Human Resources Training Human Resources Training and Individual and Individual DevelopmentDevelopment

Motivation TheoriesFebruary 4, 2004

Class OverviewClass Overview

• Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

• Goal Setting TheoryGoal Setting Theory

• Social Cognitive TheorySocial Cognitive Theory

Motivation: Why Do We Motivation: Why Do We Care?Care?

OpportunityMotivation

Performance = f (Ability, Motivation, Opportunity)

Ability

PERFORMANCE

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

• Motivation is fostered when the Motivation is fostered when the employee believes three things:employee believes three things:– That effort will result in performanceThat effort will result in performance

•This is termed “Expectancy”This is termed “Expectancy”

– That performance will result in outcomesThat performance will result in outcomes•This is termed “Instrumentality”This is termed “Instrumentality”

– That those outcomes will be valuableThat those outcomes will be valuable•This is termed “Valence”This is termed “Valence”

Effort

Performance

Expectancy

Instrumentality

Valence ofRewards

Rewards

JobPerformanceMotivation

X

X

Motivation=V*I*E

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Two BeliefsTwo Beliefs

• EXPECTANCY: Effort EXPECTANCY: Effort Performance Performance– What can hinder this link?What can hinder this link?– What can you do about it?What can you do about it?

• INSTRUMENTALITY: Performance INSTRUMENTALITY: Performance OutcomesOutcomes– What can hinder this link?What can hinder this link?– What can you do about it?What can you do about it?

ValenceValence

• Anticipated value of outcomes. Anticipated value of outcomes. Includes:Includes:– Extrinsic outcomes:Extrinsic outcomes:

• • •

– Intrinsic outcomes:Intrinsic outcomes:• • •

Expectancy Theory Expectancy Theory ExerciseExercise

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

• Motivation = (EMotivation = (EP) x (PP) x (PO) x O) x VV11

VV22

VV33

VV44

• What happens if either expectancy, What happens if either expectancy, instrumentality, or valence is zero?instrumentality, or valence is zero?

VIDEO CASEVIDEO CASE

Expectancy: Empirical Expectancy: Empirical StatusStatus• Expectancy theory generally has been Expectancy theory generally has been

supported by the literature, with a few supported by the literature, with a few caveats:caveats:– The components appear to be additive as The components appear to be additive as

opposed to multiplicativeopposed to multiplicative– Within subjects analyses show better results Within subjects analyses show better results

than between subjectsthan between subjects– Although generally supported, people are not Although generally supported, people are not

always “hedonic rationalists” as predicted by always “hedonic rationalists” as predicted by the theorythe theory

Goal Setting TheoryGoal Setting Theory

• Motivation is fostered when Motivation is fostered when employees are given challenging and employees are given challenging and specific goals (rather than easy specific goals (rather than easy goals, abstract goals, or no goals)goals, abstract goals, or no goals)

Goal Setting TheoryGoal Setting Theory

Goals can be an invaluable tool if– Achieving organizational goals

results in desired outcomes for the employee

– Achieving employees’ goals results in desired outcomes for the organization

ChallengingAnd Specific Goals

Motivation andTask Performance

Participation

Coaching andModeling

Self-Efficacy

Feedback

Commitment

Resources

Goal Setting TheoryGoal Setting Theory

• Supported in a variety of contextsSupported in a variety of contexts– Beaver trappers, Salespeople, Engineers, Beaver trappers, Salespeople, Engineers,

Assembly line workers, Baggage handlers, Assembly line workers, Baggage handlers, College students, Loggers, Brain injury College students, Loggers, Brain injury patientspatients

• Goal effects are stronger when:Goal effects are stronger when:– Feedback on progress is givenFeedback on progress is given– Goal commitment is fosteredGoal commitment is fostered– Adequate resources are providedAdequate resources are provided

Per

cent

age

of M

axim

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erce

ntag

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Max

imum

Wei

ght

Car

ried

on

Eac

h T

rip

Car

ried

on

Eac

h T

rip

Before Goal

AfterGoal Four-Week PeriodsFour-Week Periods

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

SevenYears Later

9494

There was drasticincrease in perf-ormance after a

goal was set

Performance at goal wassustained seven years after

the goal was first set

Effects of Goals on Effects of Goals on PerformancePerformance

Feedback and Goal SettingFeedback and Goal SettingM

ean

Gro

up

Eff

ecti

ven

ess

Ind

exM

ean

Gro

up

Eff

ecti

ven

ess

Ind

exFeedback + goal setting + incentives (530)High

Low

100

200

300

400

500

1-9 10-14 15-19 20-24

Time (in months)Time (in months)

Feedback + goalsetting (520)

Feedback (380)

Baseline(before

feedback)(108)

Feedback and goalsetting improved

group effectivenesseven more

Feedback improvedgroup effectiveness

Empirical StatusEmpirical Status

• The two key principles of goal setting The two key principles of goal setting theory have been supportedtheory have been supported– Research clearly shows that specific goals Research clearly shows that specific goals

lead to greater motivation than “do your lead to greater motivation than “do your best” goalsbest” goals

– Research also shows that difficult goals lead Research also shows that difficult goals lead to higher motivation than easier goalsto higher motivation than easier goals

• Where to set goals?Where to set goals?– At the maximum level that employees will At the maximum level that employees will

accept and commit toaccept and commit to

SMART Goals/ObjectivesSMART Goals/Objectives

SpecificSpecific -- Clear goalsClear goals

• MeasurableMeasurable -- Quantifiable Quantifiable elementselements

• AgreedAgreed - - Not imposedNot imposed

• RealisticRealistic -- AchievableAchievable

• Time Specific -Time Specific - DeadlinesDeadlines

Motivation Video ClipMotivation Video Clip

Self-RegulationSelf-Regulation

• Social cognitive theory: effort and persistenceSocial cognitive theory: effort and persistence• Self-regulatory processesSelf-regulatory processes

– Minimize negative discrepancies between Minimize negative discrepancies between performance and standards through performance and standards through effort/persistenceeffort/persistence

– Create positive discrepancy between performance Create positive discrepancy between performance and standards by setting goals at a higher level and standards by setting goals at a higher level than past performancethan past performance

– Put forth effort to reduce the discrepancyPut forth effort to reduce the discrepancy

• The role of feedbackThe role of feedback• Implications for well-beingImplications for well-being

MondayMonday

• Transfer of trainingTransfer of training

• Read Chapter 5 from the textbookRead Chapter 5 from the textbook