N etw o rk s o f P o w e r

Networks of PowerE lectrifica tion in W este rn Society, 1880-1930

This book has been brought lo publication with the generous assistance of the Burndy Library and the National Endowment for the Humanities.

1983 by The Johns H opkins University Press AJI rights reserved. Published 1983Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

Second printing, 1988 Softshell Books edition, 1993

T he Johns Hopkins University Press, 2715 N orth Charles Street Baltimore, Maryland 21218-4319 The Johns Hopkins Press Ltd., London

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataHughes, Thom as Parke.

Networks of power.

Includes index.I. Electric power systems United States History.

2. Electric power systems Great Britain History.3. Electric power systems G erm any History. 1. Title.T K 1005.1183 1983 363.6'2 82-14858ISBN 0-8018-2873-2 ISBN 0-8018-4614-5 (phk.)

A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Title-page illustration: Ralston Crawford's Electrification (1936). Reproduced by permission of the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution.

For Agatha

Contents

Preface / ix

I. Im ro d u c lio n / 1II. Edison th e H ed g e h o g : In v en tio n a n d D ev elo p m en t / 18

I I I . E d iso n s System A b ro ad : T e c h n o lo g y T ra n s fe r / 47IV. R everse S alien ts a n d C ritical P rob lem s / 79V. C onflic t a n d R eso lu tio n / 106

V I. T ech n o lo g ica l M o m en tu m / 140V II. B erlin : T h e C o o rd in a tio n o f T e c h n o lo g y a n d Politics / 175

V III . C hicago: T h e D om in an ce o f T ech n o lo g y / 201IX. L o n d o n : T h e P rim acy o f Politics / 227X. C alifo rn ia W hite C oal / 262

X I. W ar a n d A cq u ired C h a rac te ris tic s / 285X II. P lan n ed System s / 3 24

X III . T h e C u ltu re o f R eg ional System s / 363X IV . RW E, PP& L, a n d N E SC O : T h e Style o f Evolving System s / 404

XV. E p ilogue / 461

Index I 467

Tables

111.1. C ost o f th e H o lb o rn V iaduct C en tra l S ta tio n / 58111.2. E stim ated A n n u a l C ost o f O n e U n it o f th e H o lb o rn V iaduct S ta tion / 59V I .1. M .l.T . 's E lectrical E n g in e e r in g C o u rse o f S tudy , 188 4 -1 8 8 5 / 152V I.2. M .I.T .s E lectrical E n g in ee r in g C o u rse o f S tu d y , 1 8 9 9 -1 9 0 0 / 153

V II. 1. M oto r L oad o f B e rlin e r E lek tric ila ts-W erke in B erlin C lassified A cco rd ing to U se, 1914 / 191

vtl

IX .I. L egislation R ela ting to E lectric Serv ice in th e L o n d o n A rea / 24 8X I I .1. C onow ingo in C o m p ariso n / 331

X I I I .1. T ransm ission -S ystem M ileage in th e U n ited S ta tes , 31 D ecem b er1932 I 365

X IV . 1. R egional Style: T ech n ica l C h a rac te ris tic s o f T h r e e P ow er S ystem s,c. 1924 / 409

vili C O N T E N T S

Preface

Tu t ro o ts o f th is book reach back to my u n d e rg ra d u a te years as .11 e n g in e e r in g s tu d e n t. In th o se days, en g in e e rs seem ed u iiinteicsie< in c o m p re h e n d in g th e o rd e r in th e techno log ica l w orld . A 11 ex cep tio n wa: th e co u rse o f s tu d y in e lec trica l e n g in e e r in g . T h e so lu tio n o f p ro b lem s ii th is field d e m a n d e d an ability to see re la tio n sh ip s , use m a them atics im ag inatively , a n d d ra w o n g e n e ra liza tio n s . Especially satisfy ing was a conrs in e lec tric p o w er p lan t d e s ig n ta u g h t by P ro fe sso r F red e rick M orse, win h ad th e in te lle c tu a l s tre n g th to use e leg an t electrical science in solving p ro b lem s w ith in a c o n te x t o f e conom ic , political, an d g eo g rap h ica l lac tors H e so lved n o t by ex c lu d in g variab les bu t by b r in g in g to b e a r p ow erfu l and co m p lex analysis a n d o rd e r .

D esp ite so m e d is a p p o in tm e n t in th e way e n g in e e r in g was ta u g h t, I nevei gave u p th e s ea rch fo r traces o f o rd e r in m an -m ad e com plex ities. In g rad u a le school I tu rn e d to h is to ry a n d c o n tin u e d th e search fo r exp ressions h ow ever tre m u lo u s , o f m a n s c o n s tru c tiv e p o w er in a chao tic w orld. I sought th e p a tte rn s th a t so m e e n g in e e rs h ad im p o sed in th e past 011 th e m aterial w orld . T h e se w ere th e e n g in e e rs w ho, in th e w ords o f th e ir n in e teen th c e n tu ry b io g ra p h e r S am uel Sm iles, w ere s tro n g -m in d e d , reso lu te , and in g en io u s ," a n d w ho w ere im p e lled to th e ir special p u rsu its by th e lo rc r o f th e ir co n s tru c tiv e in stinc ts."

My h is to r ia n -m e n to rs , O r o n J . H ale a n d Ju lian B ishko. sough t p a tte rn s in political, e conom ic , a n d d ip lo m a tic h istory . T h e y d e lig h te d in find ing c o h e re n c e in B ism arck 's fo re ig n policy o r in th e seasonal rh y th m s and g eo g rap h ica l m ig ra tio n s o f th e mesta in m edieval S pa in . I so u g h t th e e c o n om y, e ffic iency , a n d system im p o sed by in v en to rs , en g in ee rs , m anagers , a n d e n tr e p re n e u r s o f techno log ica l ch an g e . Early on I fo u n d that th e most im pressive o f th e p a tte rn s im p o sed on th e w orld by m en im pelled by the force o f c o n s tru c tiv e in stinc ts w ere system s, c o h e re n t s tru c tu re s com prised o f in te ra c tin g , in te rc o n n e c te d c o m p o n e n ts tha t ra n g e d fro m relatively sim ple m ach in es to reg io n a l e lec tric supp ly ne tw orks, C om plex system s becam e my u n it o f s tudy .

T h is s tu d y o f system s has been in p ro g re ss fo r m ore th an a decade . T h e re fo re , it has been conceived , re sea rch ed , an d w ritten w ithin th e c o n text o f rap id ly c h a n g in g p erspec tives o n . a n d a ssu m p tio n s ab o u t, th e n a tu re

P R E F A C E

o f h istory , especially th e h is to ry o f tech n o lo g y . Initia lly , th e essen tia l p ro b lem seem ed to be to d e lin e a te a h is to ry o f evo lv ing ideas a n d th e a r tifac ts th a t gave th e ideas m a te ria l re p re se n ta tio n . T h e h is to ry o f a g iven m ach ine o r p rocess was o f te n w ritten , th e n , w ithouL re fe re n c e to c o n tex t. I fo u n d th a t th e re was in te re s t in th e im p ac t o f te ch n o lo g y o n society, b u t th a t w ith ra re ex cep tio n s th e im p ac t o f society, o r c u ltu re , o n th e sh a p e o f techno logy h ad b een v irtua lly ig n o re d . D issatisfied w ith th e in te rn a lis ts a p p ro a c h . I t u rn e d to an ex p lo ra tio n o f a b ro a d ra n g e o f fac to rs , ev en ts , in stitu tio n s, m en , a n d w om en invo lved in co m p lex n e tw o rk s o f p o w er techn ica l, econ om ic, po litical, a n d social. My ex p lo ra tio n o f th e c u ltu ra l c o n te x t was re in fo rc e d w hen I becam e a m e m b e r o f a h is to ry o f science d e p a r tm e n t th a t u sed th e c o n te x tu a l a p p ro a c h .

As m y stu d y o f th e h is to ry o f tech n o lo g y c o n tin u e d , I fo u n d n o t only th a t te chno log ica l system s in co n tex t w ere th e u n its fo r s tu d y , b u t a lso that th e h is to ry o f th e se system s e x te n d e d b ey o n d n a tio n a l b o rd e rs . A stu d y of U .S. e lec tric ligh t a n d p o w er system s a lo n e w ou ld n o t do . C ausa l links are no re sp e c te rs o f po litical b o u n d a rie s . I d isco v e red th a t in v e n to rs , en g in ee rs , a n d m a n a g e rs o f te n d re w o n fo re ig n tech n o lo g ie s even w en t ab ro a d in sea rch o f th e m as they p u rs u e d so lu tio n s to th e ir p ro b lem s. I fo u n d that the netw orks o f evolving technologies o ften linked G erm an y with th e U nited S tates b ecau se bo th w ere in d u s tr ia liz in g ra p id ly , a n d th a t E n g lan d o ften p ro v id e d a co n tra s t to ev en ts a n d tre n d s o b se rv e d in th e o th e r tw o c o u n tries. (L im ita tio n s o f tim e , re so u rces , a n d la n g u a g e p re v e n te d ex p lo ra tio n o f th e so u rces p e r ta in in g to F ran ce , Ita ly , S w ed en , th e B en e lu x co u n tries , Russia, J a p a n , a n d o th e r in d u s tr ia liz in g reg io n s o f th e w o rld .)

In tim e I fo u n d th a t a co m p ara tiv e a p p ro a c h lin k in g th r e e n a tio n a l a reas n e e d e d to be m o d ified . In fact, th e in te ra c tio n b e tw een re g io n a n d te c h nology was m o re no tab le th a n th a t be tw een n a tio n a n d tech n o lo g y . In f lu ences a t th e na tio n a l level, such as leg isla tion , a ffe c te d ev o lv in g te c h n o lo g ical system s, b u t local g eo g rap h ica l fac to rs , b o th n a tu ra l a n d m a n -m a d e , w ere m o re d ire c t a n d d isce rn ib le d e te rm in a n ts o f th e sh a p e o f th e system s. S ta led d iffe re n tly , th e fac to r e n d o w m e n ts s h a p in g e lec tric p o w er system s w ere m o re reg io n a l th a n n a tiona l.

T a k in g th e co m p a ra tiv e a p p ro a c h was m a d e m o re m a n a g e a b le by the decision to focus on dec is ions m a d e by in v e n to rs , en g in e e rs , m a n a g e rs , an d fin an c ie rs w ho w ere system b u ild e rs . T h is e m p h a s is o n th e in n e r w ork ings o f e lec tric su p p ly system s a n d th e d y n am ics o f th e ir g ro w th d id n o t, how ever, p ro d u c e a s tu d y th a t is o f in te re s t on ly to p ro fe ss io n a ls p re s id in g o ver techno log ica l ch an g e . C o n su m e rs o f te ch n o lo g y can m o re effec tive ly in flu ence th e o u tp u t o f te chno log ica l system s if they , too , u n d e rs ta n d th e fu n c tio n in g o f system s a n d th e n a tu re o f th e critical d ec is ions m a d e by those w ho d ire c t th em .

As a h is to rian trad itio n a lly tra in e d , I am re lu c ta n t to su g g es t a defin itiv e m odel fo r th e ev o lu tio n o f e lec tric p o w er system s. N ev e rth e le ss , I have p ro p o se d a loosely s tru c tu re d m odel b ecause th e h is to ry I e x p lo re d was m ostly u n to u c h e d , a n d I w an t to p ro v id e so m e la n d m a rk s by w hich o th e r h is to rian s can c h a r t th e ir ex p lo ra tio n s . I e x p ec t m y fin d in g s to be rev ised , m y m ap to be re d ra w n , a n d m y th em es to be re d e f in e d as th e a rch iv es a re e x p lo re d fa r m o re th o ro u g h ly in th e fu tu re . I a lso a n tic ip a te th a t h is to rian s

xl P R E F A C E

w ho re flec t on th e sam e m a te r ia l th a t I have u sed will fin d d iffe re n t p a tte rn s .

T h o se to w hom I w ish to ackn o w led g e m y in d e b te d n e ss fo r assistance, e n c o u ra g e m e n t, a n d s u p p o r t a re n u m e ro u s . P ersons w ho re a d a n d co m m e n te d on c h a p te rs o r sec tions o f th e book a re W ayne A stley, J a m e s B eard , R o b ert B elfie ld , R ich a rd B e ttin g e r , J o h n B ra in e rd , Ja m e s B ritta in , H arvey B rooks, B e rn a rd C a rlso n , A lfred C h a n d le r , R o b e rt F riede l, Leslie H a n n a h , J o h n H e ilb ro n , R ich a rd H o re , S am u el In su ll, J r . , Paul Israe l, D aniel Kevles, W ilm er K le inbach , F o rre s t M cD onald , J u d i th M cGaw, J o h n A. M aneatis, M e rr ill R oe S m ith , J o h n S ta u d e n m a ie r , R osem ary S tevens, E d m u n d T o d d , G eo rg e V an d erslice , W. C. W atson , a n d G eo rg e W ise.

T h o se w ho h av e a id e d m e in re se a rc h in g a n d illu s tra tin g th e b ook in c lu d e A r th u r A bel, B rian B ow ers, K a th leen B ra m le y .J . C h u rc h , W illiam C lo u g h , F ield C u rry , D o ro th y E llison , T e d F e d d e r , B e rn a rd F inn , H u g h G ibb, J a n e t H a id e r , B a rb a ra Kelly, R eese J e n k in s , K u rt M auel, L ynn N y h a rt, C orw in O v e rto n , R u th P enge l, S am uel Sass, F red S choch , R u th S hoew alker, Patricia Sikes, H elen S lotkin, C. J . Som ers, E. Sym ons, D iane T ay lo r, F. T h o m a, R u d o lf von M iller, S ig frid von W eih er, R ich m o n d W illiam s; s tu d e n ts in m y se m in a rs a t th e U n iversity o f P ennsy lvan ia ; a n d A g a th a H . a n d L ucian P. H u g h es .

F o r ty p in g a n d fo r e d ito r ia l s u g gestions, I am a p p rec ia tiv e o f th e exce llen t c ra f tsm a n sh ip a n d c a re fu l a tte n tio n to de ta il o f E le a n o re K urtz . A lso in volved in th e ty p in g o f th e m a n u sc r ip t w ere m y fr ie n d s in th e office o f th e U n iversity o f P en n sy lv an ia s D e p a r tm e n t o f th e H isto ry a n d Sociology o f Science, M a rth e n ia P e rr in , Sylvia D rey fuss, a n d Pat J o h n so n .

F o r th e ir adv ice a n d e n c o u ra g e m e n t th ro u g h o u t th e pub lica tio n process, I am in d e b te d to J a c k G o e lln e r, J im J o h n s to n , H e n ry T o m , Lisa M irski, S usan Fillion, a n d especially m y ed ito r , P en n y M o u d rian ak is , all o f T h e Jo h n s H o p k in s U n iversity P ress. E llen K och o f th e U n iversity o f P ennsy lvan ia assisted ex p e rtly in th e p r e p a ra tio n o f th e in d ex .

G ra n ts in s u p p o r t o f m y re sea rch a n d w ritin g w ere a w ard ed by the A m erican C ou n c il o f L e a rn e d Societies, th e A m erican Philo soph ical Society, th e C e n te r fo r In te rd isc ip lin a ry R esearch a t th e U niversity o f B ielefeld, th e F u lb r ig h t C o m m ission , th e J o h n M. G len n F u n d o f W ash in g to n a n d Lee U n iversity , th e In s ti tu te o f E lectrical a n d E lectron ics E ng ineers , the M assachusetts In s ti tu te o f T ech n o lo g y , th e N a tiona l S cience F o u n d a tio n , th e R esearch C o u n cil o f th e U n iversity C e n te r in V irg in ia , T h e R ockefeller F o u n d a tio n , th e S m ith so n ian In s titu tio n , th e Social Science R esearch C o u n cil, th e S o u th e rn F ellow ship F u n d , S o u th e rn M e thod is t U niversity , an d the U n iversity o f P ennsy lvan ia .

D r. B e rn D ib n e r, a c o n n o isse u r o f books, sc ience, a n d h isto ry , generously s u p p o r te d m y e n d e a v o r to m ak e th is book an ae sth e tic as well as scholarly s ta tem en t.

N etw o rk s o f P o w e r

C H A P T E R I

Introduction

F THE greal construction projects o f the last century, none has beenm o re im pressive in its techn ica l, econom ic , a n d scien tific aspec ts,

n o n e has b een m o re in flu en tia l in its social effec ts , a n d n o n e has en g ag ed m o re th o ro u g h ly o u r c o n s tru c tiv e in stinc ts a n d capab ilities th a n th e electric p o w er system . A g re a t n e tw o rk o f p o w er lines w hich will fo re v e r o rd e r the way in w hich we live is now su p e rim p o se d on th e in d u s tr ia l w orld . In v e n to rs, en g in e e rs , m an ag e rs , a n d e n tr e p re n e u r s have o rd e re d th e m an -m ad e w orld w ith th is en e rg y n e tw o rk . T h e h a lf-cen tu ry fro m 1880 to 1930 c o n s titu ted th e fo rm a tiv e y ears o f th e h is to ry o f e lec tric su p p ly system s, and fro m a s tu d y o f th e se y ears o n e can p erce ive th e o rd e r in g , in teg ra tin g , c o o rd in a tin g , a n d sy stem atiz ing n a tu re o f m o d e rn h u m a n societies. Electric po w er system s d e m a n d e d o f th e ir d e s ig n e rs , o p e ra to rs , a n d m an ag e rs a feel fo r th e p u rp o se fu l m a n ip u la tio n o f th ings, in te llec t fo r th e ra tio n a l analysis o f th e ir n a tu re a n d dynam ics, a n d an ability to dea l w ith th e messy econom ic , po litical, a n d social vitality o f th e p ro d u c tio n system s th a t e m body th e co m p lex objectives o f m o d e rn m en a n d w om en. R o b ert V en tu ri, th e c o n te m p o ra ry a rch itec t, has asked a rch itec ts to e m b race th e com plex ity a n d c o n tra d ic tio n s o f th e m o d e rn w orld a n d to m ak e o f th a t w orld a h ab itab le e n v iro n m e n t .1 L ead in g e n g in e e rs a n d m an ag e rs have also rec ogn ized th a t th e ir d r iv e fo r o rd e r m u st be te m p e re d by to le ran ce o f m essy v itality. M o d e rn elec tric system s have th e h e te ro g e n e ity o f fo rm a n d fu n c tion th a t m ake possib le th e e n co m p ass in g com plex ity .

M an s m ak in g o f th e com plex m o d e rn w orld is an a p p ro p r ia te subject fo r th e tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry h is to rian . C rea tio n o f th e m ateria l e n v iro n m e n t sh a p e d by a n d sh a p in g m a n k in d is n o t a p e r ip h e ra l sub ject tha t can be left to n a rro w specialists. T o d irec t a tte n tio n today to techno log ical affa irs is lo focus on a co n ce rn th a t is as cen tra l now as n a tio n b u ild in g and c o n stitu tio n m ak in g w ere a cen tu ry ago. T ech no log ica l a ffa irs co n ta in a rich te x tu re o f technical m a tte rs , sc ientific laws, econom ic p rinc ip les , p o litical forces, a n d social concerns. T h e h is to rian m ust take th e b ro ad p e r spective to get to th e roo t o f lh in g s an d to see th e p a tte rn s . S cien tists and

1 Robert V enturi. Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (New York: T he Museum ol Modern Art, I960), pp. 22-23.

I

n e t w o r k s o f p o w e r

eng ineers analyze th e technical system s they build , b u t historians a re n eeded to c o m p re h e n d th e co m p lex , m u ltiface ted re la tio n s o f th e se system s a n d th e ch an g es th a t tak e p lace in th e m o v e r lim e .2

F or h is to rian s, th e s tu d y o f c o m plex ity a n d c h a n g e is en g ag in g . E dw ard G ibbon sal in th e ru in s o f th e C ap ito l in R om e a n d re flec ted on th e co n tra s t b e tw een w hat he saw b e fo re h im a n d th e e a r lie r g lo ry th a t was R om e. U p o n see ing d ru m s o f oil b e in g u n lo a d e d fro m an A m erican sh ip in an A frican p o rt, th e A m erican sch o la r P e rry M iller a sked how a civ ilization as new as th e A m erican o n e co u ld a lre a d y be e x p o r tin g th e p ro d u c ts o f its te chno logy to re m o te a rea s o f th e w orld th a t h ad b een se ttled c e n tu r ie s ea r lie r . O th e r h is to rian s , tak in g b a re b o n e d sta tistics f ro m w idely s e p a ra te d tim es, have so u g h t to ex p la in q u a n tita tiv e c h a n g e by m ean s o f qu a lita tiv e analysis. T h e d ra m a o f c h a n g e p ro v id es th e h is to rian w ith a n em p h as is th a t sets h im o r h e r a p a r t fro m th e social sc ien tist, w ho o f te n dissects s itu a tio n s w ith o u t in c lu d in g a tim e d im en s io n .

H ow d id th e sm all, in te rc ity lig h tin g system s o f th e 1880s evolve in to th e reg io n a l p o w er system s o f th e 1920s? In th is case, th e c h a n g e is n o t th e d ec lin e th a t fasc ina ted G ibbon ; it is th e e x p a n s io n th a t a ttra c te d M iller. T h e focus is n o t o n co n tra s tin g d a ta ; it is o n c o n tra s tin g physical co n fig u ra tio n s . T h e p ro b lem o f th is b ook is to e x p la in th e c h a n g e in co n fig u ra tio n o f e lec tric p o w er system s d u r in g th e h a lf-c e n tu ry b e tw een 1880 a n d 1930. S uch c h a n g e can be d isp lay ed in n e tw o rk d ia g ra m s (see Fig. 1 .1), b u t th e e f fo r t to e x p la in th e c h an g e involves c o n s id e ra tio n o f m an y fie lds o f h u m a n activity , in c lu d in g th e techn ica l, th e scien tific , th e eco n o m ic , th e po litical, an d th e o rg an iza tio n a l. T h is is because p o w er system s a re c u ltu ra l a r tifac ts .

E lectric p o w er system s e m b o d y th e physical, in te lle c tu a l, a n d sym bolic re so u rces o f th e society th a t co n s tru c ts th em . T h e re fo re , in e x p la in in g c h an g es in th e co n fig u ra tio n o f p o w er system s, th e h is to r ia n m u s t ex am in e th e c h a n g in g re so u rces a n d asp ira tio n s o f o rg a n iz a tio n s , g ro u p s , a n d in d iv idua ls . E lectric p o w er system s m ad e in d if fe re n t societies as well as in d if fe re n t tim es involve c e rta in basic techn ica l c o m p o n e n ts a n d c o n n e c tions, b u t varia tio n s in th e basic essen tia ls o f te n revea l v a ria tio n s in re sou rces, tra d itio n s , po litical a rra n g e m e n ts , a n d eco n o m ic p rac tice s f ro m o n e society to a n o th e r a n d fro m o n e tim e to a n o th e r . In a sense , e lec tric po w er system s, like so m u ch o th e r tech n o lo g y , a re b o th causes a n d e ffec ts o f social ch an g e .

Pow er system s re flec t a n d in f lu en ce th e co n tex t, b u t th ey also d ev e lo p a n in te rn a l d ynam ic . T h e re fo re , th e h is to ry o f ev o lv ing p o w e r system s re q u ire s a tte n tio n n o t on ly to th e forces a t w ork w ith in a g iven c o n te x t b u t to th e in te rn a l d y n am ics o f a d ev e lo p in g techno log ica l system as well. T h is book is n o t sim ply a h is to ry o f th e e x te rn a l fac to rs th a t s h a p e tech n o lo g y , n o r is it on ly a h is to ry o l th e in te rn a l dy n am ics o f tech n o lo g y ; it is a h is to ry o f tech n o lo g y a n d society.

S cien tists have d o n e m u ch to e n lig h te n us ab o u t th e n a tu re o f d ynam ics o f th e s tru c tu re s o f th e n a tu ra l w orld , bu t h is to rian s have as yet on ly barely

In his essays. Harvey Brooks, a scientist and engineer, addresses the multifaceted complexity or contemporary tcchnosocial systems. See. Tor example. Brooks. "A Framework Tor

J 72): M:i S 8y P ' EEE Tnmaaima Mnn' nnd Cybernetics. SMC-2.

FIGURE 1.1. THE CONFIGURATION OF EVOLVING SYSTEMS: INNER CITY (1885): CENTRALIZED URBAN (1906); AND REGIONAL (1930)

FIGURE 1.2. THE STATISTICS OF EVOLVING SYSTEMS IN THREE COUNTRIES

Above. Electricity generated by public utilities in Germany, 1880- 1940. From Rudolf von Millers article in Technikgeschichte 25 (1936): 112.

Right; Electricity generated by utilities in the United States, 1882- 1921. From Electrical W orld 80 (1922): 546.

1B30 IB?? IBM lwlB n 1030 103? 1934 IBM IBMThe growth of electricity sales in the United Kingdom. 1895-1913 (left) and 1920-1938 (right). Data from I. C. R. Ryatt, "The British Electrical Industry, 1875-1914" (I). Phil, thesis, Oxford University, 1962). p. 111; and Hannah, Electricity Before Nationalisation, table A .I

IN T R O D U C T IO N

p e n e tra te d th e su rface o f th e h igh ly o rg an ized a n d evolv ing system s o f th e m a n -m a d e w orld . H is to rian s in te re s te d in tech no logy have w ritten on ly a few m o n o g ra p h s th a t c o n c e n tra te o n th e ev o lu tio n o r th e m assive, e x te n sive, vertically in teg ra ted p ro d u ctio n system s o f th e m o d e rn industria l world. A lth o u g h th e pub lic senses th e s tro n g o rg an iz in g fo rces th a t o rig in a te d in th e se system s a n d th a t to d ay in f lu en ce th e ir lives, they only d im ly p erce ive th e n a tu re o f th e se forces. T h e techno log ica l, o r m an -m ad e , w orld aw aits a D arw in lo ex p lica te th e o rig in s a n d dynam ics o f th e fo rces th a t p e rv a d e it. Q u o tin g P aul V alery , h is to r ia n M arc B loch ch id es tra d itio n a l h is to rian s fo r n o t tak in g u p th e task o f exp lica tin g " th e c o n q u es t o f th e e a r th by e lectric ity , o n e o f th o se n o tab le p h e n o m e n a th a t have g re a te r possib ilities o f sh a p in g o u r im m e d ia te fu tu re th a n all th e political even ts co m b in e d ." 3

H ow m ig h t th e techno log ica l system s th a t increasing ly s tru c tu re o u r m a te ria l e n v iro n m e n t specifically , e lectric p o w er system s be d e f in e d ? B ecause th ese system s h av e v aried o v e r lim e a n d fro m place to place, th e h is to r ian 's d e f in itio n can n o t be as p rec ise as th e sc ien tis ts. L udw ig von B e rta lan ffy , o n e o f th e m ost a r tic u la te o f system s th eo ris ts , n e e d e d a book , n o t a p a ra g ra p h , to d e f in e sy stem ."4 T h u s , an in a d e q u a te ap p ro x im a tio n m u s t se rve h e re as a n in tro d u c tio n to th e co n cep t o f system s. S om e c h a r acteristics o f system s a re so g e n e ra l th a t they tra n sc e n d lim e a n d p lace. A system is c o n s titu te d o f re la te d p a r ts o r co m p o n en ts . T h e se c o m p o n e n ts a re co n n e c te d by a n e tw o rk , o r s tru c tu re , w hich fo r th e s tu d e n t o f system s m ay be o f m o re in te re s t th a n th e co m p o n en ts . T h e in te rc o n n e c te d co m p o n e n ts o f te chn ica l system s a re o f te n cen tra lly co n tro lled , a n d usually th e lim its o f th e system a re es tab lish ed by th e e x te n t o f th is c o n tro l. C on tro ls a re ex erc ised in o rd e r to op tim ize th e system s p e rfo rm a n c e a n d to d irec t th e system to w ard th e a c h iev em en t o f goals. T h e goal o f an elec tric p ro d u c tio n system , fo r ex am p le , is to tra n s fo rm availab le e n e rg y su p p ly , o r i n p u t, in to d e s ire d o u tp u t , o r d e m a n d . B ecause th e c o m p o n e n ts a re re la ted by th e n e tw o rk o f in te rc o n n e c tio n s , th e s ta le , o r activity, o f o n e co m p o n en t in flu en ces th e sta te , o r activity , o f o th e r c o m p o n e n ts in th e system . T h e

Marc Bloch, The Historians Craft (New York: Knopf, 1959), p. 66.* Ludwig von Bertalanffy, GeneraI System Theory: Foundations, Development. Applications (New

York: Braziller, 1968). T he literature on systems in general is extensive, and even a selected bibliography is beyond the scope ofand inappropriate fora history o f a particular kind o f system. T he interested reader might first consult the bibliography in Bcrtalanffys General System Theory and the article by Talcott Parsons, Social Systems," in Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1968. 15: 458-72. More specific as an introduction to technological systems is G unter Ropohl, EineSystemtheoriederTechnik: Zur Grundlegung der Allgemeinen Technologic (Munich and Vienna: H anser, 1979), which has an extensive bibliography.

I n 1978, Bertrand Gille, the French historian o f technology, published an extensive historical survey in which he used a systems model o f the development o f technology to place the history o f technology in the context o f general history. His model involved technology as structures, technical ensembles, and technical concatenations. These correspond roughly to machines, processes, and civil-engineering works (structures); production, communication, and transportation systems (ensembles); and such systems interrelated vertically and horizontally by general production or output (concatenations). Gille used the model to range over human history and explain technical progress. I am indebted to Professor Cecil Smith for sharing his unpublished English translation (1981) of Bertrand Gillc's "A Systems History of T echnology" (Hisloire des techniques [Paris: Gallimard, 1978]). Gille's model was brought to my attention after I completed my manuscript, but I find no cause to revise my own model, which interprets a relatively circumscribed case history in fine detail.

N E T W O R K S O F P O W E R

n e tw o rk p ro v id es a d is tin c tiv e co n fig u ra tio n fo r th e system . F o r ex am p le , a system can have its c o m p o n e n ts a r ra n g e d vertically o r h o rizon ta lly .

A cco rd in g lo w id e sp re a d u sag e , a h o rizo n ta lly a r ra n g e d system in te r co n n ec ts c o m p o n e n ts o f th e sam e k in d o r fu n c tio n , th o u g h n o t necessarily o f th e sam e m a g n itu d e , w hile a vertical system in te rc o n n e c ts c o m p o n e n ts jo in e d in a fu n c tio n a l c h a in . F o r e x am p le , an e lectrical system o f th e h o r izontal k in d co m b in es p o w e r p lan ts u n d e r ce n tra l c o n tro l, w hile a p ro d u c tio n system o f th e vertical k in d m ig h t link a coal m in e lo an electric p o w er p la n t th ro u g h a ce n tra l co n tro l facility c o o rd in a tin g th e su p p ly o f coal a n d th e o u tp u t o f e lec tric ity . System s a re also a r ra n g e d h ie ra rch ica lly , w ith sm all system s y ie ld ing lo th e o v e r r id in g c o n tro l o f a la rg e en c o m p assin g system . System s also in te ra c t w ith o n e a n o th e r th ro u g h th e c o o rd in a tio n o f se m ia u to n o m o u s co n tro ls , b u t w ith o u t y ie ld ing to an o v e rr id in g c o n tro l. A lth o u g h it is cu s to m ary to d e f in e system s as tech n ica l, econom ic, political, o r social, th e cen tra liz a tio n o f a t least a loose c o n tro l o v e r system s o f th e se d if f e r e n t k in d s m ak es possib le th e co n c e p tu a liz a tio n o f sociotech- nical sy stem s a n d th e like.

T h o s e p a r ts o f th e w orld th a t a re n o t sub jec t to a sy stem s co n tro l, b u t th a t in f lu e n c e th e system , a r e ca lled th e e n v iro n m e n t. A sec to r o f th e e n v iro n m e n t can be in c o rp o ra te d in to a system by b r in g in g it u n d e r system c o n tro l. A n o p e n system is o n e th a t is sub jec t lo in f lu en ces fro m th e e n v iro n m e n t; a c lo sed system is its ow n sw eet b east, a n d th e final s ta te can be p re d ic te d fro m th e initia l co n d itio n a n d th e in te rn a l d y n am ic . Som e system s a re p la n n e d to th e ir fu ll e x te n t, w h ile o th e rs g row by in c re m e n ts a n d by c o n flu e n c e w ith o th e r system s o v e r tim e . All o f th e k in d s a n d c o n d itio n s o f system s n o te d in th is ab s tra c t d e f in itio n will be i l lu s tra te d a n d d e sc r ib e d in d e ta il in th e h is to ry th a t fo llow s.5

U sually in th is s tu d y , system " re fe rs to a tech n ica l system , such as an e lec tric tra n sm iss io n system . S o m e tim es re fe re n c e is, as n o te d , to a system w ith in te ra c tin g c o m p o n e n ts , so m e o f w hich a re n o t tech n ica l. C en tra lly d ire c te d , in te ra c tin g in s titu tio n s a n d tech n ica l c o m p o n e n ts c o m p rise such a system . O n o ccasions, h o w ev er, th e c o n cep t o f system is u sed m u ch m o re loosely. S y stem th e n m ean s in te ra c tin g c o m p o n e n ts o f d if f e r e n t k inds, su ch as th e tech n ica l a n d th e in s titu tio n a l, as well as d if f e r e n t values; such a system is n e i th e r c en tra lly co n tro lle d n o r d ire c te d to w a rd a c learly d e f in e d goal. T h is u sag e is s im ila r to th a t o f th e h is to r ia n w ho w rites o f a system o f n a tio n -s ta te s . S u ch a loosely s t ru c tu re d system is sim ila r to th e co n cep t em b o d ie d in s y n d ro m e ." All o f th e system s, it is im p o r ta n t to stress , sh a re th e c h a ra c te r is tic o f in te rc o n n e c te d n e ss i.e., a c h a n g e in o n e co m p o n e n t im p ac ts o n th e o th e r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e system .

s An interesting discussion o f electrical systems and their m anagem ent is found by Georg Boll, Entstehung und Entwicklung dts Verbundbetriebs in der deutschen Elektriutatswirtschaf! bis lum europaischen Verbund (Frankfort on the Main: VWEW, 1969), pp. 13-15, Articles on interconnections and electric systems were frequently published in technical periodicals during the latter half o f the period covered by the present study, and many are cited in the various chapters o f this book. More recent helpful discussions o r electrical systems include: Hans Glavitsch, "C om puter C ontrol o f Elcctric-Powci Systems," Scientific American, Novem ber 1974, pp. 3414: Wallace Brand, "N ortheast Electric Bulk Power Supply. Public Utilities Fortnightly, 9 Ju n e 1966, pp. 65-88 ; and U.S., Federal Power Commission, The 1970 National Power Survey, pis. 1-4 (W ashington, D.C.: GPO. 197IV

IN T R O D U C T IO N

E lectric po w er system s o f th e techn ical k ind consist o f p o w er g e n e ra tio n , tra n s fo rm a tio n , co n tro l, a n d u tilization c o m p o n e n ts a n d p o w er tran sm ission a n d d is tr ib u tio n n e tw orks. (T h e p rim ary d is tin c tio n b e tw een tra n s m ission a n d d is tr ib u tio n is th e g re a te r d is tan ce cov e red , a n d th e re fo re th e h ig h e r transm ission voltages u sed , in transm ission .) D u rin g th e h a lf-cen tu ry 188 0 -1 9 3 0 , p o w er g e n e ra tio n c o m p o n e n ts in c lu d ed co u p led p r im e m overs such as re c ip ro c a tin g s team en g in es a n d steam a n d w ater tu rb in es . V arious types o f g e n e ra to rs w ere co u p le d to th e p r im e m overs. T ra n s fo rm e rs l>e- cam e th e p rin c ip a l m o d e o f c h a n g in g th e ch a rac te ris tics o f e lec tric su p p ly d u r in g tran sm issio n a n d d is tr ib u tio n . E nergy u tilization co m p o n e n ts in c lu d e d lam ps, m o to rs , bo th s ta tio n a ry a n d trac tio n (m oving), a n d h ea tin g an d e lec tro ch em ica l devices. T h e system in c o rp o ra te d a m u lti tu d e o f a p p lica tions (see Fig. 1.3). P ow er tran sm issio n in creased in e x te n t fro m a few city blocks to reg io n s c o m p ris in g ten s o f th o u sa n d s o f sq u a re m iles. Pow er d is trib u tio n ne tw o rk s c a rr ie d th e elec tric su p p ly from th e transm ission n e tw o rk to th e p o w er u tiliza tion m a ch in e ry a n d app liances . C o n tro l co m p o n e n ts re g u la te d th e su p p ly system in acco rd an ce with estab lish ed s ta n d a rd s such as vo ltage a n d freq u en cy a n d d ire c te d th e syslem fo r o p tim u m p e r fo rm a n c e as m e a su re d by goals, in c lu d in g effic iency a n d econom y. T h e m ost d ifficu lt c h a llen g e in d e f in in g an electric su p p ly system arises at the e x tre m e su p p ly a n d d e m a n d e n d s o f th e syslem . F or in stance , sh o u ld th e m echan ica l p r im e m o v e r be in c lu d ed in th e d e fin itio n o f a system ? S h o u ld th e v arious loads be in c lu d e d , c o n s id e r in g th a t th ey w ere usually o u ts id e th e co n tro l o f th e system ? In th is s tu d y th e p r im e m overs have been in c lu d ed in th e d e fin it io n o f th e syslem because th e in v en to rs , en g in ee rs , a n d in d u s tr ia l scien tists tre a te d th em as such a n d because th e c harac te ris tics o f th e p r im e m o v e r w e re co o rd in a te d with th e o th e r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e electric system . F u r th e rm o re , th e p r im e m overs w ere u n d e r th e system 's co n tro l. T h e in v en tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o to rs have b een tre a te d in th is s tu d y b ecau se in v e n to rs a n d d es ig n e rs m a tch ed th e charac te ris tics o f m o to rs lo th o se o f th e e lec tric su p p ly system . S uch com plica tions will be c la rified by h isto rica l ex am p le .

T h e ra tio n a le fo r u n d e r ta k in g th is s tu d y o f e lectric p o w er system s was th e assum ption th a t th e history o f all large-scale technology not only pow er system s can be s tu d ie d effectively as a h isto ry o f system s. It is h o p ed , th e re fo re , th a t th is h is to ry o f a p a r tic u la r k ind o f system will be o f som e assistance to o th e r h is to rian s w ho wish to s tu d y o th e r system s. T h e assu m p tio n o f sim ila rity is based in p a r t on an analysis o f stu d ies o f la rge system s by o th e r h is to rian s w ho have u sed th e co n cep t o f th e system to o rg an ize , analyze, a n d d raw conclusions fro m d isp a ra te m ateria ls."

" In ano ther source. I have discussed al some length the use o r the systems approach hy Lynn White, J r ., Medieval Technology and Social Change (New York: Oxford University Press,1962); Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, cd. Friedrich Engels, 3 vols. (Chicago: Kerr, 1932-33); and Alfred D. Chandler, j r . . The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: H arvard University Press, 1977). See Thom as P. Hughes, "The O rder of the Technological W orld. in History of Technology, 1980, ed. A. Rupert Hall and Norm an Smith (London: Mansell, I960), pp. 1-16.

Among recent books in which other historians discuss technology as systems are Hugh Ailken, Syntony atul Spark: The Origins o f Radio (New York: Wiley. 1976); Edward W. Constant II, The Origins of the Turbojet Revolution (Baltimore: T he Johns Hopkins Unversity Press, 1980);

8Figure 1.3. Universal supply system, ftrrhn. r. 1910. (mm Matsrhass el al.. 50

Jahrc. p. 90.

n h t t w o r k s o f p o w e r

John Enos. Petroleum Progress aiul Profits: /\ History of Process Innovation (Cambridge, Mass.: M .l.T. Press. 1952); Louis C. H unter, Steamboats on the Western Rivers: An Economic and Technological History (Cambridge, Mass.; H arvard University Press, 1949); idem. Waterpower: A History of Industrial Power in the United Stales, 1780-1930 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1979); A rthur Johnson, The Development of American Petroleum Pipelines: A Study in Private Enterprise and Public Policy (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1956); David Landes. The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1730 to the Present (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1972); O tto Mayr, Feedback Mechanisms in the Historical Collections of the National Museum of History and Technology (W ashington, D.C.:

9 I N T R O D U C T I O N

Key to Figure U . Translation of terms

GERMAN ENGLISH

Steinkohlen-G tube Hard-coal mineBraunkohle-Eeld Brown-coal open-fare mineKohlenkahn Coal bargeStadtbahn City railwayFernkraftwerk Distant power stationG toss raum-G iiterwagen Long-distance coal tiampottFernleilung Long-distance transmission linesBEWAG-Kraftwerk Berlin power stationAbspannwerk Step-down transformer stationDrehstrom Polyfha.se currentGleichstrom Direct currentStiitipunkl Distribution renterSons lige Hochsponn u ngs Almeh mer Special high-voltage consumerG ross-l.ichtverbra ucli Large-scale light consumerGross-Industrie Heavy industryU ii tergru ndbah ii SubwayNetistation Dispatching centerTransformatoren-Sdule Distribution transformerBahn-Umformuierk Molor-generator converter

(traction load)Licht-u. Kraft-Umformwerk Motor-generator converter

(light and power load)Strassenbahn StreetcarEleklr. Transportmittel Electric truckKiiche Kitchen appliancesllaushalt Household applianceBad Hot waterSchaufenster Display windowStrasse Street lightingKleingewerbe Commercial consumerHanduierk Craftsman

T h e em p h as is o n , a n d d e lin ea tio n of, technological system s by h is to rians a n d social scien tists; th e d r iv e oT in v en to rs , e n g in ee rs , ap p lie rs o f science, m an ag e rs , a n d fin an c ie rs lo c rea te system s;7 a n d (he obvious system atic c h a ra c te r o f e lec tric po w er system s have all stim u la ted th e o rg an iza tio n o f th is s tu d y as a h is to ry o f system s. H ie stu d y is com plex because it is a

Smithsonian Institution, 1971); Brurc Mazlish, ed.. The Railroad and the Spare Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy (Cambridge. Mass.: M l I. Press, 1965); Kiting Morison. Men. Machines, and Modern Times (Cambridge. Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1966): Natlian Rosenberg, ed., The American System of Manufacturers (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1969).

T here arc interesting parallels between (bis study ol'electrical systems and the bistory ol growth and technological change in the chemical industry as pcriodi/ed and organized by I..F. I label in The Chemical Industry. 1900-1930 (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1971).

One such inventor and engineer, Elmer Sperry (1860-1930), devoted a lilriim r to inventing and developing technological systems. I lis systems were mostly electromechanical in nature and involved highly complex Iced back controls. T he study of hundreds of his patents for these systems has influenced my own concepts o f technological systems. See Thomas P. Hughes. Elmer Sperry, Inventor and Engineer (llaltimore: T he Johns Hopkins Press, 1971).

FIGURE 1.4. GROWTH OF A.V ELECTRIC U G III AXD POWER SYSTEM /.V FEXXSYLVAX/A FROM PP&l. HISTORY. I

Transmission systems served by Pennsylvania Power I Light. 1910

N ir i 'W O I tK S OK P O W E R

c o m p ara tiv e o n e involv ing d ev e lo p m e n ts in th re e d if fe re n t c o u n tr ie s ov e r a p e r io d o f filly years. The p ro b le m o f o rg a n iz a tio n was fu r th e r co m p lica ted by th e necessity o f se lec ting re p re se n ta tiv e p o w er system s fro m d if fe ren t reg io n s fo r d if fe re n t p h ases o f th e h is to ry . T h e re w ere th o u sa n d s o f in d e p e n d e n t u tility sy stem s to ch o o se fro m . A n e x p la n a tio n o f each selection will be g iven in th e body o f th e tex t: b e re th e o vera ll s tru c tu re of th e h is to ry will be o u tlin e d .

A lth o u g h th e e lec tric p o w er system s d esc r ib ed h e re in w ere in tro d u c e d in d if fe re n t places a n d re a c h e d th e ir p la teau s o f d e v e lo p m e n t at d iffe re n t tim es, th ey a re re la te d lo o n e a n o th e r by th e o vera ll m o d e l o f system e v o lu tio n th a t s t ru c tu re s th is s tu d y a t th e m ost g e n e ra l level. T h e m odel h as p h ases , a n d d o m in a n t c h a rac te r is tic s a re sh o w n to e m e rg e d u r in g each; in a d d itio n , th e m o d e l id en tifie s th e p a r tic u la r cap ab ilities a n d in te re s ts ol th e p ro fe ss io n a ls w ho p re s id e d o v e r system g ro w th in each o f th e phases. In th e first p h ase , th e in v en tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f a system a re co n s id e re d . The p ro fe ss io n a ls p lay in g a p re d o m in a n t ro le d u r in g th is p h ase a re in v e n to r -e n tre p re n e u rs , w ho d if fe r f ro m o rd in a ry in v e n to rs in lh a l the fo rm e r p reside over a process which ex ten d s from th e inventive idea th ro u g h d e v e lo p m e n t to th e tim e w h en th e in v e n te d system is re a d y to be used . E n g in e e rs , m a n a g e rs , a n d f in an c ie rs a lso a re invo lved in th is firs t stage, b u t th ey d o n o t p re s id e o v e r th e sy stem s g ro w th u n til la te r p h ases .

T h e seco n d p h a se o f th e m odel d irec ts a t te n tio n to th e p ro cess o f te c h no logy tr a n s f e r f ro m o n e reg io n a n d society to a n o th e r . T h e t ra n s fe r of th e E d ison e lec tric system fro m N ew Y ork C ity to B erlin a n d L o n d o n is a case in p o in t. T h e sites a re specific , b u t g e n e ra l o b se rv a tio n s a b o u t the t ra n s fe r p ro cess can be m ad e . D u rin g th is p h a se th e ag e n ts o f c h a n g e a re n u m e ro u s ; th ey in c lu d e in v en to rs , e n tr e p re n e u r s , o rg a n iz e rs o f e n te r prises , a n d fin an c ie rs .

T h e e ssen tia l ch a ra c te r is tic o f th e th ird p h a se o f th e m o d e l is system g ro w th . As n o te d e a r lie r , th e h is to rian is re sp o n s ib le fo r a n a ly z in g g ro w th , a n d a n a ly z in g th e g ro w th o f system s is a p a r tic u la r ly in te re s tin g a n d d ifficu lt ch a llen g e . T h e m e th o d o f g ro w th analysis u sed in th is s tu d y involves reverse sa lien ts a n d critica l p ro b lem s. B ecause th e s tu d y u n it is a system , th e h isto r ia n fin d s rev e rse sa lien ts a r is in g in th e d y n am ics o f th e system d u r in g th e u n e v e n g ro w th o f its c o m p o n e n ts a n d h e n c e o f th e ov era ll ne tw o rk . In lab e lin g su ch a re a s o f im ba lan ce rev e rse sa lien ts ," tb e a u th o r has b o r row ed fro m m ilita ry h is to rian s , w ho d e lin e a te th o se sec tio n s o f an a d van c in g line, o r f ro n t, th a t have fa llen back as rev e rse sa lien ts ." T h e m e ta p h o r is a p p ro p r ia te b ecau se an a d v a n c in g m ilita ry f ro n t ex h ib its m any o f th e ir re g u la r it ie s a n d u n p re d ic ta b le qu a litie s o f an ev o lv ing techno log ica l system . In th e case o f a tech n o lo g ica l sy stem , in v en to rs , e n g in e e rs , a n d o th e r p ro fe ss io n a ls d e d ic a te th e ir c rea tiv e a n d co n s tru c tiv e p o w ers lo c o rre c tin g rev e rse sa lien ts so th a t th e system can fu n c tio n o p tim a lly a n d fulfill system goals.

H av in g id en tif ie d th e re v e rse sa lien ts , th e system te n d e rs can th e n a n a lyze th e m as a se ries o f critical p ro b lem s. D e fin in g rev e rse sa lien ts as critical p ro b le m s is th e essence o f th e c rea tiv e p rocess. A n in v e n to r o r a p p lie r o f science tra n s fo rm s an a m o rp h o u s c h a llen g e th e b a ck w ard n ess o f a syste m in to a set o f p ro b le m s th a t a re believed to be solvable. E n g in e e rs in p a r tic u la r a re know n lo r th e ir ability to d e f in e so lvable p ro b lem s. T h e

IN T R O D U C T IO N

in v en to r 's o r e n g in e e r 's co n fid e n c e th a t th e rev e rse salien t can be co rrec ted increases d ram a tica lly o n ce th e p ro b lem s a re d e f in e d , because th e a r tic u la tion o f a p ro b lem o fte n im plies its so lu tion .

W hen e n g in e e rs c o rre c t rev e rse sa lien ts by so lv ing critical p ro b lem s, th e system usually g row s i f th e re is a d e q u a te d e m a n d fo r its p ro d u c t. O n occasion , h ow ever, a critical p ro b lem can n o t be so lved . F o r in stance , th e first o f th e m a jo r types o f e lec tric system s, d ire c t c u r re n t, h ad a rev erse sa lien t in th a t it was uneco n o m ica l to tran sm it. D espite p rec ise d efin itio n s o f th e p ro b lem , th e d ire c t-c u r re n t in v en to rs a n d en g in e e rs co u ld n o t in th e 1880s f ind a so lu tio n . As a resu lt, o th e r in v en to rs fo u n d a so lu tion o u ts id e th e d .c. system , a n d fo r a tim e th e tw o system s w ere in conflic t. A fte r a c o m p ro m ise was w o rk ed o u t, th e two system s ex isted in a c o m p le m e n ta ry way un til th e n e w e r system becam e th e d o m in a n t o ne . T h u s , this s tu d y o ffe rs an ex p la n a tio n n o t on ly o f th e ev o lu tio n o f system s as reverse sa lien ts a r e id en tif ied a n d so lved , b u t a lso o f th e occasional em e rg e n c e o f new system s o u t o f th e fa ilu re to solve critical p ro b lem s in th e c o n tex t o f th e o ld .

As a system grow s, it a cq u ire s m o m e n tu m . T h e fo u r th p h ase o f th e system m odel is ch a ra c te r iz e d by su b s tan tia l m o m e n tu m . A system w ith substan tia l m o m e n tu m has m ass, velocity, a n d d irec tio n . In th e case o f technological system s, as d e f in e d in th is s tu d y , th e m ass consists o f m ach ines, devices, s tru c tu re s , a n d o th e r physical a rtifac ts in w hich c o n s id e rab le cap ita l has b een invested . T h e m o m e n tu m also arises fro m th e inv o lv em en t o f p ersons w hose p ro fe ssio n a l skills a re p a r ticu la r ly ap p licab le to th e system . B usiness co n ce rn s, g o v e rn m e n t agenc ies , p ro fe ssio n a l societies, ed u ca tio n a l institu tio n s , a n d o th e r o rg a n iz a tio n s th a t sh a p e a n d a re sh a p e d by th e technical c o re o f th e system also a d d to th e m o m e n tu m . T a k e n to g e th e r , th e o rg a n izations invo lved in th e system can be sp o k en o f as th e system 's c u ltu re . A system with such m ass usually has a p e rcep tib le ra te o f g ro w th o r velocity. O fte n th e ra te acce le ra tes . A system usually has a d irec tio n , o r goals. T h e d e fin itio n o f goals is m o re im p o r ta n t fo r a y o u n g system th a n fo r an old o n e , in w hich m o m e n tu m p ro v id es an in e r tia o f d ire c te d m o tion .

In th e case o f e lec tric p o w er system s, th e in stitu tio n s th a t p re s id ed ov e r an d w ere in f lu en ced by th em m ost d irec tly w ere th e utilities, bo th public an d p riv a te . F rom ab o u t 1890 u n til W orld W ar I, th e m a jo r e lectric pow er u tilities in th e U n ited S lates, G e rm an y , a n d E n g lan d co n c e n tra te d on s u p p ly ing th e m ost heavily p o p u la te d a n d industria liz ed u rb a n cen te rs . T h e dec isions m ad e by th e u tilities ' m an ag e rs d u r in g th is p e rio d sh ap ed th e c h a ra c te r o f th e system s m o re obviously th an d id th e decisions o f in v en to rs a n d en g in ee rs , w hose so lu tions to critical p ro b lem s o f a techn ical k ind had clea red th e way fo r g ro w th th ro u g h th e c rea tio n o f a un iversal system o f supp ly . W ith in c reas in g freq u en cy d u r in g th e two d ecad es b e fo re th e G rea t W ar, th e u tilities fo u n d them selves c o n fro n tin g o th e r in stitu tio n a l c o n te n d e rs fo r au th o rity o v e r econom ic d ev e lo p m en t a n d social change . T h e tension b e tw een th e u tilities a n d political in s titu tions such as local g o v e rn m en ts was h igh d u r in g th is ph ase o f system s d ev e lo p m en t. In th is in stance, how ever, a modus vivendi, if n o t a lasting a rra n g e m e n t, was fo u n d by th e co n te n d in g pow ers. T h re e c h a p te rs in th is study have th u s been dev o ted to an ex am in a tio n o f th e evo lu tion o f th e electric po w er system s in th re e m a jo r cities; B erlin , C hicago , a n d L ondon .

10 N E T W O R K S o f p o w e r

E l e c t r i c i t y S u p p l y in G r e a t C i t i e s .

R e f e r e n c e .

-^CHICAGO - --- -

Figure 1J . Central station in London, Berlin. Paris, and Chicago, c. 1920. From the County of London Electric Supply Co., Ltd., Public Inquiry . . . j i -l - -! r- r n .n i wjth Application for Consent for the Erection of a Power Station at Barking.Held by the Electricity Commissioners in Connecti Courtesy of NESCO, Newcastle upon Tyne. England.

D espite th e m o m e n tu m o f system s a n d th e in e rtia o f m o tio n , h ow ever, c o n tin g en c ie s p u sh system s in new d irec tio n s . T o d e m o n s tra te th is p h e n o m e n o n , th is s tu d y e x p lo re s th e im pact o f W orld W ar I o n e lec tric p o w er system s. T h e en g in e e rs a n d m a n a g e rs w ho p re s id e d o v e r th e se system s w ere p e rsu a d e d by political a n d m ilita ry le ad e rs a n d by p ub lic p re s su re to a tte n u a te th e ir cu sto m ary d r iv e fo r a u to n o m o u s g ro w th a n d p ro f it a n d to em p h asize th e c o o p e ra tiv e p ro d u c tio n o f en e rg y . A ssig n in g e n e rg y p ro d u c tio n a h ig h e r p rio rity th a n e ith e r p ro f it o r o rg a n iz a tio n a l au to n o m y led to new m a n ag e ria l a n d e n g in e e r in g policies fo r th e d u ra tio n , a n d so m e o f th ese su rv ived th e w ar. T h e essen tia l p o in t, h ow ever, is n o t th e p a r tic u la r

IN T R O D U C T IO N

in stance o f w ar as a co n tin g en t a n d sh a p in g fo rce; ra th e r , it is th e possibility o f ex te rn a l forces re d ire c tin g h ig h -in o m e n tu m system s.

T h e last p h ase o f system h is to ry d e lin e a te d by th is stu d y is ch arae te ri/.ed by a q u a lita tiv e c h an g e in th e n a tu re o f th e rev e rse salien ts an ti by th e rise o f fin an c ie rs a n d co n su ltin g en g in e e rs to p re e m in e n c e as p ro b lem solvers. M an ag e rs p layed th e lead in g ro le d u r in g th e p hase ch a ra t te r i /e d by an in crease in m o m e n tu m . In th e n ew er phase , w hich involved p la n n e d an d evo lv ing reg io n a l system s, m a jo r reverse salien ts becam e essentially p ro b lem s o f fu n d in g ex trem e ly la rg e reg iona l system s an d c lea rin g political a n d leg isla tive g ro u n d . F in an c ie rs an d associated co n su ltin g en g in e e rs re sp o n d e d effectively to p ro b lem s o f th is k ind an d scale. The ph ase was also ch a ra c te r iz e d by an in c reased capab ility on th e p a rt o f e n g in e e rs a n d m a n ag e rs , especially co n su ltin g e n g in e e rs a n d m a n ag e rs , to p lan new system s a n d th e g ro w th o f o ld ones. In so m e cases p la n n e d system s w ere f inanced by g o v e rn m e n t agency e n tr e p re n e u r s d ra w in g on pub lic fu n d s.

T h is loosely s tru c tu re d m o d el has been used to b r in g o rd e r a n d c o m p reh en sib ility to th e m yriad even ts in th e h istory o f electric p o w er system s. In fact, u tility system s d id n o t evolve a c co rd in g to o n e strict p a tte rn . C h a p te r X IV , which d escrib es th e d if fe re n t styles o f th re e m a tu re reg iona l system s, d e m o n s tra te s varia tions. All th re e h ad th e sam e pool o f techno logy to d raw fro m , b u t because th e g eo g rap h ica l, cu ltu ra l, m an ag e ria l, e n g in e e r in g , a n d e n tr e p re n e u r ia l c h a ra c te r o f th e th re e reg ions d iffe re d , the p o w er system s w ere a p p ro p r ia te ly v aried as well (see Fig. 1.5). T h e concept o f style suggests th a t th e re was a n d p robab ly is no o ne best way o f su p p ly in g e lectric ity . E m b o d ied in th e d iffe re n t po w er system s o f th e w orld is a com p lex va ria tio n on m a jo r th em es th a t keeps th e te chno logy from b eco m in g h o m o g e n e o u s a n d du ll a n d th a t p rov ides th e h is to rian with the c h a llen g in g task o f d e sc rip tio n a n d in te rp re ta tio n .

C H A P T E R I I

Edison the Hedgehog: Invention and Development

Qu o t in g th e G re e k p o e l A rch ilo ch u s , Isa iah B e rlin w ro te in The Hedgehog and the Fox: T h e fox know s m an y th in g s , b u t th e h e d g e h o g know s o n e b ig th in g . H e d g e h o g s , a c c o rd in g lo B e rlin , a r e th o se w ho r e la te ev e ry th in g to a s ing le ce n tra l v ision, o n e system less o r m o re c o h e re n t o r a r tic u la te . F oxes, in c o n tra s t, p u rs u e m an y e n d s , e n d s th a t a re o ften u n re la te d a n d even c o n tra d ic to ry . B e rlin c o u n te d D a n te , P lato , L u cre tiu s , Pascal, H eg el, D ostoyevsky, N ie tzsche , Ib se n , a n d P ro u s t a m o n g th e h e d g e h o g s .1 T h o m a s E d iso n s n a m e sh o u ld be a d d e d to th e list.2

E d ison in v en ted system s, in c lu d in g an e lec tric lig h t sy stem th a t to o k fo rm as th e P earl S tree t g e n e ra tin g s ta tio n a n d d is tr ib u tio n n e tw o rk o f th e Edison E lectric I l lu m in a tin g C o m p a n y o f N ew Y ork , now k n o w n as th e C o nso lid a te d E d ison C o m p an y . E d ison fo cu sed o n o n e level o f th e p ro cess o f tech n o lo g ica l c h a n g e in v e n tio n b u t in o r d e r to re la te e v e ry th in g to a sing le , c e n tra l vision, h e h a d lo reach o u t b e y o n d h is spec ia l co m p e te n c e lo re sea rch , d e v e lo p , fin an ce , a n d m a n a g e h is in v en tio n s . B ecause o f this o rg a n iz a tio n a l, sy s tem -b u ild in g d r iv e , he is k n o w n as a n in v e n to r-e n tre - p r e n e u r .3

Edison was a holistic c o n c e p tu a liz e r a n d d e te rm in e d so lv e r o f th e p ro b lem s assoc ia ted w ith th e g ro w th o f system s. T h e h is to ry o f E d iso n system b u ild in g , th e re fo re , is a lso a h is to ry o f ideas a n d a s tu d y o f p ro b le m so lving. E d ison 's co n cep ts g rew o u t o f his n e e d to fin d o rg a n iz in g p r in c ip le s th a t w ere p o w erfu l e n o u g h to in te g ra te a n d give p u rp o se fu l d ire c tio n to d iverse fac to rs a n d c o m p o n e n ts . T h e p ro b lem s e m e rg e d as he s tro v e to fu lfill his u ltim a te vision.

As an in v e n to r -e n tre p re n e u r , E d ison p re s id e d o v e r th e p rocess o f tech nological ch a n g e Trom p ro b lem id en tific a tio n to in n o v a tio n a n d tech n o lo g y tra n s fe r . C rea tiv e fu lfillm en t, how ever, ca in e to h im m ostly fro m th e in

1 Isaiah Merlin, Tht Hedgehog nnd the Fox: An Essay on Toll toy's View of History (New York: Simon i t Schuster, 1953), p. 1.

* Paris o f lliis chapter are drawn from Thomas P. Hughes, "T he Electrification o f America: T he System Builders," Technology nnd Culture 20 (1970): 124-61

For a discussion o f the concept o f an e n trep reneu r as one who presides over invention, developm ent, and innovation, sec T hom as P. Hughes. Elmer Sperry. Inventor nnd Engineer (Baltimore: T he Johns Hopkins Press. 1971). pp. 63-70, 241, 200-95.

18

IN V E N T I O N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

ventive act, not fro m th e o th e r phases o f techno log ica l d ev e lo p m en t. 1 le c o u n te d his p a te n ts m o re th a n his m oney , at least un til his Liter years, w hen he b egan to look to in d u stria lis ts like H en ry F o rd as sta tu s m odels. Edison flo u rish ed as an in v e n io r -e n tre p re n e u r in th e late 1870s an d early e igh ties, th e p e rio d w hen he was p re s id in g ov e r th e in v en tio n a n d in tro d u c tio n ol his system o f e lec tric ligh ting . H is h istorical pee rs w ere o th e r inven io r- e n tr e p re n e u r s , such m en as R obert F u lton , S am uel M orse, a n d C yrus H all M cC orm ick , w ho, like h im se lf, d id n o t rest un til co m p an ie s (usually those they estab lish ed ) w ere m a n u fa c tu r in g th e ir inven tions. Edison fo rm ed a n u m b e r o f c o m p an ie s to o rg an ize his in v en tio n a n d th e in tro d u c tio n ol th e l ig h tin g system : a c o m p an y fo r resea rch a n d d ev e lo p m en t, o th e rs lot m a n u fa c tu r in g c o m p o n e n ts , a n d a n o th e r to p re s id e o v e r th e o p e ra tio n ol th e system . In each case, he allied h im se lf w ith m en w hose in te re sts an d capab ilities co m p le m e n te d his ow n. P ersons w ith legal a n d financial e x p e rien ce , lo r in stan ce , c o m p e n sa te d fo r his lack o f ex p e rie n c e an d special a p iilu d e fo r th e com p lex itie s o f o rg an iza tio n an d financ ing . D espite th e ir p re sen ce , h ow ever, it was E d ison , as in v e n to r -e n lrc p re n e u r , w ho pulled m ost o f th e s trin g s o f th e co m p lex system . L a te r in th e h is to ry o f e lectric lig h tin g a n d p o w er system s, o th e r e n tr e p re n e u r s m a n a g e r -e n tre p re n e iirs a n d f in a n c ie r -e n ire p re n e u rs took c e n te r stage because th e m ost d ifficu lt p ro b lem s b lo ck in g th e g ro w th o f th e system becam e m an ag e ria l a n d fin ancial. In v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e rs still h ad ro les to play in th e h istory o f the evolv ing ligh t a n d p o w er system s, b u t th e in v e n to r -e n tre p re n e u rs m oved on to o th e r new ly e m e rg in g fie lds o f technology .

E d ison 's g en iu s lay in bis ability to d irec t a p rocess involv ing p rob lem id en tifica tio n , so lu tio n as idea, re sea rch a n d d ev e lo p m en t, an d in tro d u c tio n in to use. T h e se p h ases o f c h a n g e n eed to be d e f in e d , bu t because the process was, a n d is, so co m p lex , a n d because th e re a re so m any varia tions on th e c e n tra l th e m e , an e n co m p assin g , g en e ra l d e fin itio n will suffice here . In p ro b lem id en tifica tio n , an in v e n to r perceives a situ a tio n tha t can be d e f in e d as a p ro b lem . T h e ability to d e f in e th e situ a tio n as a p ro b lem im plies th a t a so lu tio n is likely to be fo u n d . E x p e rien ced in v en to rs recogn ize that m any s itu a tio n s can n o t be d e f in e d as p ro b lem s, because th e s ta te o f the techno logy , availability o f fu n d in g , o r som e o th e r fac to r is not favorable. Id ea re sp o n se is th e in v e n to r s e f fo r t active an d passive (subconscious p e rh a p s ) to fo rm u la te con cep ts th a t will solve in his im ag in a tio n his d e f in ition o f th e p ro b lem . A n im ag in a ry device is fu n c tio n in g in an im ag inary e n v iro n m e n t. U sually th e in v e n to r g a th e rs in fo rm a tio n as he p u rsu e s o r even aw aits ideas. T h e idea re sp o n se will becom e an in ven tion a f te r the idea has b een given fo rm . T h e inventive co n cep ts o f Edison a n d o th e r in v en to rs a re o f te n , p e rh a p s usually , visual ra th e r th an verbal o r m a th e m atical. F o r th is rea so n , th e first ex p re ssio n o f an idea o f ten a p p e a rs as a d raw in g in a n o teb o o k o r 011 a sc rap o f p a p e r . S u bsequen tly th e idea is given fo rm as a m echan ica l a n d electrical dev ice o r as a chem ical process. T h is inv en tio n is th e n b ro u g h t by resea rch a n d d ev e lo p m en t to th e stage at w hich it can be in tro d u c e d to th e m ark e t. R esearch is an in fo rm atio n - g a th e r in g exerc ise a n d can be d o n e by li te ra tu re search o r by scientific e x p e rim e n ta tio n . D evelopm en t, an im p o rta n t p a r t o f th e innova tion p ro c ess, o f ten involves th e red e fin itio n o f lh e p ro b lem , new ideas, a n d research as th e in v en tio n is tr ied in e n v iro n m e n ts th a t a rc increasing ly like th e real-

N E T TW O R K S O F P O W E R

use e n v iro n m e n t w ith in w hich th e in n o v a tio n m u s t fu n c tio n . T h e in ven tion is no lo n g e r an im ag in a ry d ev ice fu n c tio n in g in th e in v e n to r s m in d . I t is im p o r ta n t to a d d th a t th e in n o v a tio n p rocess is n o t s tra ig h tfo rw a rd ; it involves b a c k tra c k in g to id en tify new su b p ro b le m s, elicit a d d itio n a l ideas, a n d m ak e new su b in v e n tio n s .4

T h e id en tif ic a tio n o f a p ro b le m by e x p e r ie n c e d in v e n to r -e n tre p re n e u rs like E d iso n usually invo lved b r id g in g th e g a p be tw een re so u rces a n d d e m a n d . T h e p ro fe ss io n a l id e n tif ie d a d e m a n d , e i th e r ex is tin g o r po ten tia l, a n d th e ava ilab le re so u rc e s th a t m ig h t fill it. T h e re so u rc e s in c lu d ed availab le e n d o w m e n ts su ch as e x is tin g tech n o lo g y , cap ita l, lab o r, a n d lan d (n a tu ra l re so u rces). H av in g id e n tif ie d th e p ro b le m o f u s in g th e re so u rces to m ee t th e d e m a n d , th e in v e n to r th e n c re a te d th e te c h n o lo g y , o r th e idea fo r th e te ch n o lo g y , th a t w o u ld m ak e th e re so u rc e s u sab le in filling th e d e m a n d . A n e x c e lle n t in v e n tio n u sed th e ava ilab le re so u rc e s e ffic ien tly a n d eco n o m ica lly to re s p o n d to th e d e m a n d p rec ise ly . T h e le ss -th an -ex ce llen t in v en tio n n e e d e d to be re f in e d to m ee t th e d e m a n d . N o t ev ery in v en tio n was a re sp o n se lo a d e m a n d , ac tu a l o r a n tic ip a te d , h o w ev e r; m an y th a t w e re n o t d e m a n d o r ie n te d w ere in g e n io u s u tiliz a tio n s o f ava ilab le r e so u rc e s , in c lu d in g ex is tin g tech n o lo g y . T h e re sp o n se to av a ilab le e n d o w m e n ts , e spec ia lly te ch n o lo g ica l o n es , is so m e tim e s id e n tif ie d as te c h n o lo g ical p u s h in c o n tra s t to m a rk e t p u ll . E d iso n , like so m an y p ro fe ss io n a l in v e n to rs , a c te d in re sp o n se to a c o m b in a tio n o f th e tw o .5

E d iso n p r e f e r r e d to in v e n t system s r a th e r th a n c o m p o n e n ts o f o th e r p e r s o n s system s. D u r in g h is lo n g c a re e r as a p ro fe s s io n a l in v e n to r -e n tre - p r e n e u r , h e tu r n e d to th e in v e n tio n o f system s lo su c h a n e x te n t th a t p re f e r e n c e fo r system s can be id e n tif ie d as a s a lie n t c h a ra c te r is tic o f his a p p ro a c h . T h e h is to ry o f sev e ra l o f h is m a jo r in v e n tio n s th e q u a d ru p le x te le g ra p h , th e te le p h o n e , th e in c a n d e sc e n t e lec tric lig h tin g system , m ag- n e lic -o re s e p a ra tio n , P o r tla n d c e m e n t, a n d th e s to ra g e b a t te ry illu s tra te s th e sp e c tru m o f h is m e th o d s .1 S o m e o f th e se v e n tu re s w e re successfu l,

* T hese rlefinitions a re developed fu rth er with illustrative exam ples in T hom as P. H ughes, " Inventors: T h e Problem s T hey Choose, the Ideas T hey Have, and the Inventions T hey Make." in Technological Innovation: A Critical Review o f Current Knowledge, ed. P. Kelly and M. K ranzbcrg (San Francisco, Calif.: San Francisco Press, 1978), pp. 168-82.

'T h e literature on the n a tu re of invention is volum inous, anti m uch o f it is w ritten by economic historians, sociologists, and historians o f technology. A m ong the most useful books arc Jacob Schm ookler, Invention and Economic Growth (Cam bridge. Mass.: H arvard University Press, 1966); S. C. G ilfillan. The Sociology of Invention (C am bridge. Mass.: M .l.T . Press. 1970); and the revised edition ol Abbott P. U sher. A History of Mechanical Invention (Cam bridge, Mass.: H arvard U niversity Press. 19,'i'l). An annotated listing o f many articles and books on innovation (and invention) can be found in S. II. C utclilfe. |. A. Mislichelli, and C. M. Roysden. Technology and Values in American Cwilnation (Detroit, Mich.: Calc Research Co., 1980).

"E d iso n s inventive activities are described in detail in many b iographies, the quality of which varies greatly. The most recent are R o Ik ti Conol. A Streak of Luck (New York: Seuview Hooks, 1979); Ronald W. Clark, Edison: The M an Who Made the Future (New York: Putnam , 1977); and M atthew Joscphson . Edison (New York: M cGraw-Hill. |9.9). The most thorough on technical m atters and adulatory in tone are Frank L. Dyer and T hom as C. M artin. Edison: His Life and Inventions. 2 veils. (New York: H arp er Sc Bros., 1910); and the 1929 edition or tha t work, which was w ritten in collaboration with William I I. M cadow crofl and also published by H arp e r Sc Bros. T h e most intim ate study o f the inven tor is the account by Francis Jehl, Menlo Park Reminiscences. 3 vols. (D earborn . M idi.: Edison Institute. 1937-111 Wvn Wach-

21 I N V E N T I O N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

som e w ere no t. K dison 's m elh o tl was nor alwavs I lie- sam e: i( varied will tim e a n d acco rd in g 10 I he p ro b lem , as o n e w ould e x p e d I m m a p ro le s s ional. The liislo ry o f bis e lec tric lig h ting system , how ever, reveals tlu essen tia l cha rac te ris tic s o f his system s a p p ro a c h .7

K dison is m ost w idely know n fo r his in v en tio n ol th e in can d escen t lam p but it was on ly o n e c o m p o n e n t in his e lec iric ligh ting svstem a n d was n< m o re critical to its effec tive fu n c tio n in g th an th e Kdison J u m b o g e n e ra ln i th e K dison m ain a n d feed e r, o r th e p ara llc l-d is irib u tin n system . O ih e i in v en to rs w ith g e n e ra to rs a n d in can d escen t lam ps a n d co m p a ra b le in g e n u ity have b een fo rg o tte n because they d id not carry th e p rocess f im h c i a n d in tro d u c e a system o f lig h tin g .8

W hy d id Kdison so o f ten choose to w ork on system s? II th e inveum i c re a te d only a co m p o n e n t, he re m a in e d d e p e n d e n t on o th e rs to invent 01 su p p ly o th e r co m p o n e n ts . T h e in v e n to r o f c o m p o n e n ts cou ld not have tlx c o n tro l ov e r in n o v a tio n th a t K dison w an ted . An ap t ex am p le o f a n inven to i o f c o m p o n e n ts , b u t not system s, is Jo se p h Swan ( I8 2 H -I9 M ), th e b titis li in v e n to r o f th e in can d escen t lam p . Sw an 's lam ps w ere in c o rp o ra te d with c o m p o n e n ts in v en ted by o th e rs in to a system , but in p riv a te conversa tion Sw an ack n o w led g ed th e su p e rio r ity o f Kdison 's system .'' Swan can n o t ( mil-

horsi's Thomas Alva Edison: An American Myth (Cambridge. Mass.: M l .I . Pi css. I9HII irl.iu -Edison the cultural hero lo American values. See also the exhibit catalogue by Bernard I-.....and Robert Friedcl. Edison: Lighting a Revolution (Washington. D C.: Smithsonian Institution. 15)79). For a brief study of Edison, see Thom as P. Hughes. Thomas Edison. Pinfrssinnal Inrcnto, (London. IIMSO. 1976).

'B iographies of Edison usually include discourses on the Edison method The < h.iptei "Edison's Method in Inventing" in Dyer and Martin's Edison (2: "96-628) is informed and considered, if not critical. G. P. Lathrop ("Talks with Edison." Harper s Sew Monthly Magazine 80 [1889-90|: 425-35) rehearses the familiar, but adds occasional helpful items as he tries to perceive how an inventor invents. M. A. RosanolT ("Edison in Mis Lihoratoi y." Ila ipci\ Magazine 165 (1932): 401-17) provides a scientist's appraisal which is not sentimental. Ku li.it d H. Scballenberg ("The Alkaline Storage Battery: A Case History ol the Edison Method." Synthesis I |I9 7 2 |: 1-13) generalizes about the Edison method from the case ol the alkaline battery. II. M. Payntcr o f M.I.T. kindly provided me with a ropv ol Ihs I Illusion L em u r "Edison in Retrospect: Experimental Physicist and Systems Engineer." which be delivered at the American Society o f Mechanical Engineers' annual meeting in Detroit. Mich on 13 November 1973. I have also found helpful a paper on Edison's method wlurli was presented by his son T heodore to the M.I.T. Club of N orthern New Jersey on 24 January 1969. See also Conol. Streak of Luck, pp. 455-72: and Thom as IV Hughes. "Edison's M ethod." in Technology at the Turning Point, ed. William B. Pickett (San Francisco. Calif.: San Eiancisio Press. 1977). pp. 5-22.

8This analysis o f Edison's method of inventing systems is taken in part Irom Hughes, "Edison's M ethod." pp. 5-22.

Sce G. P. Losvrey to Edison. 23 O ctober 1881. and G. Batchelor to Edison. I Oitoliei 1881, Edison Archives. Edison National Historic Site. West O range, N | (lie iea ltri i tied as F.A). T he question of priority in (h r invention of the incandesr cut lamp has troubled many historians. Among the leading contenders for that priority were Thomas A. Edison and |os( pli Swan (ol Newcastle upon Tyne). U nfortunately, some of the controversy has ssvuled arounil a nebulous concept of what actually was invented In a recent essay. "Swan's Way: Inveniivr Slyle and the Emergence of the Incandescent L im p." George Wise sensible- lo< uses on the invention o f the carbon filament and discusses the im|Mittancr ol Edison's systems appro.uh to the invention. Wise points out (hat Ellison's estimates ol the cost ol lus system weie gtossly in error, hut contributed conceptually lo his invention. I am indebted to Wise loi allowing tnc to see his pre-puhliraiion manuscript, scheduled to appra i in IEEE Spa Hum in Apiil 1982.

p a re w ith E d ison as an in v e n to r -e n lre p re n e u r , b u t h is c laim to have in v en ted th e p rac tica l c a rb o n -f ila m e n l lam p is c o m p a ra b le to E d iso n s.

A n o th e r rea so n fo r E d iso n s in c lin a tio n to in v e n t system s was m o re su b tle: h e so u g h t th e s tim u la tio n fo r in v en tive ideas w hich com es fro m see ing inadequacies in som e com p o n en ts revealed by im provem en ts m ad e in o thers. Im b alan ces am o n g in te ra c tin g c o m p o n e n ts p o in te d u p th e n e e d fo r a d d itio n a l inv en tio n . By th e lim e each system was read y fo r use, th e re fo re , it involved m any p a ten ts . E d ison , w ho ra re ly a rtic u la te d his m e th o d , said o f his in v en tio n o f an e lec tric lig h tin g system :

It was not only necessary that the lamps should give light and the dynam os generate curren t, but the lamps must be adapted to the cu rren t o f the dynamos, and the dynamos must be constructed to give the character o f c u rren t required by the lamps, and likewise all parts o f the system must be constructed with re fe rence to all o ther parts, since, in one sense, all the parts form one machine, and the connections between the parts being electrical instead o f mechanical. Like any other machine the failure o f one part to cooperate properly with the o ther part disorganizes the whole and renders it inoperative for the purpose intended.

The problem then that I undertook to solve was stated generally, the production o f the multifarious apparatus, m ethods and devices, each adapted for use with every other, and all form ing a com prehensive system .10

T h e in te ra c tio n s p ro v id e d s tru c tu re , o r g u id e lin es , fo r in v en tiv e activity. O th e r in v e n to rs a lso u sed th e system s a p p ro a c h , h av in g , like E d iso n , e x p e r ie n c e d its s tim u la tin g e f f e c t ."

R eflec tion on E d iso n s m e th o d suggests th a t h e u sed th e system s a p p ro ach in o rd e r to em ploy th e rev erse sa lie n t-c r it ic a l p ro b le m s m e th o d , b u t s ince E d ison d id n o t ana lyze a n d a r tic u la te h is a p p ro a c h a n d m e th o d , th e h is to rian m u s t in te rp re t th e re c o rd ca re fu lly . In fact, th e re c o rd show s th a t o th e r in v e n to rs a n d e n g in e e rs u sed th e re v e rse sa lie n t-c r it ic a l p ro b lem s m e th o d d u r in g th e h a lf-c e n tu ry c o v e red by th is s tu d y ; th u s , a ttr ib u tin g th a t m e th o d to E d ison as well d o es n o t seem a fa r - fe tc h e d co n c lu s io n (see pp . 3 3 -3 7 below ). As n o te d ea r lie r , rev e rse sa lien ts a r e o b v io u s w eak p o in ts , o r w eak c o m p o n e n ts , in a tech n o lo g y w hich a re in n e e d o f f u r th e r d ev e lo p m e n t. A rev e rse sa lien t is obvious, a n d c rea tiv e im ag in a tio n is n o t n e e d e d to d e f in e it. As will be show n , th e n o n d u ra b ili ty o f e x p e r im e n ta l lam p filam en ts b e fo re 1878 was a rev e rse sa lien t in in c a n d e sc e n t- la m p system s. E dison a n d m an y o th e rs w ere aw are o f th e n e e d fo r in v en tiv e activ ities in th is a rea . In co n tra s t to a rev e rse sa lien t, th e n , th e d e f in it io n o f critical p ro b lem s by an in v e n to r d o es re q u ire c rea tiv e im a g in a tio n . C ritica l p ro b lem s re su lt f ro m th e in v e n to r s d e f in in g th e rev e rse sa lien t as a p ro b lem , o r set o f p ro b lem s, th a t, w hen so lved , will c o rre c t th e re v e rse sa lien t. (As will be seen , in E d iso n s w ork th e rev e rse sa lien ts w ere o f te n e c o n o m ic in n a tu re ; th e critical p ro b lem s, techn ica l.) A system s a p p ro a c h facilita tes th e use o f th e rev e rse sa lien tcritical p ro b lem s m e th o d b ecau se re v e rse salien ts

N E T W O R K S O F P O W E R

. " i '" u , 't |jnK n icuun 01 r.mson s public testimony, th ereproduced pages are num bered 3128-34. T he i.em is on file at .he Edison Archives in a folder labe ed E ^ m c U gh, H.stories W riiien by Thom as A. Edison lo r Henry Ford. 1926." Edison archivist A. R. Abel unable to identify the original source o f this item, i I S|>Cr7 ; also a Prf>rsional. independent inventor, introduced guidance and con-

I O .Z T * PS a ,rr ! a T |,rio r to W or,d 1 HI* ppnw cl. is similar to Edison's. SeeHughes. Sperry, csp. pp. 51-53, 63-70. 159-61 9Qn_cir,

Figure I I .I . Associates in the Edison system: Francis Upton. John Kreusi, and Charles Batchelor. Courtesy of the Edison Archives, Edison National Historic Site,

West Orange, N.J.

a re observab ly w eak in re la tio n sh ip to o th e r system co m p o n e n ts , a n d b e cause , as Edison h im se lf w ro te , th e im p ro v em en t o f o n e co m p o n e n t in a system will re v e rb e ra te th ro u g h o u t th e system a n d cause th e n eed for im p ro v e m e n ts in o th e r co m p o n e n ts , th e reb y e n ab lin g th e e n tire system to fulfill its goal m o re e ffic ien tly o r econom ically . In o th e r w ords, th e system s ap p ro a c h facilita ted th e co n cep tu a l fo rm u la tio n o f G estalt p a tte rn s a n d the v isualization o f th e inco m p le te p a r ts o f those p a tte rn s .

T h e availability o f assistan ts w ith a varie ty o f know ledge a n d skills also s tim u la ted E d ison to choose p ro b lem s th a t involved a system o f c o m p o nen ts . T h e re w ere su p e rb m echan ics, e lec tric ians, chem ists, glass blow ers, a n d o th e r skilled p e rso n s in th c M enlo P ark co m m u n ity . A fte r acq u irin g fu n d in g fo r his e lectric lig h tin g p ro jec t in th e fall o f 1878, Edison em p lo y ed a d d itio n a l m en w hose ta len ts w ere particu la rly well su ited fo r th e pro jec t. O f special im p o rta n c e a m o n g th em was F rancis U p to n , th e m a th em a tic ian a n d physicist. O th e rs , how ever, h ad been a t E d iso n s side lo r years. C h a rle s B atch e lo r, fo r in stance , was an in g en io u s m aste r c ra f tsm a n , d e x te ro u s an d sh a rp -e y e d , a n d his w id e -ran g in g e x p e rim e n ta l te ch n iq u es a n d m echan ical a p titu d e kep t h im a t E d iso n s rig h t h a n d . B a tch e lo r was so closely involved with Edison in all o f his w ork th a t his absence fro m th e lab o ra to ry is invariab ly a signal fo r M r. E dison to su sp e n d la b o r .12 J o h n K reusi, who was in ch a rg e o f th e M enlo P ark m ach in e shop , also p layed a m a jo r role in b u ild in g th e E d ison system . T ra in e d in Sw itzerland as a fine m echanic , he co u ld d eftly c o n s tru c t E d iso n s v arious d esig n s from n o th in g m o re th an ro u g h ske tches a n d c ryp tic in s tru c tio n s . H e, like B atche lo r, h ad been with Edison in N ew ark , N ew Je rse y , b e fo re th e estab lish m en t o f th e M enlo Park lab o ra to ry (see Fig. I I . I ) . 13

W hen th e e lec tric lig h tin g p ro jec t e n te re d th e d ev e lo p m en t phase , o th e rs a t M enlo P a rk w o rk ed on v a rio u s co m p o n e n ts o f th e system . D r. H e rm a n n C lau d iu s , a fo rm e r o ff ic e r in th e A u s trian T e le g ra p h C o rp s, bu ilt s im u lations o f th e system w ith b a tte r ie s fo r g e n e ra to rs , fine w ires fo r the d ist r ib u tio n system , a n d re sis to rs fo r th e load . F rancis J e h l re p o r te d that C lau d iu s h a d a t h is f in g e rtip s K irc h h o f fs laws o f c o n d u c to r n e tw o rk s .1'' T h e n am es o f so m e o f th e o th e r p io n ee rs w ho m ad e it possible for Edison to in v en t a n d d ev e lo p an e n tire system in c lu d e J o h n Basic Law son, J . F. O tt, D. A. Doc" H a id , W illiam J . H a m m e r, E d w ard H . J o h n so n , S tockton G riffin , G eo rg e a n d W illiam C a rm a n . M artin Force, a n d L udw ig B oehm (see Fig. 11.2).

T h e se v aried ta len ts w ere s u p p o r te d by a b ro a d a rray o f ex pensive m ach ine tools, chem ica l a p p a ra tu s , lib ra ry reso u rces , sc ientific in s tru m en ts , a n d electrical e q u ip m e n t .15 A m a jo r reason fo r th e e stab lish m en t o f the E dison E lectric L igh t C o m p an y , th e p a te n t-h o ld in g en te rp r is e , in O c to b e r 1878 was to a cq u ire fu n d s fo r a d d itio n a l lab o ra to ry eq u ip m e n t. T h e story

11 New York Herald, 21 December 1879. quoted in Jelil. Reminiscences, I: 59S.11 |ehl, Reminiscences, I: 54.M Ibid.. 2: 545.'* For Jelil's description of the scientific instruments, sec ibid., csp. 1: 257-71). Kolirrt

Fricdel. director of the Center for the History o f Electrical Engineering. Institute- ol Electrical and Electronics Engineers, has found no evidence in the Edison record of Edison's having borrowed the Sprcngcl pump. T he surviving record suggests that the pum p was ed at Menlo Park. Robert Fricdel, personal communication, I March 1982.

IN V R N T IO N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

Figure 11.2. Creators of the Edison system. Menlo Park. 1879. Back row.

right to Icrt: A. "Poe" Haul (chemist); Francis Upton (mathematician); Francis

/chi; and Charles Ilatchelor (master mechanic). Th ird row. third from right:

Thomas Edison. Courtesy of the Edison Archives. Edison National Historic Site.

West Orange. N.J.

2 4

(p e rh a p s ap o c ry p h a l) o f E d iso n s b o r ro w in g a S p re n g e l p u m p fro m P rin ce ton U n iversity to ach ieve th e vacu u m n e e d e d in his in c a n d e sc e n t-b u lb e x p e r im e n ts is well know n . Il m ay have led to th e e r ro n e o u s conc lusion , how ever, th a t E dison a n d U p to n d id n o t su ffic ien tly a p p re c ia te th e im p o rta n c e o f scien tific in s tru m e n ts in e x p e r im e n ta tio n , a t least n o t e n o u g h to invest heavily in th em . It m ay also have led to th e eq u a lly false conc lusion th a t E d iso n s lab o ra to ry was not as well e q u ip p e d as th e la b o ra to r ie s of m a jo r un ivers ities . In fact, th e M enlo P ark lab o ra to ry p ro b ab ly b u ilt a v acuum p u m p o f th e latest desig n . F u r th e rm o re , M en lo P a rk h a d galvan o m e te rs , sta tic g e n e ra to rs , L eyden ja r s , in d u c tio n coils ( in c lu d in g a R iih m k o rff coil cap ab le o f a 20-cm . sp a rk ), b a tte r ie s , a n d co n d e n se rs . W o o d en -b o x ed co n d e n se rs "w ere s trew n ev e ry w h e re , fo r th ey , a lo n g with v ariab le -resis tance boxes, w ere essen tia l a p p a ra tu s fo r te le g ra p h y e x p e r im e n ts .10 In a d d itio n , th e lab o ra to ry was e q u ip p e d w ith a s ta n d a rd o h m , a W hea ts to n e b rid g e , T h o m so n h igh - an d low -resistance re f le c tin g galvan o m e te rs , an asta tic g a lv a n o m e te r , a n d a H e lm h o ltz -G a u g a in ta n g e n t ga lv an o m ete r. E d iso n s e x p e rim e n ta tio n also led to th e p u rc h a se o f o th e r in v e n to rs a n d m a n u fa c tu re rs ' a p p a ra tu s , such as g e n e ra to rs , fo r testing p u rp o ses . T h e Edison lab o ra to ry at M enlo P ark was p ro b ab ly o n e o f the best electrical la b o ra to rie s in th e w orld . M oreo v er, E dison also e q u ip p e d il, a t g re a t ex p en se , as a chem ical re sea rch la b o ra to ry . The e x p en ses a n d w ages fo r e q u ip m e n t a n d p e rso n n e l w ere su b stan tia l. E d ison r e p o r te d in J a n u a ry 1879, ab o u t six m o n th s a f te r co m m en c in g th e e lec tric ligh ting p ro jec t, th a t he h ad e x p e n d e d $ 15,000 on th e pro jec t a n d th a t o p e ra tin g

N I 'T f W O R K S O F P O W E R

'*Jelil, Reminiscences. 1: 22H-9Q 9

2 6 I N V E N T I O N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

ex p en ses c o n tin u e d a t th e ra te o f ab o u t $80 0 each w eek. By N o v em b er 1879 m o re th a n $5 0 ,0 0 0 h ad b een sp e n t on th e p ro je c t.17

T h e re was a feed b ack re la tio n sh ip in all this. E d ison a ssem bled a co m m u n ity o f c ra f tsm e n a n d ap p lie rs o f science a n d th e too ls a n d scientific in s tru m e n ts they n e e d e d in o rd e r to w ork on p ro b lem s o f a system ic n a tu re , a n d th e p re sen ce o f th e se m en a n d th e ir a p p a ra tu s fu r th e r s tim u la ted him , even co n s tra in e d h im , to ch o o se to in v en t a n d d ev e lo p system s. T h e e x is tence o f a c o m m u n ity a t M en lo P ark a n d la te r a t E d iso n s la rg e r lab o ra to ry at W est O ra n g e , N ew Je rse y , d id , how ev