crisis centres, hostels and nursing homes for the aged, women’s and family refuges, and offer family care and support, care for people with mental illness and pregnancy counselling. It raises money from its members through poor boxes, through the proceeds of the centres of charity, through donation from the public and some government funding.

Wesley MissionHas a real mission-to minister to a community with real needs. Their vision is serving people, building hope and honouring God. They offer a range of aged services, counselling, child and family services, disability support, employment, health services, and youth services. Their ministry is diverse so they can support those in need effectively-wherever they are. It is a free service. They receive their funding from government grants and subsidies, donations, asset sales, legacies, services, sales of goods and other income. They are accessed through phone, website, or local centres.

- Parenting groupsThese are specific groups related to parenting that offer advice, information and support for all parents. Parentline is an example of a confidential free telephone service for people who want information and advice about caring for children. Trained staff who are parents themselves offer advice on child and adolescent behaviour and development, and provide information about services for parents.

Parentline assists callers to: obtain a better understanding of the way their family works, believe in themselves and their own skills and strengths, reflect on and develop strategies for changing how things are done in their family in a way that suits their individual family's needs, access over-the-phone training through the Positive Parenting Program (Triple P) developed by the University of Queensland

Callers to Parentline may expect to: use the service as often as they need, speak to the same counsellor, choose the gender of the counsellor, be treated with respect and understanding for their responsible role as a carer for children

Connecting with local ongoing supportParentline counsellors have up to date information on services and resources in local communities and can direct callers to ongoing support.

The Multiple birth Association refers parents of twins, triplets and other multiple births to their nearest twins club for information, support and social contacts. As a result of IVF, there has been an increase in the number of multiple births.

Birth classes- These provide the education to enable parents to acquire the practical and emotional skills needed to raise children. Almost all parents find that raising kids is more challenging than they expected. As a result such classes use informal learning specifically designed to teach skills of parenthood and help them cope with a range of challenges from minor frustrations to major hardships. Parenting programs put parents in contact with agencies and organisations that can assist them in raising their children.

- Community groupsThese are associations in local areas that offer services for parents and children to meet their needs. For example play groups arrange for a group of parents and their children under give years of age to meet regularly for company, support and use of the available play facilities.

Meals on Wheels is a charity that depends on volunteers who prepare and deliver meals to people who have difficulty preparing a balanced meal. It also gives some social contact. Meals on Wheels is for the frail, aged, younger people with disabilities and their carers in Australia. It promotes the concept of 'care in the community' and encourages and supports the involvement of volunteers in the provision of the Meals on Wheels service in Australia

Groups such as ‘Aunties and Uncles’ offer respite to parents and children in difficult circumstances. They provide time out for parents in stressful circumstances. They aim to prevent the break-up of families, to provide support for families whose children are socially and emotionally at risk, To provide children with the opportunity to experience the stability and benefits of ongoing extended family relationships. To restore parents' self-confidence by encouraging them to accept the responsibility for their lives. To encourage volunteer "Aunts" and "Uncles" to co-create the program to make the relationship as much like a real family situation as possible. To encourage members of the community to support each other.

- Government agenciesVarious levels of government offer payments, services and advice to the public. Government agencies are services and organisations provided by various levels of government that offer payment, support, services and advice to members of the general public. Examples of Government agencies includes Health services Australia, Department of Health and Ageing, Department of Industrial relations, Child Support Agency, Medicare Australia. These all aim to alleviate some of the pressures placed on parents and carers in today’s society. These agencies interrelate to provide parents and carers with the financial and living support they require.

CenterlinkCenterlink is an agency provided and funded by the Australian government that delivers a wide range of services to the Australian community. It operates under the Department of Human services and delivers services and payment of behalf of a number of Government departments including: the department of employment and workplace relations, the department of family and community service and the Department of education science and training. The target group is parents requiring financial assistance, to become more self- sufficient and improve the chances of those employed in finding a job. It provides, child care services, education assistance, pensions, workforce participation, social services. Centrelink is free to access. Centrelink can be accessed via phone, the local centerlink office, website and email.

Department of housingThis is one of the largest providers of public housing in the world and provides a range of housing solutions to meet the needs to today’s community. The target audience is people, both parents and carers who have a low income or are socioeconomically disadvantaged, who require assistance with rent and decent, affordable housing and accommodation in the public sector. They also provide accommodation for those who are homeless or at risk of becoming homeless.

The Dept. is funded by the NSW Government and is involved in: - Public Housing advice, referral and assessment, private rental help, home purchase assistance, Aboriginal Housing, Community Housing, Urban renewal, Assessment management and commercial investment, and policy development.

- Childcare servicesChildcare services provide care for children while the parent works or has other responsibilities. Some childcare services include pre-school, vaccination care, before and after school care, occasional care and nannies.

Types of Childcare Facilities Long daycare– usually 6.30am – 7.30pm everyday; from 3 months old Work based Childcare- creches; care is provided at or near the worksite Short daycare– usually privately owned; 9am-3pm; 3-6yrs old Family daycare- operates out of a carers own home; limited no. of children; 3-6yrs Playgroup- not child minding centres; parents expected to attend with the child Baby health/early childhood centres– assists in the healthy development of kids

Pre-schoolPre-schools are formal, centre-based child-care services offering an educational and developmental services for children 3 to6 years old in preparation for school. Pre-school has set hours, and educational program that meets the regulations set by the federal department of family and community services. As there must be a qualified early childhood teacher to plan and implement the program, children experience a professional and caring attitude and the more structured education approach is good preparation for primary school. It is an opportunity for the child to mix with others in a relatively structured setting. Some have a half-day format which helps the transition from being at home all day when they reach school age. Some pre-schools cater for working parents/carers by running an 8am to 6pm day and allow children in up to 5 days per week. They modify these programs to include a rest period and more free play. If there is a management committee the parents are given the opportunity to have input into the running of the centre. They allow the parent to work, study or have time away from their children. They may be community-based or provided at a workplace.

Access: The local community centre will be able to provide the names and locations of the preschools in local area. They also can be obtained via the internet or through the phone book in the yellow pages.

Costs: The costs vary among pre-schools. Payments can be made daily, monthly or quarterly for each term the child is enrolled. Pre-schools are generally funded by the federal government, and therefore the government benefits for the parents and carers are available.

Source of funding: Day-care centres can be government-funded or privately operated. For a fee they offer care on a part-time or full-time basis.

Commonwealth Carer Respite Centre

Target group: Commonwealth Carer Respite centers provide information and allow the carer to take a break. There is a variety of respite options available and thus the Respite centre has no specific target group. It can be organised for emergency situations or specific groups such as those with language needs.

Access: As there are approximately 90 Commonwealth carer respite centers across Australia a free call to the Commonwealth carer respite hotline on 1800 059 059 is the first step in accessing this service. Here they will coordinate access to respite services in local areas.

Cost: There is no fee for the service, however a contribution is recommended. Some respite services charge a small fee. For example the Manning support services charges $3 an hour or $13 for a day outing. No person is denied service based on cost.

Source of funding: Commonwealth Carer Respite Centres are an Australian Government initiative, funded through the Federal Government’s National Respite for Carers Program. Their main source of funding is the Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing, with some funding from the Department of Family and Community Services since March 2000.

Family Day care This is when children are cared for in the homes of registered carers. Formal care is not centred based and it is therefore more personal because there is less children and they are in a home setting. The carer can be chosen due to similar cultural values and expectations. Family Day care is effective because it is flexible and caters for emergency/crisis situations as well as overnight care.

Access: Internet via organisations websites, online child-care directories, the yellow pages, and the local community centre.

Cost: Family day care is usually cheaper than centre-based care, but the child care benefit is still available as it is a form of registered care. The fees will vary as do the periods of payment.

Source of funding: Family day care is federally funded, and usually sponsored by a local council.

- Carer support groupsBecause caring is such a big responsibility, carers will often need to seek the support of others in similar situations or with expertise in a related area. There are a large number of carer support groups. Carer’s support groups specialise in offering advice and support for carers. They are essential to ensure positive wellbeing and relationships and are particularly important for unpaid carers. They specialise in providing information and advice regarding problems they are trying to manage. They allow carers to discuss their caring situation, have time out and to exchange resources. They provide support, information, and offer education and training. They allow people in similar circumstance to share experiences, feelings ,concerns and information. Many support groups focusing on specific illnesses or disability.

Commonwealth Carer Respite CentreTarget group: Commonwealth Carer Respite centers provide information and allow the carer to take a break. There is a variety of respite options available and thus the Respite centre has no specific target group. It can be organised for emergency situations or specific groups such as those with language needs.

Access: As there are approximately 90 Commonwealth carer respite centers across Australia a free call to the Commonwealth carer respite hotline on 1800 059 059 is the first step in accessing this service. Here they will coordinate access to respite services in local areas.

Cost: There is no fee for the service, however a contribution is recommended. Some respite services charge a small fee. For example the Manning support services charges $3 an hour or $13 for a day outing. No person is denied service based on cost.

Source of funding: Commonwealth Carer Respite Centres are an Australian Government initiative, funded through the Federal Government’s National Respite for Carers Program. Their main source of funding is the Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing, with some funding from the Department of Family and Community Services since March 2000.

Carers NSW- Talk-Link Support group Talk-Link is a teleconferencing support group where a group of 6 carers and 2 trained facilitators meet on the telephone. The facilitators help carers explore the emotional impact of caring and identify ways of managing their situation.

Target group: This program is targeted at carers from all walks of life. Some conferences may focus on one group such as young carers. The main target group is carers who are isolated or lead a busy lifestyle and are therefore unable to access other support groups.

The cost: This service is accessed through a free call to the Commonwealth carer resource centre on 1800 242 636. This service is cost free to carers unless they wish to make a donation.

Source of funding: Talk-Link is an Australian Commonwealth government initiative run through Carers Australia & NSW. Funding is also through the Australian government department of health and ageing. Donations are another source of funding.

The Working Carers Support GatewayThe Working Carers Support Gateway is an online carer support group which provides information to help carers manage their work and care responsibilities. There is 24 hours a day online discussion forum where general questions about working and caring can be asked. The website also holds a monthly chat room hosted by high profile guests which provides an opportunity for carers to ask questions in areas such as health. The posted stories provide insight into the experiences of working carers and are a source of inspiration and support.

Target group: The target group is those who manage paid employment with unpaid caring. It aims to help those whose responsibilities in caring may affect their ability to cope at work, and visa versa.

Access: The service is accessed online at www.workingcarers.org.au

Cost: The cost of accessing the website and membership is free.

Source of Funding: The working carer support gateway is developed by the Disability & Aged Information Service a non-government project. This is funded by the home and community care program which is jointly financed by the Commonwealth and State governments.

Surrogacy and the lawSurrogacy refers to a situation in which one woman has a child on behalf of another woman or couple. The child may be conceived by sexual intercourse or by artificial insemination and be carried by a surrogate or substitute mother.

There are various legal and social implications for this form of parenting.

Read the following case study and complete the related questions in the student activity.

Peter and Marie have been married for 10 years. Peter is happy in his career as an engineer and Marie has worked in sales for 5 years. They have been trying for a child unsuccessfully for 4 years and have tried all avenues for assisted pregnancy. Their doctor has said that their chance of having a child is very low. They feel that their family is not complete without a child and have been investigating other ways to complete their family.

Marie’s sister Rita suggested that they should try surrogacy. Rita is willing to be the surrogate mother and to have the baby for Marie and Peter. The baby will be conceived by artificial insemination, using Peter’s sperm and Rita’s egg. Rita has three children of her own. Rita’s children and her husband Ben have no concerns about her going through with this procedure in order to help Marie and Peter have a family.

Peter and Marie will pay for Rita’s medical bills and will support her emotionally during her pregnancy.

i. Outline the laws or acts specific to regulating surrogacy arrangements in NSW.ii. Describe two acts which are relevant to the case study on Peter and Marie.

iii. Interpret the acts related to surrogacy and provide answers to the following issues: rights of the biological father birth certificates and persons named as the mother and father becoming the legal parents of a surrogate child.

b. Discuss arguments for and against surrogacy. When developing your arguments, consider the viewpoints that might be expressed by different groups within society. Sample groups are listed below. One example of each argument has been provided in the table below.

Sample groups from within the community:

A childless couple. A homosexual couple. A blended family. A surrogate family. A religious group. A single person.

Example arguments.

Arguments FOR surrogacyA childless couple is unable to conceive through other techniques of artificial conception such as IVF. Usually surrogacy is seen as the final resort of an infertile couple. This argument may be used by couples who are infertile for medical reasons such as cases where the female has tubal disease or the male has defects in sperm. May also be used by blended families, where one partner is infertile e.g. when the male has had a vasectomy several years previously.

Arguments AGAINST surrogacy Surrogacy is unacceptable for couples who opt to use it for non-medical reasons, e.g. if they are afraid of the birthing process if they do not accept body changes that are apparent with pregnancy or if they are inconvenienced in their career aspirations because of the time required off work to deliver a child.

Answers: Surrogacy and the law in NSW

Surrogacy laws in NSW

Outline the laws or acts specific to regulating surrogacy arrangements in NSW.

NSW has no current legislation regarding surrogacy. NSW law states that the arrangement of a surrogate motherhood contract is neither

prohibited nor encouraged.

Describe two acts, which are relevant to the case study on Peter and Marie.

Examples of acts that are relevant to this case study are:

Part VII of the Family Law Act 1975 (Commonwealth) relates to the guardianship and custody of children. In a surrogacy arrangement, interested parties include the commissioning parents (Marie and Peter), the sperm and ova donors (Peter and Rita), the surrogate mother (Rita) and the surrogate mother’s spouse (Rita’s husband or partner). The Family Court will decide issues of guardianship and custody on the basis of the best interests of the child. If there is no dispute between the parties there is no need for a surrogacy arrangement to come to judicial notice, although commissioning parents may seek security for their surrogacy arrangement by registering a child agreement under Section66ZC of the Family Law Act 1975.

Adoption of Children Act 1965: Commissioning couples (Marie and Peter) in a surrogacy arrangement may often wish to adopt the child. An adoption order transfers all parental rights and duties to the adopting parents (Marie and Peter) and extinguishes those of the natural parents (Rita and her husband).

Artificial Conception Act 1984: Where the child is conceived by use of artificial insemination, parentage may be determined under the provisions of this Act. This Act implies that, for a surrogacy arrangement, where a married woman acting as a surrogate conceives by artificial insemination (Rita) with the consent of her husband, the law presumes the husband (Rita’s husband) to be the father of the child. The biological father (Peter) may have no right to have his name entered on the register of births as the father. The law requires that the surrogate’s husband (Rita’s husband) be registered as the father. The law presumes the birth mother (Rita) to be the legal mother and therefore requires her name to be entered on the register of births. However the position in NSW is unclear, because no legislation has been enacted to assign maternity following artificial conception. It is therefore uncertain who would be treated as the legal mother of a child born in a surrogacy arrangement.

The Children (Care and Protection) Act 1987 prohibits placement of a child with anyone who is not a relative for a period in excess of 28 days in any 12-month period. Anyone receiving a child who is not related is required to have a licence to foster issued by the Department of Family and Community Services. No offence would be committed if one member of the commissioning couple is, in law, the parent of the child. (In this case study, neither Marie nor Peter would be recognised as the parents of the child).

The Registration of Births, Death and Marriages Act 1973 makes it an offence to supply false or misleading information in an application to register a birth. Unless both of the commissioning parents (Marie and Peter)were, in law, the parents of the child, they could not lawfully register the child as their own.

Interpret the acts related to surrogacy and provide answers related to the following issues:

rights of the biological father birth certificates and persons named as the mother and father becoming the legal parents of a surrogate child

In this case study Peter is not recognised as the father, even though he is the biological father, and therefore he has no rights as a father. He would need to apply to adopt the child if he wants to be recognised as the legal father of the child.

Neither Marie nor Peter would be registered as the parents of the child on the birth certificate. Rita and her husband would be registered as the parents. Both Marie and Peter would need to apply to adopt the child, in order to be recognised on the birth certificate as the legal parents of the child.

To become the legal parents of the child, Marie and Peter would need to apply to the Family Court. The Family Court would require evidence to satisfy the Court as to the suitability of Peter and Marie becoming parents by adopting the child. The Court would also require consent from Rita and her husband to relinquish parental rights of the child. In this case, as there is no apparent dispute between the surrogacy parents (Rita and Rita’s husband) and the commissioning parents (Marie and Peter), custody, guardianship and parental rights would probably be awarded to Marie and Peter. In the interim period before becoming the legal parents, Marie and Peter would need to apply for a license to foster the child, as they would have the child for more than 28 days in any 12-month period. At all times, the Family Court would make changes only if these changes were in the best interests of the child.