human communication research 1989 king

8/11/2019 Human Communication Research 1989 KING

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T h e

Effect

of Time-Compressed

Sp eech o n Com prehensive, Interpretive,

an d Short-Term Listening

PAUL

E. KING

RALPH R.

BEHNKE

Texas Christian

Universi ty

Al though

conte mp orary theoris ts view listening s a multidimensional pro ces s,

the prepond eranc e of published empirical resea rch on human comprehension of

speededspeech is ba se do n an outdated, unitary construct. In thepres ent study,

the impact of varying levels of time compression on three different types of

listening is investigated. The results indicate

that

comprehensive listening

performan ce d eter iora tes significantly

as

speech compression levels a r e ncreased

while interpretive a n d short-term listening perfo rma nce remains sta ble until

a

high de gree of time compression

(60 )

s reached. Exp lanation sfor thes e findings

ar e adv anced based upon established differences between short- an d long-term

memory p rocesses.

efinitional perspectives on listening have undergone consid-

erable transition during the past thirty years. Early scholars

D quated listening with comprehension, considering t a unitary

skill, relatively unrelated to other mental abilities (Bostrom, 1983;

Kelley, 1967). Comprehension tests, such as the Brown-Carlsen

(Brown Carlsen, 1955) and the Sequential

Test

of Educational

Progress (EducationalTesting Service, 1957) were deemed acceptable

measures of listening proficiency untilKelley (1965) ound that the tests

showed higher correlations with I Q than with one another. Recently,

theorists have suggested that listening

is

not a unitary cognitive ability

(Hosman Siltanen, 1985; Kelley, 1967), but rather a series of related

skills (Bostrom Waldhart, 1980; Lundsteen, 1979, pp. 59-61; Steil,

Barker, Watson, 1983, pp. 21-22).

Goss

(1982) outlines three

Paul

E

King (Ph.D., University

of

North Texas,

1985) s

assistant professor in the

Department

of

Spe ech Comm unication, Texa s Christian University, Fort Worth, T exas .

Ralph R. Be hn ke (Ph.D., University

of

Kansas,

1966)s

professor in the sam e depa rtme nt.

Hu ma n Comm unication Research,

Vol.

15

No.

3, Spring 1989428-443

@ 1989

International Communication Association

428


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King Behnke /

TIME-COMPRESSEDSPEECH

429

information-processingrelated skills: signal processing, literal proces-

sing, and reflective processing. Wolf, Marsnik, Tacey, and Nichols

(1983, p.

8)

contend there are six related mental activities: hearing,

selecting, assimilating, organizing, retaining, and covertly responding.

Other theorists propose yet other analytic schemes varying in both

content and number (Barker, 1971, p. 17; Bostrom Waldhart, 1980;

Steil, 1981; Wolvin Coakley, 1985, p. 74).

While listening has come

to

be seen as a series of related skills,

research on time-compressed speech has focused almost exclusively

on lecture comprehension or on message intelligibility (e.g., Foulke

Sticht, 1969,1974,pp. 478-501).

As

a result, research-based generaliza-

tions,

to

date, on the effects of time-compressed speech on listening

effectiveness appear to be based on an outmoded, unsupportable,

unitary concept of listening. Consequently, if listeningis to be regarded

as a set

of

cognitive skills, then those skills should appear, along with

comprehension measures, as dependent variables in speech communi-

cation research.

The purpose of the present study is to extend knowledge

of

the

effects of time-compressed speech

to

encompass current conceptual-

izations of listening; specifically, three of the major five skill areas

included in the Kentucky Comprehensive Listening Test: Compre-

hensive,

In

terpre tive, and Short-Term

/is

ening.

THREE MODES

OF

LISTENING

Comprehensive Listening

Wolvin and Coakley (1985, p. 161)suggest that

A

careful reading

of

the research conducted in the field of listening shows us that . . .

comprehensive listening has received the most attention. Listening

comprehension is the major, or the exclusive, component of several

published listening tests (e.g., Brown Carlsen, 1955; Educational

Testing Service, 1957).Comprehensive listening

is

typically conceptual-

ized as understanding a message and remembering it for future use

(Wolvin Coakley, 1985, p. 161);moreover, comprehensive listening

has been associated with long-term memory (Bostrom Waldhart,

1980).Some researchers have operationally defined comprehension as

the ability

to

recall facts contained in a taped lecture and, subsequently,

developed their own comprehension tests using this lecture/test model

(Beatty, Behnke, Froelich, 1980; DAlonzo Zucker, 1981;


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430

HUMAN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH / Spring 1989

Fairbanks, Guttman, Miron, 1957; Hansfeld, 1981; Rossiter, 1974;

Spiker, 1974; Woodcock Clark, 1968). While this approach does

nothing to clarify the conceptual distinction between retention and

comprehension, it is typical

of

studies investigating listening rates.

Since it was discovered that speed could be time compressed by

mechanical (Garvey, 1953)or electronic (Fairbanks, Everitt, Jaeger,

1974) means, researchers have focused on the question of how time-

compressed speech affects listening comprehension (Foulke Sticht,

1969, 1974). Schmitt (1983), Ishida (1982), and De Chicchis, Orchik,

and Tecca (1981) independently determined that 60 compression is

the level at which comprehension

is

sharply curtailed. Beyond this,

there has been little agreement among investigators concerning the

exact nature of the relationship between time-compressed speech and

listening comprehension.

Foulke(1968)proposed that a comprehension threshold exists in the

general area of 250 to 275 words per minute. Speech compression,

according to Foulke, has little effect on comprehension up to this

threshold levelbut increasing rates beyond about 250 words per minute

results in significantly decreased comprehension. Some scholars

appear to support Foulkes position by concluding that relatively small

increases in presentation rate have an unremarkable affect on listening

comprehension (Barabaz, 1968; DAlonzo Zucker, 1981; Nipper,

1976).

The actual existence of such a threshold has been seriously

questioned. First, some studies have found a decline in comprehension

at low to moderate levelsof time compression, which argues against the

existence of a threshold effect (Kussat, 1974; Rossiter, 1974). Second,

Carver (1973) suggests that the comprehension threshold

is

an artifact

produced by very difficult items intended to provide an adequate top

end for a multiple-choice est. This practice, Carver contends, distorts

what might actually be a linear relationship. More accurate assessment

of the relationship between time-compressed speech and listening

comprehension has been the goal of several previous investigators

(Beatty, Behnke, Goodyear, 1979; Behnke Beatty, 1977,1980).

Despite continuing debate over the existence of a comprehension

threshold, the

loss

of

comprehension resulting from rate-altered speech

will most likely be sustained. Foulke and Sticht (1974, pp. 498-500)

explain this phenomenon as a two-process hypothesis. Briefly, they

conclude that information overloads processing capacity, resulting in a

memory loss. Cognitive information processing requires time and


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King, Behnke /

TIME-COMPRESSEDSPEECH 431

increases in processing load (e.g., number of constructs dealt with per

unit of time, or time pressure) retard processing and decision making

(Kahneman, 1973, pp. 24-26).It

is

important to note that comprehension

loss accompanying moderate levels of speech compression does not

appear to be associated with a loss

of

message intelligibility (Fairbanks

Kodman, 1951).

Consequently, it

is

safe to conclude that, for comprehensive listening

tasks, increasing levels of time compression will reduce listening

effectiveness. Since there is no compelling rationale to exempt low to

moderate

levels

of time compression from this loss of comprehension

and since the existence of a comprehension threshold has been

seriously challenged, it seems likely that any increase in speed, by

reducing processing time, will decrease comprehension.

Short-Term Listening

Short-term listening has been defined as the reception, processing,

and retention of orally conveyed information, limited in scope, for time

periods averaging less than 40 seconds (Bostrom Bryant, 1980;

Bostrom Waldhart, 1980).Although short-term listening

is

viewed as

an important communication competency, the effect of speech presen-

tation rate on short-term listening is unclear, and while compressed

speech adversely affects comprehensive listening, short-term tasks

may not be affected in the same way. Some striking differences between

short- and long-term memory have been identified (Norman, 1982, pp.

18-27). Short-term memory

(STM)

operates faster than long-term

memory (LTM), which must retrieve information by accessing stored

associations (Baddeley, 1986, p. 12). Items in STM are very recent

acquisitions hat are immediately accessible (Waugh, 1970).Information

may reach LTM only through rehearsal and in-depth processing

(Klatzky, 1980,p. 12). Craik and Lockhart (1972, p. 675) suggest that

trace persistence

is a

function of depth of analysis, with deeper

levels

of

analysis associated with more elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger

traces.

High speech rates do not allow adequate time for elaborate

associations to be formed and meanings to be inferred, therefore

compressed speech should retard LTM more than STM. Murdock

provides evidence that this is, in fact, quite likely. In studying primacy-

recency effects in information processing, it was found that recency

effects result from maintaining the recent information in

STM

and


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432

HUMAN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH / Spring 1989

earlier information n LTM (Murdock, 1962). Since short-term listening

involves the aural reception of a limited amount of information, it should

be

less

affected by higher speech rates than long-term 1istenin.g tasks.

Interpretive Listening

The impact of time-compressed speech on interpretive listening has

not been assessed. Interpretive listening is the detection

of

inferred

meaning through the metalinguistic factor

w e

typically call vocalic

(Bostrom, 1983, p. 3). Attribution of correct meaning often involves

reading between the lines during listening. Correct interpretation of

sarcastic comments, for example, requires careful attention to more

than words. Clearly, nonverbal cues are an important component of

interpretive listening.

So

long as an adequate portion of the original

signal remains after speech compression, vocalic, nonverbal cues

should

still

be interpretable.

If

this is the case, low to moderate levelsof

speech compression should not significantly affect interpretive listening

behavior. Schwabb and Travers (1975) asked subjects to listen to

counseling tapes at up to twice normal speed. Most judgments of

counselee emotion were unaltered by speech compression, even

though comprehension was significantly reduced. Attitudes toward the

purchase of products (Schinger et al., 1983) and signing of petitions

(Wheeless, 1971) have not been significantly altered by speeded

speech. One might conclude from these studies that, under high

compression rates, the nonverbal components of messages are less

affected, perhaps better evaluated and remembered, than verbal

components.

Possibly, judgments of meaning, attitude, or intent are

so

global as

not to require intensive concentration on every word of the message.

When describing appropriate counselor listening behavior, Watts

(1983,

p.

116) argues against attention to exact content of language.

Watts contends that such close monitoring of exact content in the

interview setting may unduly increase information-processingrequire-

ments.

In conclusion, interpretive listening should have less stringent

information-processingdemands than comprehensive listening and, as

a result, should be less affected by compressed speech presentations

than comprehensive listening.

Based upon the nonunitary perspective

of

listening as a set of

cognitive skills and upon previous empirical research, the following

hypotheses are advanced:


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King Behnke

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TIME-COMPRESSED SPEECH

433

( H l )

Comprehensive listening effectivenesswill decrease significantly

as

speech

compression levels increase.

(H2)

Short-term

listening

effectiveness

will

not decrease significantly until

a

high

level

of

time compression

(60 ) s

reached.

(H3) Interpretive istening effectiveness ill not decrease

significantlyuntil

a

high level of time compression (60 )s reached.

METHOD

Sample

Participants were 120 undergraduate students enrolled at

a

major

midsized southwestern university. Subjects ranged from

18to

24 years

of age (58 females, 62 males) and were drawn from lecture-oriented,

sophomore-level speech communication courses. All students were

given class credit for participating in the study.

Dependent Measures

The dependent variables, comprehensive, short-term, and inter-

pretive listening, were

assessed

by the Kentucky Comprehensive

Listening Test, subscales

I,

111 and IV. Subscale

I

is

a

test

of

short-term

listening ability during which subjects listen

to

a series of numbers or

letters and are asked to respond to a question regarding sequence or

magnitude of the stimulus material. Subscale I11 is a test of interpretive

listening ability. In this case, subjects listen to segments of dialogue and

answer questions regarding the meaning or intentions

of

the individuals

engaged in the dialogue. Subscale

IV

is a comprehension test in which

subjects listen

to

a formal lecture.

For listening test data collected in the present study,

K-R

ormula 20

reliabilities, using the Horst correction formula, were computed (Horst,

1953).Reliabilities of .84,

.84

and .81were found for subscales I, IV, and

111, respectively. These reliability figures are comparable, although

somewhat higher than the test-retest reliabilities

of

.78

to

.87 reported

earlier (Bostrom, 1984,

p.

2). Item number nine of subscale was

deleted from the analysis because of its very low intercorrelation with

other items on the subscale and its consequent attenuation of test

reliability.

Bostrom (1980,1984, pp. 2-4) has presented evidence of construct

validity by relating the Kentucky Comprehensive Listening Test

to a

variety of information-processing and communication variables.

Bostrom (1984, p. 4) concludes:


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HUMAN COMM UNICATION RESEARCH / pring

1989

The

Kentucky C omprehensiveListening

Tes t

.. s

a valid measure of the

acquisition

of

information. In addition, it

is

not a measure

of

academic

achievement

or

reading ability, and fits comfortably into

a

multi-

dimensional model ofcommunication attitudes and abilities.

Independent Variable

To ensure that subjects were responding to the rate-compressed

listening tasks and not evidencing reduced test scores due to lack of

marking time or the misunderstanding of hurried (time-compressed)

instructions, stimulus materials on the Kentucky comprehensive

Listening Test were presented at compressed rates while instructions

were given at normal rates.

New listening test tapes were recorded that preserved normal-rate

instructions and original duration pauses for marking answers. To

accomplish this, the original Kentucky comprehensive Listening Test

was dubbed using various levels of compression. Compressed materials

were inserted into the normal-rate framework (instructions and dead

time for answering questions) of the test. Four distinct stimulus tapes

were produced. Tape one was a normal speed version; tapes two,

three, and four were versions with stimulus materials compressed at

respective levelsof

30 , 45 ,

and

60

while all instructional comments

and dead time remained at 0 time compression. These

levels

of

compression are commonly used in studies of time-compressed speech

and represent low, moderate, and high levels

of

time compression.

Procedure

Participants were randomly assigned to four groups. Group one

functioned as the control group and responded to the Kentucky

Comprehensive Listening Test at normal presentation rates. Groups

two through four completed the test under 30 , 45 , and 60 time-

compression conditions, respectively. Since it was important that

group assignment be truly random, no attempt was made to stratify

group membership according to sex or scholastic classification.

To

ensure that the resulting random distribution did not contain dramatic

inequalities in sex and scholastic composition, two separate chi-square

tests

of

independence were conducted.

A

nonsignificant chi-square of

.66

(df

3,

significance level

.88

indicated that sex and group

membership were independent and a nonsignificant chi-square of 8.25

(df

= 9,

significance level

= .5)

indicated that classification and group


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435

membership were independent and well within the tolerance levels for

normally distributed data.

Stat

s

tical Analysis

A series of one-way analyses of variance tests was computed to

determine if the distribution of scores contained significant variation

between experimentalgroups. Statisticalpower for this test, anticipating

a moderate effect size, with

cell

n

=

30,

k

=

4,

and a maximum alpha

tolerance .05, is 67 (Cohen, 1969, p. 310). Where main effects were

found, Scheffe tests were computed to determine which group means

were significantly different from the control group, or from each other.

Estimates of variance accounted for were also computed. Analyses of

trends were performed using orthogonal contrasts (Ferguson, 1981).

RESULTS

Comprehensive Listening

Hypothesis number one stated that comprehensive listening effec-

tiveness would decrease significantly as compression level increased.

Results of a one-wayanalysis of variance, fixed-effectsmodel, indicated

significant variation between the experimental groups (F= 16.35; df 3,

116;

p = .OOOl .

The significant difference in scores between groups showed a clear

downward trend corresponding to increases in time compression,

thereby providing support for hypothesis one. The means ranged from

a high

of

8.43

in the control group to a low of 5.17 in the group listening

at 60 time compression. The mean score for group two

(30

compression) was 7.57 and the mean score for group three (45

compression) was 6.83.

In order to understand better the strength of the relationship

between group membership and comprehensive listening (subscale

IV)

test scores, etaZ was computed. The results (.297) confirmed that

approximately 30 of the variance in listening comprehension was

accounted for by level of time compression.

Simple means, displayed in Table 1, were tested using the Scheffe

procedure with alpha set at .05. The control group and the 45

compression group were significantly different from one another (p

human communication research 1989 king

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