Humanism : The History of Early Ages of Intellectual and Scientific Impetus (Rennaisance) in Italy and Europe 1200 -

1500 A.D.

By Ahmad Daud ibn Ishak el-Merbawiy Centre for Islamic Thought and Understanding (CITU)

MARA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY TERENGGANU CAMPUS 23000 Dungun, Terengganu, MALAYSIA

INTRODUCTION

This writing tries to discover a rebirth of the new environment of

humanity, intellectual and liberty for European societies on their

capacity of knowledge, human right as individual, family, party and

society after long period been cramped by Feudalism and

Eccliasticism upon their freedom of thought, liberty, literature,

recognized nature. Humanist emerged to reshape the future

civilization. Generally humanism for us is usually refer to the

development of literature, language, poetry, art, social, human values1

and rhetoric in Latin or Greek. Indeed, humanism has the important

role in early ages of Rennaisance which was recognized and actually it

was the turning point to scientific revolution in Italy and western

Europe.

THE HUMANISM PHENOMENON

Etymological Aspect.

Humanism is derived from humanitas or humanus of Latin which used

by Cicero and Aulus Gellius referring to the study of human letters,

the languages and literature of Greece and Roman classics, where by

many humanists believed that the study was the only way to gain

humane culture.2 Thus humanity also means owing himself as man or

in sense of doctrina means mental cultivation befitting a man, liberal

1 Chales B. Shmitt, Humanism in The Cambridge History of Rennaisance Philosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ,1990 p.1132A.S.Rappoport, R.F. Patterson and John Dougall, Encyclopaedia Dictionary of The World, V.6, New Delhi : Akashdeep Publishing House, 1989, p.226.; See DPRE, p.137

education, good breeding, elegance of manners and language

refinement.3 It defines as an attitude of mind attaching to human

values and regards as the central theme of Rennaisance.4 In the sense

of philosophy, humanism recognizes the value, dignity of man, man as

the measure of all things or somehow puts human nature’s unlimited

interest as the theme.5 When humanism reached to the revolting

against the limitations on knowledge, they allowed reviving and

learning and emphasized on enjoying this existence to the utmost.6

Humanism will upgrading human over natures, participating, having

great desire and impressively develop their rational ability and

governing the world. The humanism has provided wide spectrum of

freedom in thought, liberty of educational desire, freedom of

expression their classical languages, arts, poets, social hierarchy and

human dignity been apprenticed. They become the center of every

things, having freedom in wills, discoveries, critics against pseudo-

doctrines and seeking the true knowledge.

Concept of Humanism

Humanism is a term applied to the literary and intellectual movement

which started at close of the middle ages about fourteenth century

until sixteenth century. The focused was on antiquity, emancipated

education and thought over the shackles scholasticism, accentuating

the meaning and worthy mundane of freedom in thought and act from

the Ecclesiastics slavery bondage.7 Paul Edward in The Encyclopedia

of Philosophy elaborates that humanism is a basic aspect of

3 Charton T. Lewis, A Latin Dictionary, Oxford : The Clarendon Press, 1987, p.8694 The New Encyclopedia Britanica, ver.Micropaedia Britanica, Vol. 6, New York : Encyclopedia Britanica Incorp., 1985 p.137; See DPRE. p.137.5 Paul Edwards, The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, New York : Macmillan; London : Collier Macmillan, Vol.4, 1972, p. 69.6.Dagobert D. Runes and Authors, Dictionary of Philosophy, Ancient, Medieval and Modern, New Jersey : Littlefield Adam Co., 1981, p.130.7 See EDTW . Vol.6, p.226

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Rannaisance to reintegrate man into the nature of world from his

perspective by educating man, giving their rationale authority,

reshaping nature and their history and inheriting the positive ancient

literature for the future progressive activities. 8

Two major humanistic school of thought are firstly the intellectual

movement characterized the culture of literature of classical Greece

and Roman, where still perfectly consistence with belief in God and

particular Christianity and second school of thought in the late

fourteenth century was rejected all religious beliefs and insisted that

they would be exclusively concerned on human welfare and natural

world.9 Prof. Hans Baron who saying that there is no contradiction

between his books of De Vita Assiciabili et Operativa and De Seculo et

Religione of Colluccio Salutati (1331-1374) where the second book

tried to give a guidance for a friend who entered monastic order. He

asserted in his rescuer bookVita Activa, that although he suggested

contemplative life is the best, but yet it’s not always preferable.10

The seculum was established as the characteristic of Quotrocento

against the feudal authorities and Ecclesiastics who performed very

rigid towards worldly natures, humanities and religious practices.

Patrarach’s book on De Vita Solitaria and Vita Monastrica who saying

that there is no religious conformity stand for people who involved

actively in worldly activities to provide a proper way of life.11 Salutati

tried very hard to employ standards between two extremes and knew

precisely the distruction because of misinterpretation among the

humanist friends.8 Paul Edwards, The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, Vol. 4, New York : Macmillan ; London : Collier Macmillan , 1972, p.69-70.9 Deter A.Angeles, Dictionary of Philosophy, New York : Harperprennial, First Ed.,1991, p11610 Hans Baron, The Crisis of The Ealy Italian Rennaisance, New Jersey : Princeton University Press, (New Revision ) 1966. p. 105-108.11 Ibid, p.109-110

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HUMANISM IN ITALY AND IMPACT TO RENNAISANCE

Europe in twelfth and thirteenth century has terribly low in general

knowledge. Only few of them could writing and majority knew nothing

about science, art etc. The famous two books; The Bible and The

Encyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge which compiled by Aristotle in

fourth century B.C. The Letters reached Northern Europe via the

Moors in Spain. Who ever opposed the two books, they might be

considered as propagating black magic and being executed by the

Holy Inquisition of papal court which has established since 13th

century. That was the age of the famous Christian theologian St.

Thomas Aquinas and the significant case of Nicholus Copernicus

(1473-1553) who explained the motion of heavenly bodies as the

result of rotation of the earth and has to withdraw it due to his

security. This moment of inspired the scholar and poet, Francesco

Petrarca (Ig. Petrarach) (1304-1374) who rouse the Italian people by

his stories about love and nature. Art and literature, became crazy for

newly discovered on beauty of the words in ancient Greece and

Roman. The learned scholars in 14th century called Humanists and

were considered the heroes of these period.12

Humanist The Founder and Intellectual Activists.

First of all, Italian humanist Pertrarach (1304-1374) whose

scholarship in classics Latin writings and the other groups gave

impetus to a movement that eventually spread from Italy to all over

the western Europe. Humanist has facilitated Latin language well in

every disciplinary of studies on literature especially in Latin and

Greece classics literature and poetry. They encouraged people an

attitude which exalting men’s receptionship to God, believe in free

12 S.W.Tromp, The Religion of Modern Science (Neo Materealism), Leiden : L.W. Sithoff’s Hitgeversmaatschappi, 1947 p. 353-354.

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wills and superiority of men over nature. The antiquity as mentioned

before is concern about the finding on man’s request for truth and

goodness, confirmation on a system of philosophy, religious doctrine

and abstract reasoning which in favor for human values.13

It is very significance to explain that humanists were challenge the

order of Ecclaiscist bodies and influence human mind towards a new

paradigm shift of new interpretation of knowledge. A. S. Rappoport

and the authors listed out their functions as the scholars and poets,

great lover in learning the beauty of thought, broader outlook upon

life and humanity of spirit and regard human life as an independent

center of interest and at last, man will become the center of every

things and measure of their own superiority.14

Italian humanists had an ability and more powerful at playing these

roles and activities from inside the Ecclesiastic bodies, papal

institutions and the authority bodies in the name of literature,

learning ancient classics art, education and as leaders in high

institution such as Italian Universities were governed by humanism

activists. The humanist founder Petrarach was the great lyric poet,

very enthusiastic of Roman antiquity and untiring collector of ancient

manuscripts due to his concern on the important of a knowledge of

Greece. Dante (1265-13210) who gave final expression to the loftiest

spirit of medievalist. Boccaccio (1313-1375), who passionately

collecting all characteristics of early humanist, the first Grecian

Leotard Greek language from Leontius Pilatus in Florence and a

figure who was the first introduced to Greek language was Manuel

Chrysoloras a ‘native of Byzantine’ in Florence in 1396. They attained

the higher position and played major roles to influence people, as

13 Micropaedia Britanica, Vol.6, p.137 14 EDTW., Vol.6. p. 226

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lectures to the numbers of all ranking society and also became

wealthy men who later became patrons of humanism. The

distinguished figures were Nicholas V, Pius II and Leo X and other

patrons were Cosmo and Lorenzo de Medici in Florence, Alfonso, King

of Naples and many others insisted humanists.15

Humanists and New Italian Mentality

Italian Humanists in fifteenth century were successfully influenced

people by numbers of efficient efforts including their professional

works, effective literary productions, their recognized achievements

and the contributions in philosophical foundation.16

The educators actually are very important part in delivering theories,

teaching and tutoring on reforming the higher learning institutions in

Europe. For instance the School of Guarno de Verona In Ferara and

Vitturino de Feltre in Mantua attracted students from all over

Europe17 to study there. They emitated on curriculum design, on

learning methodologies, classical languages, literary information and

intellectual disciplines as moral standards. The influenced educational

method flourished without interruption by the rapid changes and

surviving in many religions, political and social revolution. They were

professors at various universities including Florentine Studio, Luca,

Venice and Milan. Instead of servicing at universities, they also

involved as chancellors or secretaries, Master of Latin prose

composition, informal orators for King and Princes for instance

Petrarach had ever served the Princes of Milan and Padua.18

15 See EDWT, Vol.6, p. 227.16 Charles B.Shmitt and Editors, The Cambridge History of Rennaisance Philosophy,(CHRP) Cambridge :Cambridge University Press, 1990, p.114 -137.17 Ibid, Professional Activities; Humanis, CHRP, p. 114.18 Ibid, Professional Activities; Humanism, CHRP, p.115

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In Universities, humanists played persistent roles in the curriculum of

the universities. They also served the papal Curia and the Florentine

Republic, the King of Naples, the dukes of Milan and other princes

republic,19 appeared in courts of foreign king and princes and pursued

career abroad.20Later on many humanist student also involved actively

in public as teachers, secretaries, churchmen, statesmen, bankers,

merchants, patrons of humanist scholarship, productive scholars and

writers such as Pius II, was writing after appointed as cardinal and

pope. They also happened to be bishops, clerics or monks, or member

of ruling circle in Florence or Venice.21 In the middle of the fifteenth

century, many humanists became lawyers, physicians, theologians

who learned humanists at universities and became part timer scholars

and writers.

In Academic field, humanists were among the book traders and have

established for mass production22 and they were book suppliers to

monastic and process cathedral libraries, for Ecclesiastical bodies,

princely and noble collectors, the university professors and students.23

By sixteenth century there were countless printing processes actively

operated in Europe and the leading institutional centers of publishing

and book traders were widespread in Venice, Lyons and Basle

whereby about the books of classical heritage and humanist contents.

19 Ibid, Professional Activities; Humanism, CHRP, p.116;See footnote 10, the listing name of orators like Colluccio Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, Poggio Bracciolini, Antonio Beccadelli (Panormita), Giovanni Pontano, P.C. Decembro and many others.20 Ibid, Professional Activities; Humanism, CHRP, p.116 ; See fotenote 11, among the the abroad activies were Enea Silvio Piccolomini, later Pope Pius II, Served as sectretary at the imperial court; Philippus Callimacus in Poland and Polydore Vergil in England. 21Ibid, Professional Activities; Humanism, CHRP, p.116 See foonote 13 about the last group were include Donetto Acciauoli, Alamanno Rinnuccini, and Giannoz zo Manetti in Florence; Francesco and Ermolao Barbaro, Leornardo and Bernardo Giustiniani in Venice.22 The first established printing in Italy by Italian Humanists was in 1465.23 Ibid, Professional Activities, Humanism, CHRP, p.117-118,

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As scholars of literature, humanists focused on their productions for

developing public opinion. Sometime they omitting technical

terminology to prioritize on conceptual precision which required for

adequate philosophical discourses.24One tendency which very

successful was replacing scholastic philosophy with rhetoric has done

by Lorenzo Valla. The fine genre and oration of humanist were used in

many functions like judiciary, deliberation in classical and the original

practice, funerals, wedding speeches, ambassador’s speeches, an

augral of newly elected popes or magistrates, speeches on graduation

occasions, speeches of the beginning school year, opening of laity

customs or religious gathering and state letters.25 According to the

contributions given by humanist, they were considered successful to

reconstruct Italian culture and new civilization through the classic

Latin and Greek literature.

The humanist achievement in fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and

among the glorious parts are the Latin literature was wide circulated

in manuscripts and printed editions.26They produced humanist scripts

on education, textual criticisms, interpretation of the ancient writers,

study Latin grammar, vocabulary, spelling and prosody.27 This period

of the west started to accept the Byzantine scholars to impose their

methods and traditions in teaching to western students and

colleagues.28.One step forwards success in second half of fifteenth 24 Ibid , Scholar Movements and Literary production, Humanism, CHRP. p.119-123.25Ibid, Scholar Movement and Literary Producttion, Humanism, CHRP p.124-127.The distinguished publisher Aldus Manitius was in Venice while Estienne and Morel families well known as scholarly editors, proofreaders and writers on their own of both Latin and Greek classic texts26 Ibid, The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Humanism, CHRP, p. 130-13327 The Greek’s translations into Latin in various parts of huamists were known intrested on them.28 Ibid, The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Humanism, CHRP, p. 131; See also footnote 48, They were included Cardinal Bessarion, Theodore Gaza, George of Thebizond and Agyropolos., Dematrius Chalcondylas and Marcus Musurus., Constantine and James Laccaris and many others. The most distinguished Greek scholars involved were Poliziano and Ermolao Barbaro; also see original on Geanalcoplos:1962 (ed. 1966).

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century was extending their interested subject out of the humanist

traditions, later on many of them became philosophers, scientists,

physicians, medical scholars, jurists and even theologians.29

Aftermath, the humanists traveled on teaching abroad, communicated

with foreign patrons, students, scholars who visited Italian

universities and so on. Petrarach and friends reached Bohmia and

France in early fourteenth century and the leading center of Italian

humanism in Hungary was ‘The Court of Matthias’. Some of the

foreign humanists who surpassing Italian humanist movement

contemporaries.30 In late sixteenth century and early seventeenth,

humanist Latin poetry and prose were widespread in the north, west

and east of Europe like in Italy, and Flonshed in Scotland, Portugal,

Portland, England, Spain France and Germany. In France humanist

movements became the leading centers of classical scholarship, both

in Latin and Greek.31

Finally the main contribution of humanists was in philosophy which

happened direct or indirect contributions on the ancient ideas of

philosophy especially Aristotelian philosophers were famous as

scholastics; meanwhile Platonist metaphysics had influenced by

humanism and scholasticism including Plato’s and Neo-Platonist

works initiated by Ficino. Humanists still has significant or greater

contributions in philosophy ‘as a systematic and technical discussion’

of the subject matters,32 Actually humanism doesn’t contribute in

general but in individual form or small group of humanists like Valla

29 Ibid, The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Humanism, CHRP p.131-132; also see footnote 42, mentioned that the list of the figures involeved were Marsilo Ficino and Giovanni Pico; Leon Battista Alborti and Giorgio Valla; Niccolo Leoniceno; Andrea Alciato, Giles of Viterbo and many others.30 They were Johannes Reuchlin, Erasmus, Guillaume Bonde, Thomas More and Juan Luis Vives.31 Opcit, The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Humanism, CHRP, p. 13332 As mentioned by the ancient or medieval period of scholars.

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and Agricola up to Rasmus and Nizolio for example, they tried to

replace the conceptual precision with the syllogism of invention topic

and argument, the method of evidence, and deductive clarity.33

While indirect contributions were including providing sources of the

ancient philosophy and science, discussions or commentaries,

interpretation of materials which later on directed to mathematics,

medicine, botany or others sciences based on Greece commentators of

Aristotle influenced. The conducive environment for the intellectual

climate in the new science and philosophy provided by Rennaisance

humanism. Philosophers and few scholars has linked with humanism

rather than be associated with Platonism, yet all sources directly

provided by humanist.34 This proves are giving crystal clear that

humanist had played the important roles to be a foundation and early

stage of development in Italian mind, culture and intellectual

achievements.

The Humanist Legacies

Italian Humanists ventured many areas in writing productions on

their literary developments and achievements. The great achievement

were in Latin and Greek literature, scientific and philosophy, history

and human sciences, religion and education.35

It’s very precise that Italian humanism have their own legacies

to the world be proud off, as the concrete proved that they have done

a reformation upon Italy and citizens, and also to the society where’s

very close to her. From their amazing works in very basic of human

33 Opcit, Humanism and Philosophy, Humanism, CHRP, p.134-135.34 Ibid, Humanis and Philosophy, Humanism, CHRP, p. 135-13735 John O. Reidl, A Catalogue of Rennaisance Philosophers, Milwaukee : Marquete University Press, 1940, p.1-2; 35-59.

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knowledge’s and inquiries, it must placed them as reformer to the

new era called Rennaisance.

HUMANISM : INTELLECTUAL AND SCIENTIFIC IMPETUS

Italian Humanism and Transferring Process to Europe.

Peter used verb ‘spread’ of humanism to show that Italian humanism

was spreading to all western Europe like an oil slicked.36That is

happened to Italian humanism transferring to western Europe in

fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. There were many ways such as by

the Italian expatriates to European countries, immigrants to Europe

and European people were coming to the Italian famous cities.

Humanists were invited by European rulers or being encouraged on

working in Europe. The Protestant seeking for literary study in Greek

and Latin, moral literature and attractive model of education at higher

learning institutions. European students learnt humanist and

diplomatic which suited to Italian civilization. Meanwhile European

countries odder many books from Florence and finally European

academic terminology’s were used according to Italian humanist’s

frame work.37

Humanist Reformation in European Society.

Humanism urged great changes and tried to reform the European

countries directly or indirectly through the strong organizational

movements, political thought, in the court and art, also in magic and

36 Peter Burke, The Spread of Italian Humanism in Prof. Danys Hay compilation of Humanism Essays entitled The Impact of Humanism on Western Europe (IHWE), London and New York : Longman, 1990, p. 2-3. 37 Ibid, The Spread of Italian Humanism, see IHWE, p.3-20.

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science area were not putting aside. That was wide range of the

reformation to the massive western European societies. Here it should

be discussed two significant reforms ever happened in Italian

humanism towards western Europe.

Humanist Movement

Apparently humanists had influenced people in religious practices,

education’s, developing institutional of higher learning, establishing

art and literary studies,38 social activities especially in seeking

knowledge and well behave with humanist ethics. So, the humanists

have their own way to reform the society39 without any antagonistic

action, anti establishment and sharp ideological contradictory.

They accustomed European people gradually to pursuit of holiness,40

shifted people mind into philosophic-theologically based on a ‘positive’

point of view like ‘Biblical Humanism’ of Erasmus, had closed

collaboration with church fathers, Judaic and Rabbinical writings and

performed alliance with the reformist groups in social activities such

as for educational application in all level of European society.

Humanist and Scientific Development

Angelo Poliziano and Giovanni Pica, the humanists started with

massive works on prescribing how far one should follow the ancient

poet rules. He said :

“I began to wonder, most learned Pico, if these ancient observations were derived from natural cases or from the crudity of vulgar.”41

38 Peter Materson, Humanism and Reform Movement, IHWE, p. 24 - 26.39 Ibid, IHWE, p. 27, See footnote 20 on the persuit of holiness in late medieval and Rennaisance Religion, ed. Trinkaus and O. Oberman, (Leiden : 1974).40 Ibid, IHWE, p.27 -32.41 Antony Grafton , Humanism, Magic and Science, IHWE, p.99 -100.; See original, that the relevent portions of pliticiono’s letters ( epistolae: Prose volgari imedite e poesie latine e greeko edite e enidite (Florence :1867) , p.326 -328.

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In the late 1480s, and early 1490s two of them embarked on physical

and intellectual voyages of greatest novelty and interest. Poliziano

interested in the dialectic, metaphysics and natural philosophy of the

ancients and had change focus from the incomplete ‘Sucunda

Centuria’ of his ‘Miscellane’.42 During the second half of fifteenth

century, humanists literary studies has decisive effects on the history

of natural philosophy, the theory and practices magic and the original

modern science.

They also imposed Empirical Medical Science, history cases for

instance in Hippocratic epidemic and Galenic anotomae which was

on use of the part of the body. They applied empirical method in

consistent way like Vasalius, in making correction of textual errors,

establishing of genealogies of botany and natural history areas.

Humanists exactly offered the firm foundation on which new science

could be conveniently emerged.43

Humanists also reoriented the rhetoric of natural philosophy in

fundamental way, they discovered new ways of scientific provocative

and accessible in classic rhetoric. Cicero and Plutarch contemplated

on a helio centric rather than geocentric cosmos. This inspired

Nicholus Copernicus on his work ‘De Revolutionibus Orbium

Coelestium’. They provided the sound environment for a new

sciences, a new culture of knowledge and were accommodating with

nature enthusiastically and energetically.44 Nancy Sirasi has traced

that Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine has been used as a basic text of

medieval medical learning in Italian medical schools. Seem to be 42 Ibid, IHWE, p. 100; Also refer to his book of Coronis Miscellaneorum, in an original Opera, p. 31043 Ibid, IHWE, p. 103; Also see original reference of C. Nauert, C. Plinnius, in Catalogus tranlationum et commentarium ( Washington D.C : 1960) Vol. IV, p. 297 - 422; K. Reeds, Rennaisance humanism and Botany, Annual of Sciences (1976), p.519 -542.44 Ibid, IHWE, p. 103-104.

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humanism has controlled and managed the supremacy of scientific

methodology all over the fields; Philosophical and scientific as well as

philological and literature.45 This fact was proved by the statement of

Angelo Poliziano as he said:

“(The grammarian - refer to humanists) must inspect not only the school of philosophers, but the juriconsultants, and all who make up what call the encyclopedia of learning, and all the philologist - and not just inspect them but inspect them from close-up.”46

Humanism has merely no single approach towards nature or attitude

on magic and science, but also developed the nature of sixteenth

century to suit on it and shifted cosmic into a sense of intellectual

order. Furthermore they enhanced philological skill, philosophical

textual and empirical historically scientific realm.47

CONCLUSION

Even humanists started with small part of human culture, like

literature and language of ancient Greek and Latin, yet they are

clever enough to generate all the revolutionary thought and

civilization down to the practical activities for Italian people and

European society in general. As a conclusion here are the most

consequent efforts has been done by humanists to reshape Italian

mentality or European people.48

Italian humanists and European one did much more recovery

translations in humanist that focused on human nature, society and

art by establishing literary genres to enable realistic view of human 45 Ibid, IHWE, p. 104.46 Ibid , IHWE, p. 104-105; See also original of Angelo Poliziano, Opera. p.22947 Ibid, IHWE, p. 117

48 Ibid, IHWE, p. 135-136.

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nature and their society. The most important part is presenting a

secular world view in the midst of the crisis of certainty between

religious stand point and worldly life working plan. The society was

allowed to withdraw the traditions of Christian philosophy and

theology. Finally humanism created an independent world view where

they exaggerated pursuit of single aspect of universe which can be the

dramatic and meaningful result like the emergence of modern

sciences.

Wa Allahu a‘ lam bissawaab.

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15

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